Slope directions and angles.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8569",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Intraocular Lens",title:"Intraocular Lens",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The first clinical application of intraocular lens (IOL) goes back to 1949 when Dr. Harold Ridley successfully implanted a PMMA IOL into an eye on 29 November 1949. This innovation is a big step forward for cataract surgery. With development of the IOL material and biocompatibility, more and more IOL types have been used in clinical ophthalmology. This book is the fruit of worldwide cooperation between clinical teams. In this book we discuss the IOL materials and design, aberration and astigmatism correction with IOL, entopic phenomenon of IOL, myopia and phakic IOL, and secondary IOL techniques. We believe that this content provides the readers with a comprehensive knowledge of the latest developments of IOL.",isbn:"978-1-83880-485-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-484-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78923-830-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79001",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"intraocular-lens",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2c184a80e647c0e74df5bc34318a2d8b",bookSignature:"Xiaogang Wang and Felicia M. Ferreri",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8569.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7940,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 18th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"32442",title:"Prof.",name:"Felicia M.",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreri",slug:"felicia-m.-ferreri",fullName:"Felicia M. Ferreri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32442/images/system/32442.png",biography:"Felicia M. Ferreri graduated summa cum laude from the University of Messina, Italy, in 1998 and completed her ophthalmology residency at the Policlinico Universitario, Messina, in 2002. She interned at the Corneal Section of San Raffaele Hospital in Milan and at the Pediatric Ophthalmology Diseases Section of Hospital Careggi in Florence. She spent research periods at Virginio del Rocio hospital in Seville, San Carlos hospital in Madrid, the Royal Bolton Hospital in Manchester, and Universidade Fluminense in Rio de Janeiro. She served as co-investigator of many national and international clinical trials. Since 2002, she is an Assistant Professor in Ophthalmology at the University of Messina. Her research interests are in the areas of glaucoma, neuro-ophthalmology, pediatric ophthalmology, and cataract. She authored more than 50 scientific papers and edited two IntechOpen Books.",institutionString:"University of Messina",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"698",title:"Ophthalmology",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-ophthalmology"}],chapters:[{id:"72219",title:"Basic Science of Intraocular Lens Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92573",slug:"basic-science-of-intraocular-lens-materials",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will explain the materials used in making intraocular lenses. Rigid IOL’s made of PMMA have now given way to foldable silicone and acrylic lenses. This chapter will also throw light on the indications and contraindications for using each of the IOL’s. The composition of each of the lenses, their water content, mechanical properties and their special ultraviolet absorbing features will be discussed in detail. The mechanism by which hydrophilic lenses are inserted through small incisions during cataract surgery will need a special mention. The problems with use of different types of intraocular lenses will also be dealt with.",signatures:"Smita Kapoor and Shreya Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72219",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70120",title:"Intraocular Lens (IOL) Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89985",slug:"intraocular-lens-iol-materials",totalDownloads:1014,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 1949, first intraocular lens (IOL) insertion after cataract surgery was performed by Sir Harold Ridley, in London. Only in the 1970s, the IOL insertion after cataract surgery began to be a standard procedure. The material the first IOL-s were composed of was polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The PMMA is a rigid material and the corneal incision had to be at least as big as the IOLs optic and it became its biggest disadvantage in the cataract surgery. The main goal of modern cataract surgery is as smallest incision possible, so the IOL-s had to be flexible and therefore foldable. This goal was achieved by improvements in the IOL design and materials that made them foldable. First foldable IOL-s were made of hydrogel but they were unstable and the development of the first silicone IOL-s overcame that problem. Foldable silicone IOL-s were first implanted in 1978 by Kai-yi Zhou. Foldable IOL’s benefits are its compatibility with a small incision surgery that is self-sealing procedure and the possibility of insertion by a single-use applicators that made the surgery safer. In the future, we can expect some new, different and innovative approaches in the IOL design and materials.",signatures:"Samir Čanović, Suzana Konjevoda, Ana Didović Pavičić and Robert Stanić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70120",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69442",title:"Aberration Correction with Aspheric Intraocular Lenses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89361",slug:"aberration-correction-with-aspheric-intraocular-lenses",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The shape of the normal human cornea induces positive spherical aberration (SA) which causes image blur. In the young phakic eye, the crystalline lens compensates for a certain amount of this corneal aberration. However, the compensation slowly decreases with the aging lens and is fully lost after cataract extraction and implantation of a standard intraocular lens (IOL). Conventional spherical IOLs add their intrinsic positive SA to the positive SA of the cornea increasing the image blur. As a useful side effect, this also increases the depth of focus—often referred to as pseudo-accommodation. Aspheric intraocular lenses have been introduced to be either neutral to SA or to compensate for a certain amount of corneal SA. A customized correction for the individual eye seems to be the most promising solution for tailored correction of SA. In this chapter we will provide detailed information on the various concepts of aspheric intraocular lenses to elucidate that the term “aspheric intraocular lens” is being used for a large amount of different lens designs.",signatures:"Timo Eppig, Jens Schrecker, Arthur Messner and Achim Langenbucher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69442",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70220",title:"Toric Intraocular Lenses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90153",slug:"toric-intraocular-lenses",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter described a short history about the toric intraocular lenses (IOLs) and then discussed some interesting topics such as the measurement of (front and posterior) corneal astigmatism and surgically induced astigmatism; the manual marking techniques and image-guided systems and intraoperative aberrometry-based methods; the new toric lens calculation calculators and toric IOLs formulas; the post operation care of toric IOLs and re-rotation of misaligned toric IOLs; and some relevant issues on multifocal toric intraocular lens. Meanwhile, this chapter also discussed toric IOL in some special cases like keratoconus corneal ectatic disorders, post-refractive surgery and post-keratoplasty, etc.",signatures:"Zequan Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70220",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69936",title:"Pseudophakic Dysphotopsia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89884",slug:"pseudophakic-dysphotopsia",totalDownloads:526,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pseudophakic dysphotopsia is an unwanted entoptic phenomenon caused by intraocular lenses. Dysphotopsias have been classified as positive (brightness, streaks, haze, or glare) and negative (temporal arc or half-moon crescent) in the visual field. These visual phenomena seem to be well tolerated cause in the case of positive dysphotopsia, but not as well in the negative cases that sometimes discomfort to the patient. The incidence of dysphotopsia ranges from 20% to 77.7%, and the prevalence seems not to be altered by the type of intraocular lens. Pseudophakic dysphotopsia continues to be enigmatic over time; however, many efforts are being made in order to resolve the mystery. In this chapter, the evolution of the dysphotopsia, possible causes, and proposed treatments will be described.",signatures:"Emely Zoraida Karam Aguilar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69936",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66707",title:"Pathologic Myopia: Complications and Visual Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85871",slug:"pathologic-myopia-complications-and-visual-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:891,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"High myopia, defined as refractive error of at least −6.00D or an axial length of 26.5 mm or more, can induce many modifications in eye’s anatomy that can lead to complications. When high myopia is able to decrease best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) due to its complications, it is called pathologic myopia. Pathologic myopia is one of the major causes of blindness, and it represents a serious issue, since incidence of myopia and high myopia is constantly rising. For educational purposes, in this chapter, complications of pathologic myopia will be divided into anterior (when structures external to the globe or anterior to the ora serrata are involved, such as motility disturbances and cataract) and posterior (when structures posterior to the ora serrata are involved, such as lacquer cracks, chorioretinal atrophy, Fuchs maculopathy, myopic choroidal neovascularization, and retinal detachment). Many treatments are available for pathologic myopia complications depending on their type, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) injections and surgery. We will focus on visual rehabilitation interventions, such as visual biofeedback and visual aids that in many cases are the only chance that the ophthalmologist has in order to help patients suffering from pathologic myopia to use at their maximum their residual vision.",signatures:"Enzo Maria Vingolo, Giuseppe Napolitano and Lorenzo Casillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66707",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66640",title:"Reduction of Myopia Burden and Progression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85715",slug:"reduction-of-myopia-burden-and-progression",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Myopia is a significant worldwide public health concern, and its prevalence is drastically increasing in recent years. It was once viewed as a benign refractive error, but is now one of the leading causes of blindness and is associated with numerous ocular diseases, which makes it crucial to develop viable treatment options to adequately correct the refractive error and to halt the disease progression. The treatment of myopia can be classified into three groups: optical, pharmacological, and surgical management, which are aimed at adjusting to the refractive error and reducing the axial elongation. The conventional treatment modalities for myopia, such as single vision glasses, correct the refractive error and improve visual quality of life, but do not affect myopia progression or axial elongation. The newer and various myopic interventions including spectacle corrections, contact lens corrections, pharmacological treatments and surgical corrections, hold great potential for adequate disease control to improve the quality of life, reduce myopia burden, and preserve the ocular health.",signatures:"Sangeethabalasri Pugazhendhi, Balamurali Ambati and Allan A. Hunter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66640",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66452",title:"Surgical Correction of Myopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85644",slug:"surgical-correction-of-myopia",totalDownloads:792,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Myopia is the most prevalent refractive error in the world and its incidence is increasing. Together with conservative methods of treatment, various surgical methods have been proposed. Corneal refractive surgery is probably the most accepted one. Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), and small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) are suitable for treatment of myopia up to −8.00 D in the younger age group. For patients not suitable for corneal refractive surgery, lens-based procedures are available. Phakic intraocular lenses are suitable for patients younger than 45 years of age with high myopia or some other contraindications for corneal refractive surgery. For older patients, refractive lens exchange (RLE) with implantation of multifocal or monofocal intraocular lenses is gaining popularity.",signatures:"Maja Bohac, Maja Pauk Gulic, Alma Biscevic and Ivan Gabric",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66452",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69942",title:"Secondary Intraocular Lens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89569",slug:"secondary-intraocular-lens",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Secondary intraocular lens (IOL) implantation has evolved over the past few decades. Several new techniques, lens options, and materials now exist. Careful patient selection is important to determine the optimal secondary IOL technique. Intraocular lens placement in the capsular bag is the most ideal followed by sulcus placement. However, the best option when no capsular support exists in an aphakic patient remains unclear. Surgeons should be aware of contraindications for each technique; however, there are several situations where anterior chamber intraocular lens (ACIOL), scleral-fixated intraocular lens (SFIOL), and iris fixation can all be used. In those cases, surgeon familiarity and comfort with the secondary IOL technique can determine the type of surgery performed.",signatures:"Niranjan Manoharan and Pradeep Prasad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69942",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69722",title:"Scleral-Fixated Intraocular Lens: Indications and Results",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89962",slug:"scleral-fixated-intraocular-lens-indications-and-results",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, ideal cataract surgery should end with the placement of an intraocular lens (IOLs) in the bag. However, in the clinical setting we have to manage cases without enough capsular support to allow the physiological IOL placement. Progress has been made in terms of IOL designs and implantation techniques. The options should be analyzed not only in accordance with surgeon’s experience but also with patient’s age, local, and systemic comorbidities. Thus, in the absence of an appropriate capsule, IOL can be placed in the anterior chamber, fixated to the iris or to the sclera wall. In this paper, the personal experience of one surgeon with ab externo scleral-fixated IOLs is presented, with the aim to outline the place of this surgical technique in the correction of aphakia. A retrospective study was carried out, including 57 patients in which an IOL was fixated to the sclera, throughout January 2015–April 2019. The causes of aphakia, preoperative and postoperative best-corrected visual acuities (BCVA), and intra- and postoperative complications are analyzed. Statistical tests were applied in order to draw significance. In most instances, BCVA has remained stable, with no significant complications, making sclera fixation IOL a viable solution in the correction of aphakia.",signatures:"Simona-Delia Nicoară",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69722",authors:[{id:"87785",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona-Delia",surname:"Nicoara",slug:"simona-delia-nicoara",fullName:"Simona-Delia Nicoara"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10534",title:"Current Cataract Surgical Techniques",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b3bfcd2c690d037d693f31545a36fda",slug:"current-cataract-surgical-techniques",bookSignature:"Xiaogang Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3410",title:"Optical Coherence Tomography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5874633eec9992aae494f9a513225cbb",slug:"optical-coherence-tomography",bookSignature:"Masanori Kawasaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3410.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50603",title:"Dr.",name:"Masanori",surname:"Kawasaki",slug:"masanori-kawasaki",fullName:"Masanori Kawasaki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Emphasis should be placed on the use of current prognostic markers in adjuvant therapy. It is important to summarize current methods and possibilities of neurorehabilitation and compensation of neurological and oculomotor deficits, and to evaluate the quality of life.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state of diagnosis, indications for treatment, including complementary methods (gamma knife, cyber knife, proton beam, etc.) based on evidence-based medicine in the field of cranial pathology. Emphasis will be placed on the long-term results of all available and compared treatment methods.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-633-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-632-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-634-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ec9917b6f1cee316b051f203addcf24d",bookSignature:"Dr. Hamid Borghei-Razavi, Dr. Mauricio Mandel and Dr. Eric Suero-Molina",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10867.jpg",keywords:"Vestibular Schwannoma Management, Microsurgery, Radiosurgery, Imaging, Endoscopic Approach, Neuroradiology Imaging, Sellar, Para- and Suprasellar Expansions, Management of Tumors, Conservative and Surgical Trauma Care, Adjuvant Therapy, Rehabilitation",numberOfDownloads:556,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Hamid Borghei-Razavi, MD, is director of the Minimally Invasive Cranial and Pituitary Surgery Program at Cleveland Clinic Florida, research director of the Neuroscience Institute at Cleveland Clinic Florida Region, and an Assistant Professor of Neurological Surgery at Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine specializing in Brain Tumor Surgery, Open and Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery, Pituitary Surgery, and Trigeminal Neuralgia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr.Mandel is a Neurosurgeon at the Department of Neurosurgery of Cleveland Clinic\r\n(Florida). He is a former Clinical Instructor at Stanford University and Yale University.\r\nAlso, he was a Neurosurgeon at the University of Sao Paulo and Hospital Albert Einstein – Sao Paulo -\r\nBrazil.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr.Suero-Molina is a Staff Neurosurgeon at the University Hospital of Münster and the\r\nHead of the minimal-invasive endoscopic and endonasal skull base and orbital surgery. Also, he is a clinical staff of neuro-oncology and spine surgery.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251333",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Borghei-Razavi",slug:"hamid-borghei-razavi",fullName:"Hamid Borghei-Razavi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251333/images/system/251333.jpg",biography:"Hamid Borghei-Razavi, MD, is director of the Minimally Invasive Cranial and Pituitary Surgery Program and an Assistant Professor of Neurological Surgery at Cleveland Clinic Florida specializing in Brain Tumor Surgery, Open and Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery, Pituitary Surgery, and Trigeminal Neuralgia.\r\n\r\nDr. Borghei-Razavi received his medical degree from the Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) and the University of Lübeck in Germany. He completed his residency training at Clemenshospital, University of Münster, Germany. During his residency training, he was awarded a scholarship by the German Society of Neurosurgery (DGNC) to participate in a resident exchange program at the prestigious Keio University Skull Base Center in Tokyo, Japan. After finishing his training in Germany, he performed a year of Research Fellowship in Skull base Neuroanatomy at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC). He then completed two Clinical Fellowships in Neurosurgical Oncology and Advanced Open and Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery at Cleveland Clinic, Ohio, devoting his efforts to minimally invasive neurosurgical techniques.\r\n\r\nDr. Borghei-Razavi has authored more than 100 peer-reviewed publications and book chapters and serves as a Cranial Base section editor in the World Neurosurgery journal. 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He is a former Clinical Instructor at Stanford University and Yale University.\r\nAlso, he was a Neurosurgeon at the University of Sao Paulo and Hospital Albert Einstein – Sao Paulo -\r\nBrazil.",institutionString:"Cleveland Clinic Florida",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Cleveland Clinic Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"339315",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Suero-Molina",slug:"eric-suero-molina",fullName:"Eric Suero-Molina",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Staff Neurosurgeon at the University Hospital of Münster.\r\nHead of the minimal-invasive endoscopic and endonasal skull base and orbital surgery. 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Microorganisms themselves or their toxins can damage host cells. Microbial infections are treated with antimicrobials by either inhibiting the microbial growth or killing the microorganism. Antibiotics are widely being used not only in the treatment of acute and chronic infections, but also in the prophylactic treatment [1]. Targets of antimicrobials are cell membrane, cell wall, protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, and biological metabolic compound synthesis (Figure 1) [2]. Over usage of antibiotics, mutations in the genes, carrying resistance genes in chromosomes and plasmids, gaining resistance genes carried by transposons, insertion sequences (IS) and conjugation from the same or other species of microorganisms cause bacteria develop resistance to antimicrobials [3].
Targets of antimicrobials.
Plasma membrane of microorganism that has selective permeability contributes active transport to gain energy as ATP. Cytoplasmic content and gradient such as micro and macromolecules and ions are controlled by active transportation via integral transporter proteins. When selective membrane permeability is disrupted by antimicrobials, ions are lost and cellular ion gradient is distorted, so, the organism undergoes cellular damage and death [4].
Plasma membranes of bacteria are constructed by fatty acids that can be synthesized in cell or taken from environment as building blocks. Targets of antimicrobials are metabolic steps of fatty acid synthesis and membrane phospholipids. Polymyxin B, that is a bactericidal antibiotic, has been used as one of very few drugs in the treatment of Gram-negative bacteria such as
Cell walls of microorganisms are constructed by peptidoglycan. Glycan polysaccharide strands are linked by crosslink that bind polypeptides bound to N-acetyl muromic acid (NAM) of each polysaccharide strands.
After bactoprenol, which is a membrane-bound acceptor, transfers UDP-NAM-pentapeptide and UDP-NAG from cytoplasm to outer site of cell membrane, transglycosylation, and transpeptidation reactions are catalyzed by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) bound to cell membrane as a DD-peptidases to construct peptidoglycan [3].
Certain antibiotics such as β-lactam antibiotics react with PBPs having high affinity to β-lactams by binding to PBPs as a substrate. These drugs are structural analogs of acyl-D-alanyl-D-alanine that binds to active site of PBP as a substrate of PBP during transpeptidation reaction. Transpeptidation reaction is blocked by these antibiotics inactivating transpeptidase domain of PBPs. Microorganisms are killed by these cell wall inhibitors that inhibit peptidoglycan biosynthesis [3].
β-lactamase, that is an enzyme synthesized by many species of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, inactivates β-lactams degrading amide bond of β-lactam ring of β-lactam antibiotics [4] (bnm MRSA and MSSA). β-lactamases can be mediated by either plasmids or chromosomes, whereas penicillinases of
β-lactamase is synthesized by
Biological metabolic reactions are catabolized by enzymes that are activated by substrates. Synthesis of metabolic biological compounds can be inhibited by drugs as a competitive inhibition manner. Drugs that are structural analogs of substrates act as substrates for the enzymes used in metabolic reactions.
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is a substrate for folic acid synthesis that is a coenzyme in the reactions of purines, pyrimidine, and amino acids synthesis [2].
Sulfanilamide and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylpyrimidine are the examples of drugs inhibiting synthesis of metabolic biological compounds. Sulfonamides (Sulfa drugs) have been used in many infections such as urinary tract infections. Sulfonamide is widely used in combination with other compounds. Silver sulfadiazine, one of the combined drugs, is used in burn infections [2].
Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ) is another combined drug used widely because of its synergistic activity. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole block distinct steps of DNA and RNA precursor synthesis, and protein. Sulfamethoxazole that is sulfonamides showing structurally analogy with PABA blocks the reaction synthesizing dihydrofolic acid (DHF) from PABA, whereas trimethoprim that is sulfonamides showing structurally analogy with DHF blocks the reaction synthesizing tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) from DHF (Figure 2) [2].
The synthesis of deoxynucleoside triphosphate precursors (dNTP: dATP, dGTP, dCTP, and dTTP), and the inhibition of tetrahydrofolate (THF) and dNTP synthesis by antibiotics.
Antibiotics can inhibit replication, transcription, and folate synthesis of microorganisms.
Deoxyribonucleotide precursors are synthesized for the polymerization of deoxynucleotides. By kinase enzyme, deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTP: dGTP, dCTP, and dATP) are synthesized from deoxynucleoside diphosphates (dNDP: dGDP, dCDP and dADP) that are synthesized from ribonucleosides by ribonucleotide reductase. But deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP) is synthesized by different pathway. Deoxyuracil diphosphate (dUDP) that is synthesized from uracil diphosphate (UDP) by ribonucleotide reductase is converted to deoxyuracil monophosphate (dUMP). Thymidylate synthetase catalyzes a reaction that converts dUMP methylated by tetrahydrofolate (THF) to dTMP. In this step, tetrahydrofolate (THF) is synthesized from dihydrofolate (DHF) by dihydrofolate reductase. Finally, dTTP is synthesized from dTMP by kinase (Figure 2).
DNA gyrase opens DNA strands for the polymerization of deoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase according to the each circular template strand of chromosome [5].
Kinolons, such as nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin that is used in the treatment of infections caused by
Synthesis of deoxynucleotide precursors that are used in the replication of DNA can be blocked by trimethoprim, hydroxyurea, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, and 5-fluorouracil.
Trimethoprim is an inhibitor of folate synthesis. Trimethoprim, that is a structural analog of DHF, prevents the synthesis of THF by inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase. So, dTMP that is a precursor of deoxynucleotide polymer is not synthesized. There are many mechanisms of trimethoprim resistance. If
Hydroxyurea inhibits ribonucleotide reductase that catalyzes deoxynucleoside diphosphate from ribonucleoside diphosphate (Figure 2). If microorganism of gene coding ribonucleotide reductase is mutated, microorganism develops resistance to hydroxyurea [5].
Precursor synthesis can be blocked by 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil with competitive inhibition. Monophosphate forms of 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil are structural analogs of dUMP that is the substrate of thymidylate synthase. They inhibit the synthesis of dTMP. If the microorganism of gene coding thymidylate synthase is mutated, the microorganism develops resistance to 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil [5].
Dideoxynucleotides that are used as drugs are similar with deoxynucleotide precursors, except that the hydroxyl group is absent in their 3′ carbon. Dideoxynucleotides that mimic deoxynucleotide precursors corpore into DNA and then, stop replication, due to it cannot be bound by the next deoxynucleotide.
Mitomycin C blocks replication by binding guanine bases that are located in both template strands of DNA [5].
Genetic information is transcripted from DNA to RNA by RNA polymerase that catalyzes a reaction, binds ribonucleotides with phosphodiester bond. RNA polymerase is constructed by 2α, 1β, 1β′, 1ω, and 1σ subunit. Transcription that is initiated by σ subunit that binds to promoter elongates until it is terminated by termination protein P (Rho) that is a RNA-DNA helicase releasing transcript from template DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds produced between template DNA and transcript [5].
Rifampin, that is a derivative of rifamycine family of antibiotics, blocks initiation of transcription by binding to β subunit of RNA polymerase. Rifampin is used in the treatment of infections caused by
Protein is translated from mRNA by tRNA in ribosome. Translation is initiated by the binding of formylmethionine tRNA-aminoacyl-tRNA (fMet-tRNAfMet), translation initiation region (TIR) of mRNA and initiation factor 2 (IF-2) to P site of 30S subunit of ribosome and the formation of 70S complex as a result of the release of IF-2. Translation continues with the binding of a new aminoacyl tRNA to A site, transferring the polypeptide from tRNA bond to P site to tRNA bond to A site by peptidyl transferase, and translocating of polypeptidyl tRNA from A to P site by elongation factor-G (EF-G), until translation is terminated by termination protein P (Rho) [5].
Puromycin that mimics aminoacyl tRNA enters into ribosome and is added to polypeptide grown, but it is not translocated from A site to P site of ribosome. Polypeptide containing puromycin at the carboxyl terminal is released from ribosome and translation is terminated. Puromycin is toxic to humans and animals, as it inhibits translation of eukaryotes [5].
Chloramphenicol, that is a bacteriostatic agent and the inhibitor of 23S rRNA, inhibits transcription by preventing peptidyl transferase reaction, as a result of preventing the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to A site of ribosome. Due to its ability enter into blood-brain barrier, chloramphenicol is used in the treatment of many central nervous system infections such as bacterial meningitis. If the gene of ribosomal protein is mutated or bacteria has enzyme inactivating chloramphenicol, coded by
Erythromycin, that belongs to macrolide class of antibiotics, inhibits translation by binding to 23S rRNA. As a result of the blockage of E site, that is the exit site for peptidyl-tRNA by erythromycin, premature polypeptide is released in translocation step. Macrolites, such as erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, and roxithromycin, are used in the treatment of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as
Thiostrepton and other thiopeptide antibiotics block translation by binding to 23S RNA in the peptidyl transferase reaction and preventing the binding of EF-G that is a translocase translocating polypeptidyl tRNA from A to P site. Thiostrepton is used against Gram-positive bacteria. But the usage of thiostrepton is limited to veterinary and agriculture [5].
Tetracyclin causes futile cycle to release aminoacyl tRNA from A site of ribosome by binding of release factors mimicking aminoacyl tRNA to A site. Tetracyclin is a broad spectrum antibiotic used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Aminoglycosides that contain kanamycin, neomycin, gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin, and tobramycin effect translocation by binding to A site. Aminoglycosides that have broad spectrum of activity cause false reading of mRNA and translation errors. Mutants that are resistant to aminoglycosides are seen rare. Aminoglycoside resistance is caused by the genes that inactivate aminoglycosides by phosphorylation, acetylation, and adenylation of them.
Fusidic acid inhibits turnover of EF-G by preventing the release of EF-G from ribosome. Mutations that are occurred in
There are many different definitions of aspect in the literature. These definitions are made in three ways: by direction, by maximum variation, and by degree. The first definition group is the most commonly used. The concept of direction is to the come to the forefront. According to some researchers, the aspect at a point on the land surface is the direction that the tangent plane passing through that point faces and is expressed in degrees (the angle defined in the clockwise direction from the north) [1]. In its simplest form, the aspect is a data type that expresses the geographical direction in which the slopes develop.
According to the second definition, the aspect represents the maximum slope direction of the land surface [2]. Or, for any point, the aspect represents the direction of the maximum variation of the degree of variation of the height value [3]. According to some researchers, it is defined as the compass direction of the maximum rate of change [4, 5]. According to some researchers, it can also be defined as the slope direction, which defines the downward direction of the maximum rate of change in maximum, or as the dip direction, which defines the downward slope direction of the maximum altitude change rate [6, 7].
According to the third and last definition, the expression of the directions in degrees is in the foreground. Aspect defined it as the clockwise faces of a slope varying between 00 and 3600, measured in degrees from the north [8, 9]. Generally, the aspect ranges from 0° to 360° and are handled as 45° groups, and the directions are grouped clockwise as north, northeast, east, southeast, south, southwest, west and northwest.
An aspect map shows both the direction and grade of a terrain at the same time. Therefore, it is an important factor in the analysis and production of landslide susceptibility maps. In the literature, there are many studies that accept and use aspect, landslide, as the main conditioning factor [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. While some authors [13, 14, 15, 16] consider landslides as a controlling factor, others [17, 18] do not see it as a conditioning factor. While some researchers say that aspect has no significant effect on landslides [19], some researchers have also argued that there is an important relationship between slope aspect and landslide occurrence [20]. According to most researchers, aspect has an indirect effect on landslide [21]. While some researchers associate this relationship mainly with precipitation [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31], others have associated this with the general morphological trend of the area [27, 32]. According to most researchers, it has been argued that the relationship between landslide and aspect is also related to the dominant wind direction [33, 34, 35]. Some researchers, on the other hand, consider the effect of the aspect on the landslide, the general precipitation direction of the region, freeze–thaw, sunlight [35], longer snow retention on sun-drenched slopes, moisture retention, soil type, permeability, porosity, moisture, organic components, land and vegetation (forest, grassland, bushland, farmland), evapotranspiration [36], evaporation transpiration, climatic season, rock structure [37], It explains that factors such as discontinuities and fault orientation decrease the slope stability [10, 11, 24, 28, 30, 32, 38, 39]. Many parameters are used in landslide susceptibility studies, but it is stated that there are very few parameters that are thought to have a direct effect on landslides. The aspect parameter has also been investigated for a long time [3, 16, 28, 40, 41, 42, 43], but it is one of the parameters on which no consensus can be reached [3, 44, 45, 46, 47]. In the examined studies, it was determined that the aspect parameter indirectly affects the landslide. It is thought that this parameter triggers the landslide together with other parameters. Some researchers, especially in their studies on small-scale landslides, have determined that the angle with the slope affects the stability negatively [48, 49, 50]. Many researchers state that aspect is as effective as slope in the formation of landslides [11, 12, 13, 23, 24, 28, 30, 45, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. Apart from slope, aspect is one of the most important parameters in preparing hazard and zoning maps [13, 23, 24, 28, 30, 54].
As seen from the studies examined, the aspect parameter is a parameter that differs in each study area. For this reason, it has been interpreted that it should be examined together with other parameters rather than being an effective parameter in terms of landslide susceptibility alone [46]. According to Ramakrishnan et al. [56] stated in their study that different types of mass movements (plane, wedge, slope and soil slide) play an important role in control. However, there is no determination as to the extent to which the bee affects the landslide susceptibility.
In studies, landslides must be concentrated on slopes with a certain orientation in order to take into account the aspect. In many studies, researchers have determined that landslides are concentrated on slopes with certain orientations in their statistical evaluations [13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 51, 57]. However, there are studies using the parameter in studies conducted in areas with equal landslide distribution in all directions. Generally, in such a finding, the lowest score is given to the aspect parameter.
The aspect factor is controlled by the climate process. Elevation and slope angle are also effective factors on this parameter. On the other hand, there are processes controlled by the aspect factor. The most important of these is plant ecology. This is followed by forestry, site selection and planning. Land morphology is under the influence of structural elements. It takes a long time to change. The biggest factor controlling the view is the structural and dynamic morphological conditions that form the silhouette of the field from past to present [58].
Although there are parameters that are agreed upon among researchers in the literature, look is not among them. For this reason, with this study, the relationship between aspect and landslide was tried to be revealed and this uncertainty in the literature was examined.
It is stated that the parameter contributes to the landslides by affecting other parameters. Since wind direction causes precipitation intensity and erosion of sun-facing slopes, aspect indirectly affects landslide [33, 34]. Although it is stated in the literature that the effect increases with the angle of slope and elevation, the effect on landslides is mostly mentioned together with the climatic conditions. Aspect parameter is generally in close relationship with climatic conditions [59]. The parameter determines the effect of rain direction, amount of sunlight, solar heat, soil moisture, wind and air dryness [39, 60]. Since it controls the soil moisture concentration with the effect of climate, it is considered as an important factor indirectly triggering landslides [61, 62, 63]. Therefore, due to its morphology, how the aspect factor affects the climatic parameters by modifying it should be correlated.
The conditions for the slopes facing different directions to be affected by atmospheric events such as precipitation, sun, light, freeze–thaw are also different. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate the relationship of the parameter with the climate in 3 parts. These are precipitation, sun and wind.
The most important factor affecting aspect is precipitation. Most of the researchers studying the aspect parameter associated landslide with precipitation. In the literature, there are studies that argue that slopes that receive precipitation and are in the shade are more susceptible to landslides. In the literature, there are researchers who stated that landslides are very common on the slopes where monsoon precipitation falls more frequently in the study areas [2, 35, 64, 65, 66]. After exposure to physical weathering during the dry season, they are prone to landslides with the emergence of strong monsoon precipitation and winds [67]. In their study in Greece, Alexakis et al. [68] and Kouli et al. [69] determined that the slopes facing northeast and northwest received heavy rainfall and the most landslides were observed here.
If precipitation exceeds the threshold value in an area and the area is unstable, landslides are likely to occur. In this respect, precipitation should be considered as a triggering factor and aspect as a preparatory factor. Critical slope angle values of soils in dry and saturated conditions are examined. It has been determined that the saturation or dryness of the soil affects the critical slope angle by about 40%. In this case, the slopes receiving the most precipitation were considered the most dangerous, and the slopes receiving the least precipitation were considered the least dangerous [27, 70].
The reason for the fact that landslides are significantly higher on a slope facing any direction compared to the others is that the torrential rains and heavy rains that developed during the landslide occurred along a line from that direction. For this reason, it can be observed that landslides are more intense on slopes that receive heavy rainfall. This depends on the infiltration capacity, which is controlled by many factors such as the type of soil, its permeability, porosity, moisture and organic matter content, vegetation and the season in which precipitation occurs. Slopes that receive precipitation reach saturation more quickly and cause higher pore water pressure to develop within the soil. As a result, the pore water pressure on these slopes increases [11, 42, 67, 71, 72].
It has been determined that there is a negative effect on the landslide mechanism in the form of the reason that the snow cover stays longer in the places that are not exposed to the sun and the water holding capacity increases accordingly [20, 73, 74, 75, 76]. Avcı [76] determined that in the Esence Stream Basin, which is the study area, the south-facing slopes receive plenty of precipitation with the effect of the facade systems, this precipitation falls in the form of snow in the winter season, and the increase in the amount of snow melts and precipitation in the spring season facilitates the landslides.
Landslides occurring in a certain slope direction are associated with long-term freezing and thawing movements [20, 73, 77]. In certain directions it is associated with increased snow concentrations and thus longer times for freeze and thaw action and intense erosion [77].
Calligaris et al. [78] defined the aspect as the reflection of the sun’s insolation. Aspect affects solar radiation and therefore temperature. Aspect affects the amount of heat energy taken from the sun and thus water loss by transpiration and evaporation [79]. The slopes that are most exposed to the sun’s rays reveal evapotranferance [9]. This affects the soil moisture in the ground. In addition, evaporation affects vegetation distribution and type. In the literature, there are researchers who determined that landslides occur more intensely on slopes that are more exposed to sunlight [9, 11, 35, 39, 42, 71, 72, 80, 81]. In the literature, there are studies that determine that slopes that receive sun are more prone to landslides than slopes that receive rain. Bijukchhen et al. [82] determined that in their study areas, in general, slopes sloping towards the sunlight and precipitation region have a higher landslide hazard propensity compared to the slope in the rain shadow. Although this parameter is usually evaluated together with the aspect, Görüm [83] determined in her literature research that 72 studies used aspect and 3 studies used sun exposure as an input parameter.
Remondo et al. [84], on the other hand, used the values on this date in their studies for landslide susceptibility assessment, since 21 March will be the most sun exposure. Tasoglu et al. [85], in their work; they determined that it was exposed to direct sunlight in east, southeast, south and southwest directions and sunlight was quite effective in inducing landslides.
Like exposure to sunlight, the drying wind also controls soil moisture concentration. This is a determinant of landslide occurrence [61, 62, 67, 71]. Slope exposure shows possible effects of prevailing winds, differential weather and related effects.
Lithology: indirectly, it triggers the landslide together with the view. Afungang et al. [86] determined that thick pyrolastics as debris in the study areas were more susceptible to landslides in windward slope directions. Yeşiloğlu [87] evaluated the effects of lithology and landslide together in his study. An aspect map has been created to be used in the evaluation of the relationship between the production of debris material from limestones and aspect. According to Ayalew et al. [70] stated in their study that the distribution of landslides in regions close to the oceans increases with the effect of wave effect, weathering and subsequent coastal erosion.
Along with the fault, there are also those who research the effect of the landslide on the landslide, there are also those who research the effect of the landslide on the landslide. There are researchers who observed that landslides intensified in certain slope directions before and after the earthquake in the study areas [2, 39, 88, 89].
Guillard and Zezere [90] stated that south-facing slopes receive more sunlight than north-facing slopes in their study area, but since the geological structure of the area is characterized by a monocline dipping to the south and southeast, more landslides occur on south-facing slopes.
Aspect plays an important role in stability assessment; because it controls vegetation distribution, type, density and root growth on a land [11, 39, 80, 91]. It also controls moisture content in soil and vegetation growth due to exposure to sunlight, which also affects soil strength, landslide, infiltration and run-off rates [63, 92]. Dahal [93] added aspect data in his research for the purpose of detecting plant propagation and increasing the accuracy rate according to the aspect effect in the study area.
Champati ray et al. [94] and Srivastava et al. [95] found that most of the south-facing slopes in the Himalayan study areas were devoid of or have insufficient vegetation due to low soil moisture, which plays an important role in the assessment of slope stability in their field. On the other hand, the north side is less exposed to the sun’s rays, thus conserving the moisture in the soil. For this reason, taller trees are growing, which tends to stabilize the northern slope. The absence of vegetation provides the slope material with dryness and therefore reduces its adhesion strength.
During the literature review, it was determined that while more intense landslides were observed on the slopes facing one direction, less landslides were observed on the opposite side of this direction. Since the “south, southeast, southwest and west” aspects are generally warmer in Turkey, they are called sunny aspects. On the contrary, “north, northeast, northwest and east” aspects are also called shaded aspects because they are cooler. The sun exposure times of these two groups differ markedly. Since the slopes facing south and west are more exposed to sunlight, evaporation is rapid in these regions. Otherwise, since evaporation is slow and the soil stays moist for a long time, the risk of flooding is higher on north and east facing slopes in case of excessive precipitation [96]. Again, in his field study in Turkey, Ozsahin [97] determined the probability of the highest landslide occurrence as N and W directions and stated that the humidity was relatively higher on the slopes facing these directions.
In areas where landslides occur on the south side, a higher amount of solar insulation occurs. On slopes with higher insulation and higher temperatures, erosion increases. Areas where vegetation is removed are exposed to direct sunlight, creating drier soil conditions, which increases the likelihood of landslides [98]. According to Devkota et al. [47], Hong et al. [99] and Chena et al. [11], most of the landslides occurred on the slopes facing south and southeast in the study areas. The biggest reason for this is that the highest precipitation rate is seen on the south-facing slopes. Meinhardt et al. [65] determined that the water saturation of the slopes increased with the effect of southwest monsoon rains in the study areas and the highest slip density was found in the south and southwest. Tombus [100], on the other hand, determined in his study that the erosion value is higher on slopes facing south than on slopes facing other directions.
In the studies conducted in the Black Sea, it was observed that landslides were intense on the slopes facing north. The reason is that the region is under the influence of precipitation from the north and north-facing slopes are more affected by precipitation. From this, it can be concluded that the air currents coming from the sea in the study areas close to the sea will affect more areas in the region. It is known that the Black Sea receives more precipitation than the north due to the high evaporation of precipitation. For this reason, north-facing slopes are examined as the most dangerous in terms of soil saturation in the study area, and south-facing slopes are examined as the least dangerous. [101, 102]. According to Hadji et al. [9] determined that the slopes in the study area are mostly in the north-facing directions. In addition, they determined that the most precipitation in winter comes from the northwest. They also determined that they affect the clays in the ground and therefore trigger landslides.
In their study, Lineback et al. [103] found more landslides in the north and northwest-facing directions than in the south-facing directions. They stated that the southern parts remained drier as the reason for this. Wang and Unwin [104], on the other hand, found evidence in their study that the probability of slipping increases in the north-facing slope direction. As justification, they showed that the main precipitation directions in the Zagros Mountain Belt are north and west, and the main solar direction is east and south [105]. According to Saha et al. [4] determined that, in general, south-sloping slopes have less vegetation density than north-facing slopes, and therefore they are more sensitive to landslide activity in the study areas. On the other hand, Marston et al. [106] observed that, due to geographical conditions, north and west facing slopes have a higher moisture content for a longer period of time and cause higher landslide susceptibility in their study area. They emphasize that exposed soil on south-facing slopes is subject to cycles of wetting and drying, thereby increasing landslide activity in the Himalayas [20]. According to Rahman et al. [79] found that south-facing slopes were more exposed to the sun and north-facing slopes were least exposed to the sun in their study area.
As a result, they determined that the north direction and the least south direction were sensitive to landslides in their fields. They showed that the reason for this is that it takes longer time for the soil to dry in the shaded areas on rainy days. According to Akinci et al. [107] found that in the study areas, the slopes are more north-oriented and again, landslides occur mostly in this direction. They stated that these slopes are more humid with the effect of aspect, while the temperature and evaporation are low on the slopes facing north, and the soil moisture is high. In addition, they stated that the amount of precipitation and snow melts are high on the southern slopes. Afungang et al. [86] found that north and northwest-facing slopes at higher altitudes received more precipitation and sun than south-facing slopes. Therefore, it was determined that the southwest-facing slopes were drier, less windy, and received less solar radiation with less landslides. Champati ray et al. [94] and Srivastava et al. [95], in their study in Himelaya, found that more landslides occurred on the southern front compared to the northern front. Temiz [101] and Yalçın [102], on the other hand, determined that north-facing slopes were the most dangerous in terms of soil saturation in the study area, and south-facing slopes were the least dangerous.
The reasons for the change in the number of class intervals can be counted as the slopes being oriented in a certain direction, the absence of landslides in some directions or the presence of very few pixels. It is usually given to flat areas such as lakes and seas [20]. For example, the probability of landslides in “flat” areas is almost zero [34]. However, Yeşilnacar and Topal [108] with Çevik and Topal [109] stated that the landslides in the study area occurred equally in different slope orientations and emphasized that it is not an effective parameter in their studies. Aspect is measured clockwise towards north and takes positive values between 0 and 360 degrees. Aspect is measured clockwise towards north and takes positive values between 0 and 360 degrees. In order to create a slope orientation map, on the basis of 4 main geographical directions and these main directions (NE, NW, SE and SW), which of these directions the slopes face in the study area and their relations with the directions of the landslides are determined [101, 102]. It indicates 0° north, 90° east, 180° south and 270° west [32]. In the landslide analysis, a categorical structure is formed according to 450 angles. When the researchers grouped the slope orientation values in their studies, they determined which orientations the landslides intensified. The perspective angles and values made in the studies are given in Table 1.
North | Northeast | East | Southeast |
---|---|---|---|
00–22.50, 337.50–3600 | 22.50–67.50 | 67.50–112.50 | 112.50–157.50 |
South | Southwest | West | Northeast |
157.50–202.50 | 202.50–247.50 | 247.50–292.50 | 292.50–337.50 |
Slope directions and angles.
In studies, very different grade ranges from 4 to 10 are used. According to the literature, the most preferred 8 grade ranges.
Some researchers preferred to use 4 main aspects in the aspect parameter they used in their studies. There are researchers who use the aspects divided into 4 groups in their studies in different ways. According to Temesgen et al. [110] used 4 cardinal directions: north, south, east and west. Özşahin and Kaymaz [111] have 4 classes; they used it by arranging it as straight/N-NE-NW/S-SE-SW/E-W. There are studies that use the aspect by classifying it in 5 ways [6, 97, 105, 112].
In the literature, three different directions were found in the 5-category. The first of these; flat (−1°), north (315°-360°, 0°-45°), east (45°-135°), south (135°-225°) and west (225°-315°) [113]. The second classification is; (1) SW 1810–2250, (2) SE 1360–1800, (3) ESE 910–1350 and SWW 2260–2700, (4) NEE 460–900 and WNW 2710–3150, (5) NNE 00–450 and NWN 3160–3600 [74]. The third and final classification is; It is flat, NE, SE, SW and NW [50].
Aspect maps divided into 6 classes are very common in the literature. Kumtepe et al. [114] prepared this classification as 0–60°, 60–120°, 120–180°, 180–240°, 240–300°, 300–360°.
The second most preferred classification in the literature is 8 classes prepared with groups of 450 divided into equal class intervals [35, 43, 45, 54, 65, 79, 94, 95]. This classification; N (337.5–22.5), NE (22.5–67.5), E (67.5–112.5), SE (112.5–157.5), S (157.5–202.5), SW (202.5–247.5), W (247.5–292.5) and NW (292.5–337.5) [37]. Ramakrishnan, et al. [56], on the other hand, arranged the 8-class classification differently as 45–90, 90–135, 135–180, 180–225, 225–270, 270–155 and 315–360 degrees.
According to the literature, the most preferred classification is groups of 9 [11, 32, 47, 52, 53, 66, 68, 69, 71, 87, 93, 95, 109, 102, 113]. In studies, this classification is; flat area (−1°), north (337.5° -22.5°), northeast (22.5° -67.5°), east (67.5° -12.5°), southeast (112.5° -12.5°) 157.5°), south (157.5° -202.5°), southwest (202.5° -247.5°), west (247.5° -292.5°), and northwest (292.5° -337.5°) [49, 46, 67, 73]. According to Rozos et al. [74] is this group; They used NNE, NEE, SEE, SSE, SSW, SWW, NWW, NNW, as flat shapes. The interesting thing about this classification is that the surface is displayed from 2 different angles.
The graph in Figure 1 was prepared using the literature data. It is seen that the most used classification is the groups of 56% and 9 percent. Again, it is seen from the graph that the group of 1 to 4 is the least used class.
Distribution of class range values used according to the literature.
According to the literature, the most used direction classes are given in Figure 2. The direction of the landslide areas varies according to the study areas. However, in the studies examined, it is understood that the directions where landslides occur most are the slopes facing south and west. The probability of landslides in other directions is almost equal. In some studies, landslides were encountered at an equal level in all directions.
Distribution of landslide areas according to directions.
In this study, the use of aspect parameter in landslide susceptibility studies and its effect on landslide were investigated. It is one of the parameters that cannot be agreed upon by the researchers. While some researchers associate landslide occurrences in the study area with this parameter, some researchers argued that landslides are equally distributed in all directions and that the parameter is ineffective.
It is a fact that this parameter should not be evaluated alone, as in other parameters. The parameter is the predisposing factor for the triggers. One of these triggers is precipitation. There are many studies showings that intense landslides occur on slopes that receive rainfall. Climatic events such as sun, wind, snow water, freeze–thaw are also associated with the aspect parameter. The other two parameters most associated with climatic factors are geology and vegetation.
The other subject discussed in the study is the relationship of the directions with each other and with the landslide. The most common landslides seen in the studies examined are south and north directions. There is an opposite relationship between them. If there are frequent landslides on the south-facing slopes, there are almost no landslides on the north-facing slopes. Again, on the contrary, if landslides are concentrated on the north-facing slopes, landslides are not expected in the southern part. If a landslide occurs more in the south, it is associated with sun exposure, drought and lack of vegetation. Those occurring in the north are mostly evaluated by heavy rainfall, humidity and the water holding capacity of the soil.
Finally, the class ranges used in the literature are included in the study. Aspects used in the literature. In the studies, this classification is; flat area (−1°), north (337.5° -22.5°), northeast (22.5° -67.5°), east (67.5° -12.5°), southeast (112.5° -12.5°) 157.5°), south (157.5°) ° -202.5°), southwest (202.5° -247.5°), west (247.5° -292.5°) and northwest (292.5° -337.5°). Depending on the user’s preference, some prefer the main classes, while others include intermediate aspects in their work. Some studies do not include aspects that do not appear to have landslides in their studies. In this way, various classifications such as 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 are used. While the most preferred 9 classes are the least preferred groups of 4. With this study, the use of the aspect parameter in landslide susceptibility studies and its effect on the landslide together with other parameters were revealed.
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\n\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
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\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\nBooks International
\n\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\nRepresentative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\nRepresentative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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