Componential Model of creativity of Amabile (1983).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5371",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"X-ray Scattering",title:"X-ray Scattering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"X-ray scattering techniques are a family of nondestructive analytical techniques. Using these techniques, scientists obtain information about the crystal structure and chemical and physical properties of materials. Nowadays, different techniques are based on observing the scattered intensity of an X-ray beam hitting a sample as a function of incident and scattered angle, polarization, and wavelength.\nThis book is intended to give overviews of the relevant X-ray scattering techniques, particularly about inelastic X-ray scattering, elastic scattering, grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering, and high-resolution X-ray diffraction, and, finally, applications of X-ray spectroscopy to study different biological systems.",isbn:"978-953-51-2888-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2887-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4120-4",doi:"10.5772/62609",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"x-ray-scattering",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"af21d4ead14637fcfa5f919430ec45f5",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",publishedDate:"January 25th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5371.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21090,numberOfWosCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:109,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 30th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/91095/images/system/91095.jpg",biography:'Alicia Esther Ares obtained a degree in Chemical Engineering from the National University of Misiones, Argentina in 1992, and an MSc in Science and Technology of Materials and Ph.D. in Science and Technology, Materials Mention, both from the Institute of Technology \\"Professor Jorge A. Sabato,\\" National Atomic Energy Commission and National University of General San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1997 and 2000, respectively. She completed postdoctoral stays at several institutions, including Faculdade de Engenharía Mecânica, Departamento de Engenharía de Materiais, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States (2002–2003); and Faculty of Sciences, National University of Misiones (2003–2004). She has been a researcher with the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) since 2004, and Professor of Materials Science in the Chemical Engineering Department, School of Sciences (FCEQyN), National University of Misiones. She has more than thirty years of teaching experience both at the undergraduate and graduate levels, and is a member of various societies, including the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS, USA), and International American Society for Testing Materials, among others.',institutionString:"National University of Misiones",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"National University of Misiones",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1226",title:"Optoelectronics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optoelectronics"}],chapters:[{id:"52983",title:"Inelastic X-Ray Scattering as a Probe of the Transition Between the Hydrodynamic and the Single Particle Regimes in Simple Fluids",doi:"10.5772/66126",slug:"inelastic-x-ray-scattering-as-a-probe-of-the-transition-between-the-hydrodynamic-and-the-single-part",totalDownloads:1645,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last few decades, the study of the spectrum of density fluctuations in fluids at the transition from the continuous to the single particle regimes has attracted an increasing interest. Although the shape of the spectrum is well known in these two extreme limits, no theory firmly predicts its evolution in the broad crossover region. However, the development of inelastic X-ray scattering (IXS) has substantially expanded the potentialities of modern spectroscopy, thus, providing an unprecedented detailed mapping of such a crossover. A better understanding of the line-shape evolution in this intermediate regime is deemed to improve our knowledge of all dynamical processes occurring in a fluid from macroscopic to microscopic scales. The aim of this chapter is to review some relevant experimental contributions brought about by IXS in this field since its development toward the end of past millennium.",signatures:"Alessandro Cunsolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52983",authors:[{id:"176605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Cunsolo",slug:"alessandro-cunsolo",fullName:"Alessandro Cunsolo"}],corrections:null},{id:"52069",title:"Grazing Incidence Small Angle X-Ray Scattering as a Tool for In- Situ Time-Resolved Studies",doi:"10.5772/64877",slug:"grazing-incidence-small-angle-x-ray-scattering-as-a-tool-for-in-situ-time-resolved-studies",totalDownloads:2465,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"With the advent of third-generation synchrotron sources and the development of fast two-dimensional X-ray detectors, X-ray scattering has become an invaluable tool for in-situ time-resolved experiments. In the case of thin films, grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) constitutes a powerful technique to extract morphological information not only of the thin film surface but also of buried structures with statistical relevance. Thus, recently in-situ GISAXS experiments with subsecond time resolution have enabled investigating the self-assembly processes during vacuum deposition of metallic and organic thin films as well as the structural changes of polymer and colloidal thin films in the course of wet deposition. Moreover, processing of thin films has also been investigated in-situ employing GISAXS. In this chapter, we review the current trends of time-resolved GISAXS studies. After an introduction to the GISAXS technique, we present exemplary results of metallic and organic thin film preparation, wet deposition of polymer thin films and self-assembly of colloidal thin films, as well as examples of thin film modification in, e.g., microfluidic channels and within working devices. Finally, an overview of the future perspectives in the field is provided.",signatures:"Gonzalo Santoro and Shun Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52069",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52069",authors:[{id:"105908",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shun",surname:"Yu",slug:"shun-yu",fullName:"Shun Yu"},{id:"186872",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Santoro",slug:"gonzalo-santoro",fullName:"Gonzalo Santoro"}],corrections:null},{id:"52323",title:"Grazing-Incidence Small Angle X-Ray Scattering in Polymer Thin Films Utilizing Low-Energy X-Rays",doi:"10.5772/65090",slug:"grazing-incidence-small-angle-x-ray-scattering-in-polymer-thin-films-utilizing-low-energy-x-rays",totalDownloads:2373,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The intricate nanoscopic morphology of soft materials such as block copolymer and polymer blend system successfully analyzed by small angle X-ray scatterings (SAXS). In thin films, those soft material systems have attracted great attention because of a potential for practical use of functional materials. The morphology has been revealed by grazing-incidence (GI) methods. Recently, advanced grazing-incidence technique for analysis for surface-, volume-, and material-sensitive method (high time, spatial, and/or material resolution) has been reported. Using low X-ray photon energy, tender X-ray (1–4 eV) and soft X-ray near K-edge carbon, allows probing a complex nanomorphology with those sensitivity. In this chapter, recent GI-SAXS with tender X-ray and resonant soft X-ray (GI-RSoX) will be picked up to open for discussion on new possibility of structural analyses.",signatures:"Katsuhiro Yamamoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52323",authors:[{id:"187032",title:"Prof.",name:"Katsuhiro",surname:"Yamamoto",slug:"katsuhiro-yamamoto",fullName:"Katsuhiro Yamamoto"}],corrections:null},{id:"52772",title:"Microfluidics for Small-Angle X-ray Scattering",doi:"10.5772/65678",slug:"microfluidics-for-small-angle-x-ray-scattering",totalDownloads:2080,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Small-angle X-ray scattering is a well-established biophysical technique, whilst micro-fluidics is proving to be a convenient technology for creating miniaturised multifunctional devices. Both fields are highly versatile and find use in multiple scientific disciplines. Together, they offer the potential to obtain structural information on biomacromolecules, nanoparticles and condensed matter, in a high-throughput manner and with enhanced time-resolution capabilities. This chapter provides practical design considerations for X-ray-based microfluidic systems and examines some of the existing microfluidic platforms used in conjunction with small-angle X-ray scattering. As the exclusive advantages of microfluidics become recognised and accessible, the prevalence of microfluidic sample environments in X-ray scattering measurements will hopefully increase.",signatures:"Serena A.J. Watkin, Timothy M. Ryan, Antonia G. Miller, Volker M.\nNock, F. Grant Pearce and Renwick C.J. Dobson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52772",authors:[{id:"178312",title:"Dr.",name:"Renwick",surname:"Dobson",slug:"renwick-dobson",fullName:"Renwick Dobson"},{id:"195180",title:"Dr.",name:"F. Grant",surname:"Pearce",slug:"f.-grant-pearce",fullName:"F. Grant Pearce"},{id:"195181",title:"Ms.",name:"Serena A. J.",surname:"Watkin",slug:"serena-a.-j.-watkin",fullName:"Serena A. J. Watkin"},{id:"195182",title:"Dr.",name:"Volker",surname:"Nock",slug:"volker-nock",fullName:"Volker Nock"},{id:"195183",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy M.",surname:"Ryan",slug:"timothy-m.-ryan",fullName:"Timothy M. Ryan"},{id:"195184",title:"Dr.",name:"Nigel",surname:"Kirby",slug:"nigel-kirby",fullName:"Nigel Kirby"},{id:"195185",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonia G.",surname:"Miller",slug:"antonia-g.-miller",fullName:"Antonia G. Miller"}],corrections:null},{id:"53834",title:"SAXS Evaluation of Size Distribution for Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/65049",slug:"saxs-evaluation-of-size-distribution-for-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:2338,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Size distribution is an important structural aspect in order to rationalize relationship between structure and property of materials utilizing polydisperse nanoparticles. One may come to mind the use of dynamic light scattering (DLS) for the characterization of the size distribution of particles. However, only solution samples can be analyzed and even for those, the solution should be transparent or translucent because of using visible light. It is needless to say that solid samples are out of range. Furthermore, the size distribution only in the range of several tens of nanometers can be characterized, so DLS is useless for particles in the range of several nanometers. Therefore, the small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) technique is much superior when considering the determination of the size distribution in several nanometers length scale for opaque solutions and for solid specimens. Furthermore, the SAXS technique is applicable not only for the spherical particle but also for platelet (lamellar) and rod-like (cylindrical) particles. In this chapter, we focus on the form factor of a variety of nanostructures (spheres, prolates, core-shell spheres, core-shell cylinders and lamellae). Also getting started with a monodisperse distribution of the size of the nanostructure, to unimodal distribution with a narrow standard deviation or wide-spreading distribution and finally to the discrete distribution can be evaluated by the computational parameter fitting to the experimentally obtained SAXS profile. In particular, for systems forming complicated aggregations, this methodology is useful. Not only the size distribution of ‘a bunch of grapes’ but also the size distribution of all ‘grains of grapes in the bunch’ can be evaluated according to this methodology. This is very much contrasted to the case of the DLS technique by which only ‘a bunch of grapes’ is analyzed but ‘grains of grapes in the bunch’ cannot be. It is because the DLS technique in principle evaluates diffusion constants of particles and all of the grains in the same bunch of grapes diffuse as a whole. Thus, the methodology is important to highlight versatility and diversity in real materials, especially in soft matter, both in the liquid and in the solid states.",signatures:"Shinichi Sakurai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53834",authors:[{id:"186430",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinichi",surname:"Sakurai",slug:"shinichi-sakurai",fullName:"Shinichi Sakurai"}],corrections:null},{id:"52896",title:"X‐Ray Scattering Techniques Applied in the Development of Drug Delivery Systems",doi:"10.5772/65326",slug:"x-ray-scattering-techniques-applied-in-the-development-of-drug-delivery-systems",totalDownloads:2348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The advances in nanotechnology have found application in different fields, such as food, agriculture, materials, chemistry, and medicine. However, one of the most important approaches is the development of nanocarriers and, in order to understand their structural organization, different physicochemical techniques have been used. In particular, small angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) have given important contribution to the study of organization phase of nanocarriers such as organic/inorganic nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes, cyclodextrins, polymers, and their interaction with drugs and other bioactive molecules. In this chapter, we will present theoretical aspects, experimental design, and the applications of both techniques for the development of delivery systems for bioactive molecules.",signatures:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco, Daniele Ribeiro de\nAraújo, Eneida de Paula, Leide Cavalcanti and Fabiano Yokaichiya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52896",authors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"},{id:"194491",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Ribeiro De Araújo",slug:"daniele-ribeiro-de-araujo",fullName:"Daniele Ribeiro De Araújo"},{id:"194492",title:"Prof.",name:"Eneida",surname:"De Paula",slug:"eneida-de-paula",fullName:"Eneida De Paula"},{id:"194493",title:"Dr.",name:"Leide",surname:"Cavalcanti",slug:"leide-cavalcanti",fullName:"Leide Cavalcanti"},{id:"194494",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiano",surname:"Yokaichiya",slug:"fabiano-yokaichiya",fullName:"Fabiano Yokaichiya"}],corrections:null},{id:"52813",title:"High‐Resolution X‐Ray Diffraction of III–V Semiconductor Thin Films",doi:"10.5772/65404",slug:"high-resolution-x-ray-diffraction-of-iii-v-semiconductor-thin-films",totalDownloads:2501,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we will address the structural characterization of III–V semiconductor thin films by means of HRXRD. We first give an overview on the basic experimental apparatus and theory element of this method. Subsequently, we treat several examples in order to determine the effect of doping, composition and strain on structural properties of crystal. Analysed layers were grown by metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE). Films treated as examples are selected in order to bring the utility of characterization technique. Here, we investigate GaAs/GaAs(0 0 1), GaAs:C/GaAs(0 0 1), GaN/Si(1 1 1), GaN:Si/Al2O3(0 0 1), GaAsBi/GaAs(0 0 1) and InGaAs/GaAs(0 0 1) heterostructures by using different scans for studying numerous structural layers and substrate parameters. Different scan geometries, such as ω‐scan, ω/2θ‐scan and map cartography, are manipulated to determine tilt, deformation and dislocation density induced by mismatch between layer and substrate. This mismatch is originated from the difference between the chemical properties of two materials generated by doping or alloying. Such HRXRD measurements are explored through the angular spacing between peaks of the substrate and layer. The half of full width maximum (HFWM) of peak layer intensity is a crucial qualitative parameter giving information on defect density in the layer.",signatures:"Hédi Fitouri, Mohamed Mourad Habchi and Ahmed Rebey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52813",authors:[{id:"186374",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Rebey",slug:"ahmed-rebey",fullName:"Ahmed Rebey"},{id:"189151",title:"Prof.",name:"Hédi",surname:"Fitouri",slug:"hedi-fitouri",fullName:"Hédi Fitouri"},{id:"189152",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Mourad",surname:"Habchi",slug:"mohamed-mourad-habchi",fullName:"Mohamed Mourad Habchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"52151",title:"X‐Ray Spectroscopy on Biological Systems",doi:"10.5772/64953",slug:"x-ray-spectroscopy-on-biological-systems",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the field of biological studies, next to the standard methods, new tools are offered by contemporary physics. X‐ray spectroscopic techniques enable probing electronic structure of occupied and unoccupied states of studied atom and distinguish the oxidation state, local geometry, and ligand type of elements that occur in biological material. Direct analysis using X‐ray spectroscopy avoids many chemical preparation steps that might modify biological samples. The information obtained gives us insight into important biochemical processes all under physiological conditions. In this chapter we focus our attention to the application of X‐ray spectroscopy to the study of biological samples, with special emphasis on mechanisms revealing interaction between DNA and different cytotoxic agents and in the determination of changes in oxidation state of different elements in pathologically altered human cells and tissue.",signatures:"Joanna Czapla‐Masztafiak, Wojciech M. Kwiatek, Jacinto Sá and\nJakub Szlachetko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52151",authors:[{id:"176327",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacinto",surname:"Sa",slug:"jacinto-sa",fullName:"Jacinto Sa"},{id:"176328",title:"Dr.",name:"Jakub",surname:"Szlachetko",slug:"jakub-szlachetko",fullName:"Jakub Szlachetko"},{id:"186702",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Czapla-Masztafiak",slug:"joanna-czapla-masztafiak",fullName:"Joanna Czapla-Masztafiak"}],corrections:null},{id:"52125",title:"X-Ray Diffraction in Biology: How Can We See DNA and Proteins in Three Dimensions?",doi:"10.5772/64999",slug:"x-ray-diffraction-in-biology-how-can-we-see-dna-and-proteins-in-three-dimensions-",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Knowing the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules, such as proteins and DNA, is crucial for understanding the functioning of life. Biological crystallography, the main method of structural biology, which is the branch of biology that studies the structure and spatial organization in biological macromolecules, is based on the study of X-ray diffraction by crystals of macromolecules. This article will present the principle, methodology and limitations of solving biological structures by crystallography.",signatures:"Claudine Mayer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52125",authors:[{id:"79417",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudine",surname:"Mayer",slug:"claudine-mayer",fullName:"Claudine Mayer"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6188",title:"Solidification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0405c42586170a1def7a4b011c5f2b60",slug:"solidification",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7213",title:"Shape-Memory Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e3e756cd4f8a8617dffdc36f8dce7c7",slug:"shape-memory-materials",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10014",title:"Thin Films",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f56a9427ff53d989f007df97f6ad873c",slug:"thin-films",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10014.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1505",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3305b759b0efc22e8ed16e9048818817",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",bookSignature:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100815",title:"Dr.",name:"Viacheslav",surname:"Kazmiruk",slug:"viacheslav-kazmiruk",fullName:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2397",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bcc83fcd6b4bbfdaa677b37d94bdbdb6",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3166",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:"Advanced Materials and Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7263978cf34e637a4b9592eb4975f3e",slug:"optoelectronics-advanced-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Sergei L. 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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a9489219325325fc74e75df4e25d4fbd",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10461.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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One, two, and three-dimensional (3-D) structures correspond to a legacy of grown-junction bipolar transistor, planar MOS transistor, and trench-capacitor dynamic-random-access memory, DRAM (Sunami et al., 1982-b& 1984), respectively. Flash memory has recently begun to employ 3-D stack of memory cells (Endoh et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\tTo maintain the sufficient margin in DRAM operation, storage capacitance value should be kept as big as possible against scaling of memory cell area. In response to the requirement, 3-D capacitor has been introduced. The capacitor can be increased with the increase in the height of the capacitor without enlargement of planar area of the memory cell. First commercially available trench-capacitor DRAM appeared in mid 1980’s at 1-M bit era together with stack-capacitor cell (Koyanagi et al., 1982). Recent stack-capacitor DRAM has begun to utilize a 3-D cylindrical capacitor same as trench capacitor cell.
\n\t\t\tWhile, MOS transistor has been shrunk continually from 12 μm to 45 nm with planar 2-D structure since early 1970’s to date. An empirical fact that smaller MOS device leads to higher performance was theorized with the scaling theory (Dennard et al., 1968). However, hazardous short channel effects become obvious in sub-μm channel length regime. It is predicted that commercially usable minimum MOS device might be in the range of 5-10 nm. To cope with the short-channel effects vertical-channel transistors such as trench transistor (Richardson et al., 1981), surrounding gate transistor, SGT (Takato et al., 1988), and DELTA (Hisamoto et al., 1991) were proposed. Subsequently they have been extensively investigated these ten years. It is expected that the vertical transistor such as FINFET (Choi et al., 2001) will soon be applied to products to overcome the short-channel effects of 2-D transistor leading to a new era of 3-D LSI.
\n\t\t\tTo summarize device trends in volume and size, increase in device count per chip and shrinkage of feature size are shown in Figure 1. More than one-million fold increase in the device count has been achieved these 40 years leading to almost the same increase in processor performance. This has been driving enormous development of electronics and information technology.
\n\t\t\tTrends in device count/chip and feature size of MOS device. A DRAM cell consists of two devices of a cell transistor and a storage capacitor.
It is well known that the first transistor invented in mid 1940’s was a point-contact germanium bipolar transistor. Then, grown-junction type bipolar transistor became the first commercially successful semiconductor device (Teal et al., 1951). Although real devices are actually fabricated in 3-D structure, an operation mechanism of this bipolar transistor is based on 1-D current flow in principle.
\n\t\t\tBipolar devices had been dominant in semiconductor market until early 1970’s, and then MOS devices took over their position featuring less power consumption, denser packing, superior thermal stability, etc. Bipolar devices still survive in limited applications in fields of figh-frequency low-noise, inexpensive small scale IC, and high power. Besides, a kind of combination structure of bipolar and MOS transistors is insulated-gate bipolar transistor, IGBT. IGBT utilizes both an advantage of voltage-driven gate of MOS transistor and that of high current drivability of bipolar transistor. IGBT becomes a major device in power electronics such as electricity control in electric and hybrid cars.
\n\t\t\tNo further description is made in this chapter since the major topic here is “scaling and higher integration of semiconductor device.“
\n\t\tFirst DRAM was introduced to the market in 1970 by Intel with a 1-Kbit chip using three-transistor DRAM cells (Regitz & Karp, 1970). Subsequently, former 4-Kbit DRAM which was still employing 3-transistor cell began to be installed in IBM’s mainframe computers. This was just the time when MOS devices were proven to deserve application as highly reliable main memory in mainframes. Until that time, MOS devices had been regarded as insufficiently stable.
\n\t\t\t\tA few years later 4-Kbit DRAM using the one-transistor cell (Dennard, 1968) was being widely manufactured. This memory cell trend is shown in Figure 2 for equivalent circuit configuration. Since one-transistor cell was much smaller than two of others, very low-cost manufacturing was possible. Its low cost has been contributing to the development of personal computer. Then, the DRAM capacity has been increasing by a factor of four every three years until today. As modern computers are based on von Neumann’s architecture, main memory is a key device together with processor. Along with the prosperity of computing, the demand for memory has increased to produce a world-wide 30-B$ market in 2009 for DRAM. Even if the main customer is still personal computer, various applications are extending DRAM’s usage, e. g. cell phone, game machine, personal audio, and video machine, etc.
\n\t\t\tTrend in DRAM cell configuration.
The strongest driving force for growing of DRAM market is undoubtedly “price”. Therefore, various development efforts have been focusing on reduction of manufacturing cost. One of major effort is primarily devoted to finer patterning. The bit cost has decreased by a factor of 10-6 during 30 years since 1970, and 1-Gbit product has already been sold at the less price of 1-Kbit. Since chip cost is closely related to number of chips on a wafer, the wafer size has been continually increased to be such as 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200, and now 300 mm in diameter. Together with the diameter increase, memory cell size has been reduced to be 1/3 in each DRAM generation in volume production to absorb chip size increase. Consequently, the chip size has been enlarged at most up to 10 times despite the bit increase by a factor of 106 from 1 Kbit to 1 Gbit. Then, memory cell size decreases down to a factor of 10-5 as shown in Figure 3.
\n\t\t\tIn response to chip size reduction to cope with 4-times increase in memory capacity, the memory cell size has been reduced to almost one-third in each generation, previously shown in Figure 3. The DRAM cell, so-called 1-transistor cell, consists of one cell transistor and one storage capacitor. Key specifications in DRAM operation, such as noise margin, soft-error durability, operational speed, power consumption, strongly depend on the capacitance of storage capacitor (Dennard, 1984). The capacitance value,
where єi,
Memory cell size shrinkage at DRAM in volume production.
To cope with the dilemma as to cell size vs. capacitance, insulator thickness was reduced by a factor of 10 from 100 nm in 1-Kbit to 10 nm in 1-Mbit chips, becoming adversely close to dielectric field breakdown. When the author took a glimpse at some conference presentation from Texas Instruments Inc. in 1974 introducing a highly efficient silicon solar cell with plural steep trenches, as shown in Figure 4 (a), forecasting the upcoming issue of cell size vs. capacitance, he got an idea of a trench capacitor DRAM cell. Even though his job at that time was to characterize the silicon surface with photoemission spectroscopy, his amateur-radio hobby connected the shape of trimmer condenser, which has two coaxial cylindrical opposite electrodes as illustrated in Figure 4 (b), with the need of the 1-transistor cell. From that idea, he invented a trench capacitor cell and applied for a Japanese patent in 1975 (Sunami and Nishimatsu, 1975). Due to its low score of assessment, this was not applied to any overseas patent.
\n\t\t\t\tHints to create a trench-capacitor DRAM cell concept: proposed solar cell with steep trench, (a), a photograph of trimmer condenser, (b), and its equivalent model, (c).
As Hitachi had won a leader’s position in 64-Kbit DRAM products with a 5-V single power supply (Itoh et al., 1980) and folded bit-line arrangement (Itoh, 1975), its research and development group could afford to challenge for novel cell development together with the development of integration processes at 1.3-μm technology node. After several years’ development, the first 1-Mbit level trench cell in trial production was successfully implemented and then presented in IEDM (Sunami et al., 1982). The development story is described hereafter.
\n\t\t\t\tThe memory cell obtained measured 4 μm by 8 μm with a 2.5-μm deep trench. The capacitor insulator is a triple layer of SiO2/Si3N4/SiO2 of which thickness was equivalent to that of 15-nm SiO2. Resultant capacitance per unit area was 2.2 fF/μm2. Then, obtained storage capacitance,
This first trial 1-Mbit cell array with trenches won a signal voltage of 200 mV at 5-V power supply, as shown in Figure 6. Since it was empirically recognized that sufficient signal voltage was around 100 mV in those days, an obtained S/N ratio was large enough to obtain stable DRAM operation. Therefore, high immunity to alpha particle hit was being strongly expecxted for coming megabit DRAM products until the time when actual soft-error measurement was made.
\n\t\t\tAn SEM cross section of memory-cell array of 1-Mbit DRAM in trial production. The memory cell measures 4 μm by 8 μm.
In a R&D project, 1-Mbit DRAM was a prime vehicle to drive 1.3-μm node MOS technologies, such as lithography, dry etching, film deposition, gate material selection, metallization, etc. except packging. In the course of trench DRAM development, several issues were given birth to. Major ones were
\n\t\t\t\tdegraded oxide uniformity on trench wall, which leads to degradation of oxide integrity,
trench to trench leakage which limits further denser packing of cells, and
increased soft error which is fatal in application to reliability-conscious computers.
Output signals of a sense amplifier for a 128-bit folded bit-line cell array with trench of 2.5 μm in depth and that without trench.
Beside these major issues, formation of neat trench shape, avoiding of dislocation formation at the bottom of the trench, high-energy boron implantation into deeper potion of the substrate, uniform capacitor film deposition, polysilicon filling into the trench with phosphorus doping to the polysilicon, etc. should have been solved in a limited period.
\n\t\t\tCrystallographic orientation of trench surface varies resulting in different oxidation rate. It was observed that oxidation rate was higher in order of (110)>polysilicon>(111)>(100). Even though lower oxidation temperature gives rise to more enhanced oxidation rate (Sunami, 1978), this phenomenon still exists at relatively higher temperature range. Thus dielectric breakdown voltage was lowered at the thinnest portion on the trench wall. A transmission-electron micrograph of an experimental result is shown in Figure 7 in case of 1000 C dry oxidation.
\n\t\t\t\tA drastic solution to overcome this problem, it is desirable to utilize chemical-vapor depotion, CVD. An SiO2/Si3N4/SiO2 film was made full use of in trial production. Thickness ratio should be carefully chosen in order to avoid non-volatile memory effect due to the existence of Si3N4/SiO2 interface.
\n\t\t\tA transmission-electron micrograph of oxide thickness variation on trench wall with 1000 C dry oxidation.
Another serious problem against further scaling was a leakage current flowing through the deeper portion of adjacent two trenches. The current gradually fills up an empty cell with charges turning “1“ into “0“. This is a fatal failure for DRAM. This is attributed to a parasitic MOS transistor formed spreading over ajacent two memory cells. Two trenches work as deep source and drain; capacitor plate is the gate; and thick field oxide is the gate oxide. This is regarded as a typical MOS transistor simply causing large punch through current at deeper portion between source and drain.
\n\t\t\t\tTo outline the leakage current qualitatively, two-dimensional device simulation using CADDET (Toyabe, 1978) was carried out (Sunami et al., 1985). Resultant potential distribution with leakage current flow and a method of leakage current suppression are shown in Figure 8 (a) and (b), respectively. In the simulation result, one notable fact is that the current flows in the deeper portion of the substrate and a potential mound is located at the substrate surface. These results may be attributable to a field implantation of which peak concentration exists at the surface.
\n\t\t\t\tLeakage current characteristics for two ajacent trenches. Resultant equipotential curves are denoted by solid lines and broken curves are leakage current paths, in (a). A method of leakage suppression with p-type well is shown in (b) using ion implantation with boron.
It is well known that punchthrough stopper with relatively higher dose of p-type dopant can suppress the punchthrough current. As is previously shown in Figure 8 (b), the leakage current decreases inversely with the increase in a boron implantation dose. Since the impurity concentration of the substrate is 1.5x1015cm-3, boron implantation doses of 1, 5, 7, and 10x1011cm-2 generate accepter concentrations of 1.5, 1.9, 2.1, and 2.5x1015 cm-3 at 3-μm deep portion between two adjacent trenches. It is noted that even small increase in the concentration can drastically reduce leakage current.
\n\t\t\t\tOne of radical solutions is to provide a storage node being isolated from the current path in the substrate. Substrate plate or sheeth plate configurations are good candidates which will be referred to hereafter.
\n\t\t\tIn the final stage of the development, most serious problem of soft-error was found caused by the alpha-particle hit as shown in Figure 9. A difference of few orders of magnitude was observed between the planar and the trench cells at cell-failure mode. While, the same performance was observed for both of them in bit-line failure mode. This is because the bit-lines were formed in the same configuration. In this result, it was observed that the trench cell with 40% increase in signal charges provided the same soft-error rate as compared to the planar cell. Even though the trench cell provides stable DRAM operation due to larger signal charges, it loses the advantage of increased signal charges.
\n\t\t\t\tMeasured soft error rates of planar and trench cells.
One alpha particle at maximum 5-MeV energy generates almost one million electron-hole pairs. One million electrons is about 190 fC which is almost equivalent to signal charges stored in one storage capacitor of 1-Mbit DRAM cell. Due to extended depletion layer of the storage capacitor in the trench cell, it “effectively” collects generated electrons, as shown in Figure 10.
\n\t\t\t\tIn addition to the soft-error problem, it was predicted that punch-through current between any adjacent two capacitors would soon limit further shrinkage of the cell. That was a serious decision point about whether the trench cell should be improved or abandoned.
\n\t\t\t\tIn those days, most DRAM manufacturers made efforts to supply their DRAM products to very limited leading mainframe makers. That was a kind of certificate that their products achieved first-grade reliability. The certificate surely made their business fruitful. Even with a half-year delay in product shipment, they might lose their business in the mainframe
\n\t\t\t\tA model of electron-hole pair generation by an alpha-particle hit.
market during one DRAM generation. There is a clear evidence that a leading maker has changed in each DRAM generation, Intel at 1 K, then, TI, MOSTEK, Hitachi, NEC, Toshiba, Samsung …
\n\t\t\t\tSince Hitachi has been a DRAM manufacturer as well as mainframe supplier, it focused keenly on the mainframe application with highest-grade reliability compared to those of personal-use electronic appliances with relatively low reliability. Thus, Hitachi had abandoned the trench cell putting aside several ideas already proposed by the device development group for improved structures to reduce the soft-error problem (Sunami, 2008-a). Additional development was thought to need more than half a year. Since leading mainframe makers accept only a few DRAM suppliers, new product shipment with half-year delay would be fatal.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the same period, a new configuration of array operation with half-
Half-Vcc plate configuration has a possibility of doubling signal charges keeping maximum electric filed strength applied to capacitor insulator.
applied to 1-Mbit DRAM products. The conventional structure with conventional fabrication technologies are strongly desirable from manufacturability and cost points of view in general.
\n\t\t\t\tWhile, several innovative trench cells had been proposed and then developed to drastically improve soft-error problem in the same development project. A prime key fator was to avoid inflow of charges generated by alpha hit. Those cells were substrate-plate cell (Sunami et al., 1982-a) and sheath-plate cell (Kaga et al., 1988) as shown in Figure 12. Storage nodes of these cells are surrounded by capacitor insulator being isolated from charges generated in the substrate by an alpha-particel hit. A portion of p-n juction exposed to generated charges is very small clearly illustrated in the figure. The substrate-plate trench cell amazingly improves soft-error tolerance due to its highly shrunk depletion layer.
\n\t\t\t\tProposed DRAM cells to drastically improve soft-error caused by alpha-particle hit. Storage nodes are isolated from substrate by capacitor insulator
Despite alpha-immunity problem, several major manufacturers employed the trench and have been improving the structure until today. Together with the trench, the stacked capacitor cell was also applied in products. In addition to these cell structure innovations, the hemi-spherical grain (HSG) structure (Watanabe et al., 1992) was an inevitable technique to double the storage capacitance due to increased surface area.
\n\t\t\t\tMajor advancement in cell innovation is shown in Figure 13. Cylinder-type stack and substrate-plate trench, both with HSG, are the major cells being manufactured today. These DRAM cell innodations are divided into three phases.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPhase I (1K→1M): Shrinkage of planar area of memory cell together with the decrease in capacitor insulator thickness. Thinning of the insulator finally brought about catastrophic dielectric breakdown of the insulator. Even with utilizing of half-Vcc configuration, planar cell could not survive at 4-Mbit era.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPhase II (1M→1G): 3-D capacitor structure with planar cell transistor. The capacitance does not suffer from planar area shrinkage in principle. Two categories of stack and trench capacitor cells were proposed. In the latter part of the phase II, high-k materials became inevitable to keep capacitance value against cell area shrinkage.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPhase III ((1G→1T): Three-dimensional stack of the capacitor and the cell transistor. This will be described later in section 4.5.
\n\t\t\t\t\tDRAM cell trend. Phases I, II, and III correspond to planar area shrinkage, 3-D capacitor, and 3-D stack of cell transistor and storage capacitor, respectively.
A typical memory cell of commercially available 1-Gbit level DRAM is shown in Figure 14 (Sunami, 2008-c). This shows one kind of combination to utilize various technologies. This virtual structure is not necessarily the exact one of commercially available real product.
\n\t\t\t\t\tExtended channel length with trench gate is aiming much less sub-threshold current to keep sufficient refresh time. Relatively low concentration of n-type dopant at junction also provides lower leakage current due to reduced electric filed across the junction. Since it is predicted that there will certainly exist an ultimate limit in size of hemi-spherical grain, diameter of the cylinder will also cease to shrink due to the grain size.
\n\t\t\t\tFrom 1 K to 1 M, size scaling was the key issue. The storage capacitance value was kept almost the same over several DRAM generations by reducing insulator thickness compensating memory cell shrinkage. Consequently, the reduced thickness made the electric field across the insulator close to 5 MV/cm which was recognized to be the upper limit for keeping insulator integrity and refresh time in DRAM operation. Thus, innovative techniques other than thickness reduction were strongly required.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn response, three-dimensional structures were proposed. From 1 M to 1 G, three-dimensional structure innovation has been achieved as previously shown in Figure 13. However, as the aspect ratio of the storage capacitor exceeds more than 10, manufacturability becomes a much more serious issue. The final parameter to be handled in the relation expressed in Eq. (1) is permittivity,
A typical 1-Gbit level DRAM cell utilizing various kinds of proposed technologies. This may not necessarily be the exact memory cell in commercially available products.
have been developed as shown in Figure 15. But there is a serious fact that the thinner the thickness is, the less its permittivity is. An empirical equation regarding the relation between leakage current,
where,
Relation between bandgap energy and permittivity of high-k dielectric films.
To summarize innovation achieved in the past and requirements to the future, there are three eras for DRAM development.
\n\t\t\t\t\t1 K to 1 M ---- dimension improvement: smaller cell and reduced insulator thickness.
1 M to 1 G ---- structure or material innovation: stack or trench cell with high-k film.
1 G to 1 T ---- 3-D stack: cell transistor and storage capacitor with material revolution.
The final parameter which affects advanced shrinkage of the cell should be the insulator thickness itself. If the insulator is thick enough to fill the internal hole of the trench of the trench cell or cylinder of the stacked cell, the plate of the capacitor cannot penetrate inside the trench or the cylinder, resulting in no capacitor formation (Itoh et al., 1998), as shown in Figure 16. In this sense, high-
Relations among several film elements constructing the storage capacitor.
Since integrated circuits, particularly MOS memory and processor, were introduced to the market in early 1970’s, almost four-fold increase in both memory’s volume and processor’s performance has been continually achieved every three years, as previously shown in Figure 1. The strongest driving force for the increase is undoubtedly “cost“ as previously described in section 3.2. The volume increase has been attained maily by shrinkage of all components on a chip. MOSFET (field-effect transistor) is particularly suitable to the shrinkage because the scaled transistor provides better performance. This transistor’s behavior was theoretically analysed (Dennard et al., 1974) and named “scaling principle“ later in semiconductor industry.
\n\t\t\tEven though scaled transistor provides better performance, various kinds of problems become more serious in response to the scaling. They are so-called “short channel effects“; drain-to-source breakdown voltage is decreased; hot-carrier immunity gets worse; subthreshold current becomes more harmful against cut-off performance; gate leakage current increases with decreasing of gate oxide thickness; and mobility degradation sacrifices the scaling itself.
\n\t\t\t\tTo cope with these short channel effects, 2-D transistor structure has been improved, as shown in Figure 17. The structure has been improved so that electric field in the vicinity of drain is reduced. High electric field results increased leakage current and reduced breakdown voltage of source to drain. Thus DD was developed to reduce the electric filed with more graded impurity profile around n+ drain. However, the graded impurity profile increases punch-through current in deep portion between source and drain.
\n\t\t\t\tImprovement of MOS transistor structure regarding source and drain regions. SD, DD, LDD, HDD, and SOI denote single drain, double drain, lightly-doped drain, highly-doped drain, and silicon-on-insulator, respectively.
Then, LDD was developed so as to suppress the punch-through current with graded impurity profile regions which were located only at edges of drain and source, as shown in Figure 17. Due to relatively higher resistivity associated with the graded impurity profile, LDD’s drivability was not satisfactory because of relatively higher series resistance between source and drain. Then HDD was developed to reduce the effect.
\n\t\t\t\tEven though these innovations were made, mobility degradation problem still remained. Based on a physical aspect that tensile and compressive strains enhance the electron and the hole mobilities respectively, a strained MOS transistor was proposed (Kesan et al., 1991; Ismail, 1995). Typical strained silicon MOS transistors are shown in Figure 18.
\n\t\t\t\tThe strained transistor (a) in Figure 18 consists of SOI structure with a Si-Ge layer underneath source and drain. Since an overlayer silicon has to be epitaxially deposited on Si-Ge layer, complicated fabrication processes are likely to delay the practical use of it.
\n\t\t\t\tAs a more practical structure, the usage of compressive and tensile chemical-vapor deposited (CVD) silicon-nitride films was proposed (Pidin et al., 2004), as shown (b) in Figure 18. Stresses of about -2 and +2 GPa were successfully introduced into p- and n-channel regions, respectively. Minus and plus signs of stress denote compressive and tensile, respectively. Even though real deposition methods of the films were not disclosed in the meeting, it is well presumed that the tensile strain may be introduced by thermally
\n\t\t\t\tTypical strained silicon MOSFET’s: SiGe buried layer, (a) and CVD SiN cap films, (b).
decomposited CVD whereas the compressive strain may be given by plasma-enhanced CVD. Almost 50% increase in carrier mobilities of both n- and p-channel transistors were obtained.
\n\t\t\tTo cope with short-channel effects which will be more and more serious in response to the scaling of conventional 2-D transistors, transistors of which channel was formed on both side walls of a silicon beam, named trench-isolated transistor using side-wall gates, TIS (Hieda et al., 1987) and fully depleted lean-channel transistor, DELTA (Hisamoto et al., 1989) were proposed as shown in Figure 19 (a) and (b), respectively. Because of horizontal current flow of the transistor, this kind of transistors is called “quasi 3-D” in this article.
\n\t\t\t\tIn TIS, full side walls were not used, while main channel was formed on side walls of the thin silicon beam in DELTA. The bottom of the silicon beam is fully oxidized with local-oxidation of silicon process (LOCOS), the beam is isolated from silicon substrate like SOI substrate. Advantages of the thin silicon channel were estimated.
\n\t\t\t\tProposed quasi 3-D transistors of trench-isolated transistor using side-wall gates (TIS), (a) and fully depleted lean-channel transistor (DELTA), (b)
The author’s group has proposed several devices with respect to quasi-3-D structures. One of them is corrugated channel transistor, CCT (Furukawa et al, 2003; Sunami et al, 2004) as shown in Figure 20. Plural beam channels with {111} surface are formed by a crystallographically preferential etching with tetramethylammonium hydroxide, TMAH, atomically flat channel surface can be formed expecting less mobility degradation by avoiding rough surface of the channel.
\n\t\t\t\tThe current drivability of CCT is proportional to the number of the beams as shown in Figure 21. This is suitable for area-conscious applications such as power transistor and/or high-voltage transistor.
\n\t\t\t\tA corrugated-channel transistor, CCT featuring.
Other proposal is super self-aligned triple gate transistor (Okuyama et al., 2007) as shown in Figure 22. As two sidewall gates are delineated with an etching mask of a top gate, triple gates are selg-aligned each other leading to much smaller area occupation on a silicon die. One of device performance is shown in Figure 23. Three gates operate three transistors independently with unified source and drain. At single-gate operation, subthreshold current can be controlled by other two side gates, namely, a variable threshold-voltage transistor can be realized in a certain voltage range.
\n\t\t\t\tDrivability of corrugated-channel transistor, CCT in terms of planaer area.
Super self-aligned triple gate transistor featuring three gates of top gate, side gate-1, and side gate-2 formed in self-aligned manner.
Drain current characteristics of the triple gate transistor. Three gates provide independent three transistors with a unified drain and a unified source.
In these quasi-2-D transistors, there exist several serious issues caused by the formation of tall and thin steep silicon beam. They are (1) delineation of steep vertical silicon beam, (2) conformal gate material formation, (3) low-resistive source and drain, and (4) low resistive contacts to source and drain. The former two can be solved by advanced lithography with multi-level resist technique, CVD, and dry etching with high material selectivity. The latter two may be achieved by silicidation of silicon beam and wrapped metal contact as shown in Figure 24.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the figure, current paths of beam channel transistor are illustrated. It is obvious that longer current paths in relatively high resistivity area are illustrated in top contact as shown in Figure 24 (a). On the other hand, relatively shorter current paths are formed in wrapped contact as shown in Figure 24 (b)
\n\t\t\t\tSimulated drain currents and transconductances are described in Figure 25 in case of typical impurity concentration and silicidation (Matsumura et al., 2007). Top contact transistor structure scrifices the advantage of beam-channel transistor to a considerable extent.
\n\t\t\t\tOne of drain current characteristics of the triple gate transistor at two modes of gate voltage application.
Simulated drain current and transconductance of transistors with top contact and wrapped contact. Transistor structures are shown in
To summarize quasi-3-D transistors described above, a possible scenario of transistor structure innovation is illustrated in Figure 26. Transistors with horizontal current flow inside a silicon beam are called FINFET today (Choi et al., 2001). Then, 3-D FET‘s with vertical current flow will be a next candidate for 3-D LSI.
\n\t\t\t\tWith respect to the vertical transistor, a few DRAM cells utilizing vertical current flow structure have already been proposed in mid 1980’s. They are trench-transistor cell, TTC (Richardson et al, 1985) and surrounding gate transistor, SGT (Takato et al., 1988). However, they are not manufactured in real products yet. One reason is probably that fabrication technologies do not become matured yet in general.
\n\t\t\t\tRecent trend in transistor structure. It is not reported yet in 2009 that both FINFET or vertical FET is already shipped to the semiconductor market.
These structures may be almost the tiniest configuration in one-transistor DRAM cell. A theoretical area of these cells is 4
Proposed vertical cell transistors applied to one-transistor DRAM cell.
The author’s group has proposed a super pillar transistor, SPT which has a potential of realizing 2
Fabrication process folw is as follows. Selected portions of a silicon beam are covered with CVD Si3N4 films. Then high temperature oxidation is performed at 1000 C to the extent that the beam is fully oxidized. Portions which are not covered with the Si3N4 films are converted into SiO2 remaining physically and electrically separated silicon pillars. Subsequently, gate oxidation is processed and gate film is entirely deposited. Then, directional dry etching is performed entirely on a wafer remaining two gates located on both sides of the beam as residues associated with the dry etching. The resultant structure is already shown in Figure 28.
\n\t\t\t\tA fundamental process sequence to fabricate super pillar transistor, SPT. The pillar is isolated with field oxide which is converted from silicon beam itself with well-known local oxidation of silicon, LOCOS technique. Side gate-1 and -2 are self-aligned to silicon and oxide beam.
An SEM plane view of SPT is shown in Figure 29. Even though the thickness of field SiO2 film is twice as much as that of silicon beam, removal of the Si3N4 film and scrificed oxidation reduce the thickness by a factor of 0.5. Thus the field oxide thickness shown in Figure 29 is almost equivalent to that of silicon pillar.
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images of a bird’s eye view, (a) and a plane view, (b) of super pillar transistor, SPT. Field oxide is thinned by a factor of 0.5 with a controlled wet etching.
A test circuit configuration, (a), characteristics of
Side-wall gates on both sides of the pillar make two transistors in one pillar. Typical
With additional new technique of forming two capacitors on a pillar, two DRAM cells on a pillar can be obtained leading to 2
Even though a lot of advantages in vertical 3-D transistor are expected compared to 2-D transistor, there still exists a fundamental limit due to the vertical structure. Except the complexity in fabrication technologies, one of the biggest problems may be practically unchangeable gate length. As an LSI consists of various gate lengths to optimize the performance such as speed/power consumption, chip size, operational margin etc., vertical transistors with single gate length can not be applied to LSI’s of processors and ASIC’s in particular.
\n\t\t\t\tUnder these circumstances, one of promising applications may be memory cell array. Cell transistors in a cell array should be identical in order to obtain compact array area and stable operation. Figure 31 proposes possible candidates of super pillar transistor, SPT to memory application. If a certain memory element is chosen, various kinds of memory will be possible. SPT can work as “a universal cell transistor“ for almost all memories with one-transistor cell and also can be applied to static memory cell with plural transistors.
\n\t\t\t\tVarious applications of super pillar transistor, SPT which can be operated as a universal cell-transistor.
In addition to this kind of a cell transistor and a memory element stack, a transistor stack structure is proposed. At present, 16 stack layers of NAND flash memory, named pipe-shaped bit cost scalable (P-BiCS) flash memory, is proposed (Katsumata et al.; 2009), as shown in Figure 32. As a silicon body of transistors is filled into a hole which is etched after 16 gate-layer stack formation, it is no need for the formation of thin and tall silicon pillar. In this sense, the manufacturability of P-BiCS is expected to be more stable than that of the pillar type in multi-stack memory, however, it is speculated that transistor performance problem exists due to the polycrystalline silicon body.
\n\t\t\t\tProposed 16 layer stack of NAND flash memory named as pipe-shaped bit cost scalable as P-BiCS.
A few kinds of 3-D stack of active transistors were extensively investigated in 1980’s mainly using laser recrystallization. But they were almost abandoned in the next decade due to poor integrity of overlaid single crystal layer causing much poorer productivity. In place of this active transistor stack, two kinds of chip-stack techniques have been developed as shown in Figure 33. Flash memory and DRAM are already utilizing bonding-wire connection and 6 to 8 chip stack are now available in flash and DRAM products. An example on a test chip is shown in Figure 34.
\n\t\t\tRecently a through-silicon-via type connection has been extensively developed. This provides more flexibility of inter-chip connection and higher productivity due to the batch processing for via formation and inter-via contact. Nevertheless, this may not be a real 3-D stack, because the chip thickness measures tens of 10 μm which is much larger than the device arrangement pitch of tens of 100 nm. Therefore, the chip stack is called “2.5 dimensional“ in this article.
\n\t\t\tTwo kinds of chip-stack LSI’s: bonding-wire connection type, (a) and through-silicon-via, TSV type (b).
Eight-layered bonding-wire connection on a test substrare.
In response to the ceaseless requirement for extended performance of transistor in LSI, continual scaling has been achieved since early 1970’s. Sizes of transistors in products measured 12 μm in 1970 and around 45 nm in 2009. The scaling of device size has been brought about 4-fold increase in memory’s volume and processor’s performance every three years. Since there existed a limitation of amount of signal charges in DRAM against the cell size scaling, DRAM had first encountered the imitation of the volume size at 1 megabit in mid 1980’s. To overcome the limitation, it began to employ a 3-D capacitor structure such as trench capacitor or stack capacitor.
\n\t\t\tEven with the 3-D structures, its maximum volume of DRAM in a chip is estimated to be 64 gigabit provided that the amount of signal charges stored in a cell must be kept constant against the cell scaling. To solve the deadlock, the employment of an extra high-
Regarding NAND flash memory, multi-stacks of flash transistors have already been proposed. Since flash memory cell consists of one cell transistor in a memory cell and no contact is needed to source and drain in a string of cell transistors, the multi-stack is relatively easier than that of DRAM.
\n\t\t\tOn the other hand, field-effect transistor itself will encounter the ultimate size limit of 5-10 nm. Only about several tens of silicon atoms exist in the channel region of 10-nm transistor. Normal filed-effect operation will be impossible due to fatal short-channel effects in that dimension range. Particularly a ratio of off current to on current becomes worse causing unacceptably large stand-by power consumption.
\n\t\t\tIf the scaling pace is still kept constant, the ultimate limit will be encountered within 15 years. Forecasting the limitation, various kinds of 3-D transistors have been proposed, however, they will still suffer from the short-channel effects same as 2-D transistors. Due to a limitation of invariable channel length of vertical transistor, it will be practical in products that the vertical transistor is employed together with 2-D one in an LSI chip.
\n\t\t\tTo cope with these fundamental limits in miniaturization of devices, various kinds of chip stack will be dominant in LSI products in response to the requirement for smaller package used in personal-use, hand-held products.
\n\t\tThe author wishes to thank all of colleagues, who have done research and development with respect to trench capacitors and 3-D transistors together with him, M. Koyanagi, K. Itoh, T. Kure, Y. Kawamoto, S. Iijima, M. Ohkura, S. Kimura, T. Kaga, R. Hori, T. Toyabe, T. Furukawa, S. Matsumura, A. Sugimura, and K. Okumura for their cooperation. He is also thankful to N. Hashimoto, S. Asai, M. Kubo, and S. Harada for their continuous encouragement.
\n\t\tCreativity is one of the most appreciated learning skills current the XXI century [1]. Creativity is conceived as a higher-order thinking skill based on complex and postformal thought concerned with the creation of new and valuable ideas [2, 3]. Higher-order thinking skills are those involved in proficient and strategic thought, and these skills comprise critical, creative and metacognitive thinking, also known as deep learning [4]. In addition, the development of creativity is today considered essential in order to achieve an effective and a high-level learning.
Despite the observed need for the development of creativity in the curriculum, there is a general tendency to reproduce teaching and learning models and a constraint on teacher’s search for procedures to teach creativity, which involves little creativity development in students, with a predominance of reproductive learning [5].
Creativity is inherent in human development and his personality. It begins to be developed from the first years of school and continues into higher education and increases through the number of experiences that the individual has, and to the extent that the activity of teachers could promote it [5, 6].
Therefore, creativity has been an essential competence for the curriculum design and development. In order to answer this deal, the concept and the psychological construct of creativity has been defined and later, its psychological process involved has been treated to implement teaching and learning strategies oriented to such ends.
There is a consensus among scholars that creativity is not just another skill, but rather a complex process of human subjectivity that is based on a set of psychological resources that are specifically configured and regulate human behavior [7]. Contemporary researchers have expanded the concept of creativity by recognizing that creative action is a dynamic and inconclusive process and is even co-constitute with the broader social context [8].
Considering the different approaches to their study assumed by Rodhes [9], creativity has been defined as a result, as a process, as a construct derived from the influence of the context and as a personality feature of human nature.
There is not a consensus about the definition of creativity, but it has been generally accepted as the ability to do creative products. A creative product is defined as something new, original and appropriate or valued in a particular context [10, 11, 12, 13].
Most authors advocate understanding creativity not only from the results or the products generated, but also from the process from which it is reached. In this sense, Gardner\'s definition can be assumed for this purpose. For Gardner, a creative person is a person who solves problems regularly, develops new products and defines issues in a field that initially is novel but ultimately becomes accepted in a particular cultural context [12]. This definition includes the four approaches to the study of creativity: personality (creative person), the process (problem solving), the context (cultural context) and finally, the product (new products).
Regarding the definition of creativity as a result of human activity, many authors consider creativity as the ability to do creative products, hence a creative person is one that produces creative products regularly.
A creative product is defined as something new, original and appropriate or valued in a particular context [10, 11, 12, 13]. These characteristics have also been summarized in two fundamental aspects of creative products, which are novelty and quality, which also must involve originality and adequacy respectively [14].
What is something new?
Is something different to the previously existing things. There is nothing totally new because something new comes from something that previously exists. Therefore, novelty will depend on the frame of reference to which it is compared. For this reason, there are degrees of novelty. It has been considered these two types of creativity besides that [15, 16, 17]:
P-Creativity: is new with respect to oneself (personal creativity). It is also called Little- c creativity.
H-Creativity: is new with respect to History (social creativity). It is also called Big- C creativity
Also, there are some differences between the frequency of the novelty and the context where it is generated. Therefore, it has been described four types of creativity (see Figure 1). According to this continuum, Kaufman and Beghetto [18] have developed
Mini-c: individual/personal and everyday creativity is used to define a type of creativity involved in performances, actions or new events of daily life with personal meaning [19]. This type of category also refers to a mental or emotional internal state of creativity [20] and helps to differentiate the subjective to the objective creativity and the Mini-c from the Little-c. Hence, it is also used to distinguish between subjective and objective forms of personal creativity.
Little-c: individual creativity that is grown as a hobby. It is associated with the innovative contributions clearly useful but not exceptional.
Pro-C: not eminent social creativity is given in a creative profession. This kind of creativity comes from people who are creative at their work and helps to distinguish between the area of the Big-C creativity and the area of the Little-c creativity, or between the social and personal creativity.
Big-C: eminent creativity or exceptional creativity. Is used to indicate a type of eminent and exceptional creativity that stands out in a field or domain of knowledge and is socially recognized.
Grades of creativity.
This model proposes that a person could be gradually creative, in a personal level (Little –c and Mini-c) fostering creativity in everyday life. Thus, increase the possibilities to be creative on a social level (Pro-C and Big-C) to become exceptionally creative.
What is something original?
Originality implies that a product is different from other, highly unusual or statistically rare. Furthermore, for most authors, a product may be original to varying degrees (personal, social and universal).
What is appropriate or valued in a particular context?
The suitability of a product means that it is valued and/or appropriate in a particular context. To this end, a proper creative product must meet certain criteria or quality standards, providing true value or usefulness to society, culture or context in which it occurs.
As it was indicated in this section, a creative product can be creative to varying degrees (personal-social) and must meet certain levels of innovation and quality. Creative thinking skills development implies that novelty has to involve a certain level of originality, and quality must involve a certain level of adequacy in a particular social context [14].
Many authors have explained creativity as a process clearly differentiated from others cognitive process. Guilford [21] was one of the first authors to propose creative thinking as a cognitive process involved in the structure of intelligence. Today, his theoretical model remains a referent for explaining and predicting a person\'s creative potential and creative performance. His model of the Structure of Intellect (SOI) defined creativity as a result of a cognitive operation called divergent production, which is related to creative solutions of problems characterised by moving in many directions, in contrast to convergent thinking, characterised by moving in one direction to search for a correct answer (see Figure 2).
Guilford’s Model Structure of Intellect (SOI).
Furthermore, Guilford [21, 22, 23] proposed these four productive processes of divergent thinking:
Fluency: the production of a large number of ideas. There are three types of fluency: (1) Ideational fluency: quantitative production of ideas in a given class, (2) Associational fluency: building relationships, (3) Fluency of expression: easy to build sentences.
Flexibility: the ability to produce changes in thinking- a change of some kind, of meaning,-a change of meaning, interpretation or use of something, a change in the way of understanding a task or strategy intended to do it, or a change in the direction of thought, which may involve a new interpretation of the problem.
Originality: the production of unusual and intelligent responses collected from premises distant or remote. In order to evaluate this component, the principle of statistical infrequency of an idea within the set of members of a given population has been proposed.
Elaboration: the ability to produce the highest number of steps or details to execute a plan. It is related to the ability to make implications when planning skills are being applied.
Other authors are relevant in addressing and highlighting creativity as a specific thinking process, such as Torrance, Maslow and De Bono, among others. Torrance [24] describes creativity as the hypothesis development and validation process. Defines creativity as sensitivity to problems, deficiencies and gaps in information, the absence of certain elements, etc., which leads to formulate conjectures and hypothesis about their solution, evaluate, test and modify these assumptions to communicate the findings. Maslow [25] distinguished between two types of creative thinking and describes two types of creativity, primary and secondary. The creative process is largely composed of the primary creativity, which is related to creative inspiration, and secondary creativity prepares and develops primary creativity and expresses the "finished product". Finally, De Bono [26] defined creativity as lateral thinking. Lateral thinking involves the generation of ideas, is not sequential, unpredictable and not limited by convention. Lateral thinking is the opposite of vertical thinking defined as sequential, linear, predictable and conventional. Both processes are necessary and complementary.
Hence, there are empirical evidences about two kinds of thinking, creative and critical thinking, that shows a cerebral correlate with both sides of our brain. It has been observed that both styles of thinking imply two different mental operations and processes such as: visual-verbal, parallel- vertical, unconscious-conscious, divergent-convergent, etc. Creativity is located in the right brain hemisphere and in the frontal lobe, as well as having a neurological basis of a stronger hemispheric connection, as a result of an optimal interaction between the two hemispheres. In addition, a high creative thinking ability consisting of frontal and parietal regions within default, salience, and executive brain system [27, 28].
A constant throughout the history of creativity has been to recognise the creative process as the semblance of problem solving [29]. This will be discussed in the last section of this chapter.
There are some classic studies of the creative personality made by Mackinnon [30, 31]. Personal characteristics that performed highly creative products (buildings for architects, published works for novelists or writers) were assessed. The following characteristics of a creative person were founded:
High intrinsic motivation to solve problems, rather intrinsic than extrinsic.
Security and confidence, not worry about the opinion others have of them.
Qualities for social success; they are balanced, spontaneous and confident in their social relations, while they are not particularly sociable temperament and cooperative.
Not deliberately conformist though. They are truly independent.
Prefer the aesthetic and theoretical values. They are searching for truth and beauty.
Preference for intuitive perception resulting from flexibility, spontaneity and openness of mind to experience.
Inclination towards the complex and asymmetrical.
Two thirds of the study participants were introverts but there is no evidence that introverts are more creative than extroverts.
According to mental health, creative individuals scored above average in the general population in certain psychological traits, but they had enough strength and mental control that allowed them to express themselves in a productive and in a creative way.
Other salient features that define the creative personality are [32, 33]:
The flow of ideas and flexibility of thought.
Not conventional thinking. Thoughts and associated ideas in unusual ways and use of unconventional strategies to solve problems.
Independence and autonomy. High degree of autonomy, independence and confidence. They do not need to be seen or relied on.
Self-discipline, self-control and perseverance. They are responsible for their own actions and have a high degree of strength and persistence to successfully finish a started project.
High achievement motivation. They usually do not feel satisfied with their ideas or projects because they think they can improve them.
Tolerance for ambiguity. They are more capable than most people to carry out the work in the absence of specific requirements.
Preference for complex tasks and information.
Strong sense of humor.
A recent meta-study highlights these same personal characteristics, emphasising awareness, flexibility of thought, abundance of ideas and their ease and the originality of ideas as the fundamental pillars of creative personality and the core of the main studies analysed [34]. In addition, creative persons must also find four essential factors for creativity potential: affect, cognition, willingness and empathy [29].
The importance of the cultural value or the context in creativity has been highlighted by different authors. The influence of the social environment for creativity development, is essential; this is what makes it possible to provide innovative solutions to the problems i.e., what surrounds the student and contributes to the development of his personality [5].
In this sense, Glăveanu [35] has presented an overview of how expanded conceptions of creativity including the context dimension can help move the field from a
Csikszentmihalyi [17] defined creativity as any act, idea or product that changes an existing domain or a transformation of an existing domain into a new one, and argues that creativity is to bring something truly new that is valued enough to be added to the culture. Gardiner emphasises interdisciplinarity and collaboration for greater creativity and epistemic control of knowledge [37].
The Amabile [10]
Domain-relevant skills. It depends on the cognitive, perceptual and motor innate skills and formal and informal education of the person in a particular domain. It includes the knowledge in a domain, the technical skills and the special skills in that domain.
Creativity-related processes. It depends on the experience in the generation of new ideas and personality. It includes the cognitive style, the use of heuristics to generate new ideas, and the style of work.
Intrinsic task motivation. It depends on the initial level of intrinsic motivation toward the task, on the presence or absence of social inhibitors and on the individual abilities to minimize cognitively external inhibitors. It includes attitudes toward the task and the perception of one\'s motivation to undertake it.
Domain-relevant skills | Creativity-related processes | Intrinsic task motivation | |
---|---|---|---|
Includes |
|
|
|
Depends on |
|
|
|
Componential Model of creativity of Amabile (1983).
A key issue in developing creativity context-related is motivation. To develop creativity, it should be a higher intrinsic motivation than an extrinsic one. Amabile [10] attaches great importance to the influence of social factors on creativity, so that intrinsic motivation, internal evaluation in accordance with technical criteria and the absence of external rewards are crucial factors for its development. Intrinsic motivation is particularly relevant in the early stages of the idea generation or in the early stages of creativity and extrinsic motivation is particularly relevant in the developmental phase of these initial ideas, when the product needs to be developed in detail. In turn, it has been shown that extrinsic motivation can encourage the creativity as long as it does not exceed the intrinsic motivation one, and both kinds of motivation should be combined in a synergistic, additive and complementary way. In other words, “extrinsic incentives and task motivation must combine in a synergistic, additive, or complementary fashion” (p. 352) [38].
According to
According to De la Torre [41], creative teaching is characterized by being active, motivating, dynamic and involving. For this author creative learning refers to knowledge built with the active involvement of the subject, from its planning to its internalisation, characterised by intrinsic motivation, being learner-centred, openness of the process and self-evaluation.
The development of creative thinking skills is essential for turning creative potential into creative performance. That is, if creative skills are deliberately, consciously and voluntarily fostered, each individual will be able to convert his or her creative potential into creative behavior [2, 6, 42].
In this respect, the development of creative skills must be personal and voluntary, but it must also be stimulated by the educational context. From a didactic point of view, creativity is a concept that should be addressed curricularly in the objectives, as formative content, as a strategy, in learning activities and in assessment. If not, it is reduced to a mere aspiration for a good social reception [43].
In general, it can be stated that the recommendations from research, derived from the implemented programmes and strategies for the development of creativity are based on applying divergent thinking processes (fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration, transformation, sensitivity and symbolic play) and convergent thinking processes (analysis, synthesis and evaluation of ideas) involved in the creation of products in the problem-solving process to achieve the optimal development of creativity [2]. An important finding of a meta-analysis was that more successful training programmes were more likely concerned with directed and structured exercises aiming at developing specific, task-relevant cognitive skills operating on available knowledge, involving idea production and cognitive training in problem solving strategies [6, 42].
There is a considerable evidence revealing beneficial effects on different facets of creative potential. Studies on creativity in education field show an effective and real development of creativity if relevant efforts are made in this direction in all levels of education from pre-school to higher education [3, 8, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. In addition, evidence has been found to suggest the importance of the role of the educator as a basis for the development of creativity and an opportunity to guide the child\'s early development of creativity [49]. A recent meta-study, highlights the importance and the need to explain and explore the teaching-learning processes involved in the development of creativity, identifying the techniques and procedures used [8].
Therefore, there is an insistence on the need to promote educational measures and processes that involve teachers in the development of their students\' creative thinking, based on teaching methods that allow them to generate knowledge and respond to social, scientific and technological problems [50, 51]. In this regard, a systematic review of 210 studies on education and educational policy suggests that teachers\' skills, attitudes, willingness to act as role models, awareness of students\' needs, flexible lesson structuring and certain types of classroom interaction are central to the teaching of creativity, and highlights the importance of educational culture in supporting creativity, where it is necessary to generate conceptions of creativity and for teachers to develop their own creativity, working constructively with a mentor, as well as the importance of action research and reflection on one\'s own educational praxis [52].
At this point, it is stressed the importance of applying the creative thinking process in problem solving, as it would be the ideal strategy in order to develop creativity, as creativity and problem-solving have many similarities [2, 53]. Thus, is applying creative strategies in those processes that require a divergent, productive or idea-generating thinking style and analytical and evaluative strategies in those phases of the process that require a more conventional thinking or a convergent thinking style, aimed at finding a correct answer or its final elaboration.
In this section a distinction between the development of creative skills is made through overcoming the creative thinking barriers as a way to be aware of the internal and external conditioning factors of creativity, and how they are perceived in the educational context. Finally, the most relevant strategies for the development of creative skills are described in order to use them specifically in the educational context, with emphasis on problem solving.
Simberg and Osborn [54, 55] were the first to identify and analyse barriers to creative thinking under three types of blocks: perceptual, cultural and emotional. Simberg recommended overcome these blocks and described them as follows:
Perceptual blocks. Assume not to see the problem or not to see what is wrong, due to several limitations such as to isolate the problem, define the terms of the problem, use the senses to observe the problem, perceive remote relationships, investigate the obvious or distinguish between cause and effect.
Emotional blocks. Are those from the individual\'s own insecurities, such as the fear of being wrong or looking foolish, clinging to the first idea or solution that comes to mind, rigidity of thought, high motivation to succeed quickly, excessive desire of security, fear and distrust superiors, lack of energy to solve a problem, the experience and the lack of will to implement a new solution.
Cultural blocks. Are those that derive from what is taught and has learned to accept as good or bad, such as the desire to adapt to an accepted rule, the desire to be practical and economical, the tendency to adopt an attitude of all or nothing, having too many or little knowledge about something, being too competitive, having too much faith in statistics or logic, believe that fantasy is not worth it and believe that is not polite to be very curious or doubtful.
Lorna [56] describes creativity barriers as obstacles affecting the creative and innovative skills of individuals. She considers that knowledge, identification and awareness of the barriers to creative thinking, could prevent their emergence and allow for the creative potential of individuals. To this end, Lorna has created the
These blocks and barriers have also been summarised in two types: internal and external barriers. Internal barriers have been related to the perceptual blocks and the emotional blocks and external ones have been related to the cultural blocks.
More recent literature provides various examples of how people can be effectively cognitively stimulated in the context of creativity enhancement, and significant performance gains psychometrically determined creativity were also seen as a result of continuous engagement in divergent thinking task [57].
From this approach, the optimal methodology for the development of creativity would be the development of students\' strategic thinking through the teaching of different creative strategies in the classroom. Creative strategies are an adaptive procedure or set of procedures by which action is sequentially organized to achieve the desired purpose or goal [58]. These strategies are characterized by flexibility in planning, contextual adaptation, the creation of a relaxed and rewarding atmosphere, participatory and interactive roles among students and between students and teachers, productivity or personal achievements, high degree of satisfaction and awareness of self-learning [58]. These strategies seek, among other aspects, to develop capacities and skills of ideation, interaction, elaboration, communicative competence, argumentation to express and defend one\'s own points of view, collaborative work and role-playing. They are characterized by being strategies oriented towards the development of attitudes, values, emotional sensitivity and persistence in the task initiated [59].
Classic creative strategies to develop creative thinking skill began to apply in training courses from the industrial field started in 1930 and 1940. These strategies could help to unlock and stimulate the divergent thinking and facilitate the development of creativity. Nowadays these strategies are applied in the educational context in different divergent thinking tasks [57]. These creative strategies are involved in idea production which is particularly effective in improving creative-related skills [42, 60].
A way to classify the strategies outlined in the scope of the development of creativity, it has been proposed three types of processes used in problem solving [61]:
Analogical: is based on the similarity or the likeness as a solution of the problem.
Antithetical: is based on solving the problem of the counter tide it had been done before.
Randomly: once discussed the problem with similar methods and opposite, there is an area of seemingly unrelated concepts to the problem and random estimates are used for their solution.
The main strategies for the development of creativity are summarised below:
Brainstorming [55]. Its objective is to conduct a group or a project to get as many ideas, suggestions, valid alternatives and original ideas as possible. This strategy can be applied in a single phase, in which each participant prepares its own list of ideas and then be shared with other individuals, in a second phase of work in pairs and in a third phase of group work. Eventually it is needed to evaluate all the ideas and choose the best.
This strategy has four basic rules:
Critical judgment is excluded. Do not reject or censor any idea how absurd or strange it may seem.
The free imagination is welcomed.
The amount is demanded.
The combination and improvement of the proposed ideas is sought.
Attribute listing [62]. This strategy consists of moving the attributes of an object or situation to another object or situation. Its aim is to sensitise the student to grasp the characteristics of the objects and transforming them to generate significant wealth of new ones. This technique should be applied as follows:
Focusing on a target or topic of a potential job.
Display various attributes or characteristics of the target of topic (e.g., if it is an object: shape, color, size, etc.).
Select those attributes that best describe the object or subject.
Thinking about possible changes in each.
Modify the characteristics of an attribute without changing other attributes and see what happens.
Checklist [55]. This strategy is based on the formulation of questions, because the questions are one of the supports of creative attitudes. Prior knowledge of a problem predisposes to the development of questions, because knowing involves wanting to know more and this can lead to many discoveries. This strategy proposes a number of questions issued by the educator to encourage creative thinking; these are the follows:
Use the existing elements that have been already used for other purposes.
Adapt or copy other similar realities to improve what we have.
Modify; giving new forms, colors, aspects.
Increase, make larger, stronger, higher, that multiplies the effects or appears more often.
Reduce; make smaller, lighter, delete parts or complications, divide or ignore.
Replace; change something by other ingredients, materials, procedures, techniques, etc.
Change the order or sequence of its components.
Reverse the object; replace the positive with the negative, to start at the end, to reverse a situation, use of irony.
Combine the ideas to improve the object.
Synectics [63]. The word comes from Greek and means the union of different elements and seemingly irrelevant. Is applied in group problem solving to increase the possibilities of its resolution. To applied it, activities are proposed to make the strange familiar and the familiar strange through free associations, involving four forms of metaphorical analogy, which are as follow:
Personal analogy: imagine that you are the object or situation of the problem to identify its elements.
Direct analogy: look for some phenomenon or similar solution in other areas of knowledge or disciplines.
Symbolic analogy: interpersonal or object images are used to describe the problem. Poetical and metaphorical type of responses can be used.
Fantastic analogy: fantastic events, imaginary or irrational ideas can be used to challenge the established laws and to create another kind of reality.
Invention of products [64]. This strategy proposes the creation of inventions. The strategy to develop the invention comprises the following steps:
Analyse the design and the creation objectives.
Generate ideas. New ideas from different categories, original and infrequent ideas and detailed ideas are seeking.
Assess the ideas generated.
Designing something new or improve an existing design.
Storywritting [65]. This strategy encourage imagination by the development of stories and provides the description of different ways for it. Some of these ideas are: create stories from a word or from a randomly selected image, change the main character of a familiar story, transforming traditional stories introducing changes to its continuation or ending, imagine a fantastic character and create a story from this character (e.g., a man of glass; a man of iron), setting riddles and metaphors of their characteristics, using analogies, synectics, etc.
Method of the Six Thinking Hats [66]. This method tries to stimulate simultaneously six different ways of thinking related to the symbolic use of six different hats, including:
The white hat is neutral and objective. It relates to the facts, data and objectives.
The red hat suggests anger and emotions. It provides the emotional standpoint.
The black hat is somber and serious. Is cautious and careful, says the weaknesses and difficulties of the ideas.
The yellow hat is cheerful and positive. It includes optimistic hope and positive thinking.
The green hat symbolizes the abundant, fertile growth and new ideas.
The blue hat is cool, symbolizes the color of the sky that is above all. It relates to the control, organization of thought processes and the use of other hats. One could assume that this hat symbolises the use of metacognition.
Design Thinking. Design thinking offers teachers needed support and skills. Design is a process of “making” solutions, and a well-recognized by-product of creative confidence and self-efficacy. Design thinking is an iterative process that repeatedly reformulates a problem to find its core and then analyses possible solutions to find the most favourable, allowing for the formation of ‘creative bridges’ between problems and solutions [53]. Thus, both analytical thinking and divergent creative thinking are key to design processes, worked through five core design thinking skills: Empathising, Defining Problems, Ideating, Prototyping, and Testing [67].
Creative, metacognitive and critical thinking skills problem-solving model. Adapted from Allueva [68] is based on complex thinking and higher order thinking processes in problem solving [2]. See Figure 3. This model stresses the importance of developing creative thinking skills in problem solving, applying creative strategies in those processes that require a divergent, productive or idea-generating style of thinking and a more analytical and evaluative strategies in those phases of the process that require a more conventional or convergent thinking, aimed at finding a suitable response or its final elaboration. Throughout all the process, metacognitive skills involved in problem-solving are proposed. In this sense, there is some recent research on the implication of metacognition for the development of creativity [37, 69].
Creative, metacognitive and critical thinking skills problem-solving model.
Figure 3 shows how to apply the creative, metacognitive and critical thinking process in problem solving. First, the problem is presented and simultaneously, divergent production processes (in those tasks that require the generation of novel and valuable ideas) and convergent production processes are applied (in those tasks that require valid and reliable answers). During the task, metacognitive thinking processes (planning, regulating-controlling and checking the task). The three mentioned thinking skills are applied until a mental product of the problem is achieved.
As an example, the sequence of activities in the expositive sessions is:
At the beginning of the session: enquiry into prior knowledge: brainstorming, posing questions about subject content, knowledge activation questions, etc.;
During the session: stimulate the creative thinking, creative strategies are proposed: brainstorming, synectis, proposing examples and counterexamples, generating lists of attributes to certain questions, visualisation, make questions, etc.;
At the end of the session: relevance and educational implications in the classroom of the issues raised (creation of scenarios and narratives and search for solutions using divergent thinking skills in different cases).
The sequence of activities in the practical sessions is:
Presentation of the activity through cooperative work in the classroom. Creative strategies are proposed to solve the different practical activities through the stimulation of divergent thinking and lateral thinking: "what if", creative narrative techniques, brainstorming, use of analogies, list of attributes, synectics, creative visualisation, among others. The explanation of each strategy will be done prior to the solution of the proposed activities;
Development and supervision of the creative performance for the practical activities proposed;
Shared discussion. Small group discussion and large group presentation of the proposals put forward, explaining the creative process carried out for their solution. To this end, the hypothesizing of possible alternative solutions will be encouraged, promoting hypothetical-deductive thinking, creative and metacognitive thinking skills are supported;
Evaluation: group feedback on the creative resolution of the activity is done, suggestions for improvement of the solutions are proposed. Individual and group student’s self-evaluation is carried out to analyse the creative strategies application during the learning process. Finally, teacher\'s evaluation of the activity resolution (i.e., using a weighted evaluation scale) is proposed which is based on previously established evaluation criteria. Thus evaluation, should assess the main implemented creativity factors that were involved in the teaching sessions, as the indicators of creative thinking developed: fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration, among others.
It can be affirmed that development involves skills of increasing complexity and, in general, it has been shown that human thinking is diverse, complex and multifaceted and that it requires the coordination of multiple cognitive processes.
For this reason, we highlight the importance of the development of higher order thinking skills, more specifically those that have been shown to be most effective in teaching-learning processes, namely critical, creative and metacognitive thinking skills. Traditionally, more attention has been paid in education to the development of critical, analytical or formal thinking skills, and creative thinking processes have been neglected. For this reason, it is highlight creative skills as an object of development and study in this chapter.
Creativity is a complex and multidimensional construct, which makes it difficult to define in a precise and consensual way. However, it can be affirmed that the different existing approaches to the study of creativity provide a complementary vision of creativity and shed more light for future research, which will serve to discover the mental processes and mechanisms involved in creative and human thinking and the factors that influence them.
So far, it has been highlighted the importance of creativity in society and in education, as well as the importance of creativity in everyday life, while it has been shown through research that the development of creativity can provide an improvement in educational quality and student learning. Accordingly, we believe that creative skills should be developed in all possible contexts, taking into account the personal characteristics of each student, so that they are able to generate creative products in a variety of contexts. It has also been highlighted that essential indicators of creative potential are creative thinking processes applied to problem solving in the curriculum and, more specifically, those involving divergent thinking for the generation of ideas.
From this approach, it is proposed that the development of creative thinking skills should be carried out in the different areas of the curriculum as a transversal competence and in a deliberate and specific way. Likewise, evaluation is proposed, with the intention of assessing whether their development has been effective. In order to develop creative skills and creative thinking, barriers it should be removed and it should be applied creative skills involved in the problem-solving process. The aim is to generate creative products through the use and application of creative strategies intentionally in the teaching-learning process.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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