\r\n\tThe eye is our window to the brain. Vision is the ability to interpret and understand the information that comes in through the eyes. The visual system utilizes brain pathways to process and understand what the eyes sense. The dynamic process of vision is to identify, interpret and understand what the eyes see. \r\n\tAn image is a sight which has been recreated. It is an appearance which has been detached from the place and time in which it first made its appearance. Sensing is not the same as seeing. The eyes and the nervous system do the sensing, while the mind does the perceiving.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tMedical imaging is the process of using technology to view the human body in the interest of diagnosing, monitoring, and treating medical problems. It is especially beneficial when it comes to detecting cancer. Such a threatening disease requires very early detection to improve the chances of survival. Medical imaging is an extremely important element in medical practice in the world of today. While medical knowledge and discernment forms the basis of diagnoses and decisions, medical imaging plays a vital role in confirming any diagnosis. With scientific advancement and a continued effective use, medical imaging will continue to help with earlier detection of health issues and provide increased preventative care.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide readers with a comprehensive overview of the latest and most advanced findings in several aspects of ophthalmic pathology, treatment and surgical strategies, ocular imaging, vision sciences, medical images and perception that focuses on the most important developments in these critically important areas. Enough has been achieved already to make it clear that these fields have enormous possibilities for improving the human health. \r\n\t
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1. Introduction
The onshore epicratonic Carnarvon Basin in the mid western part of Western Australian has existed since the early Palaeozoic and its Palaeozoic and Tertiary history was generally one of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterally-extensive sequences of sediment [1, 2]. In this context, it conforms with many sedimentary basins throughout the World (e.g., the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [4], the Eucla Basin [5], the Paris Basin [6, 7], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [10]; the Gourara Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], amongst many others). However, the sedimentary history of the Carnarvon Basin became more complicated in its southern part in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of distinct but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages.
During the Pleistocene-Holocene in the southern part of the Carnarvon Basin, the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone has basin complexity over its relatively short latitudinal distance of 500 km, with several separate regions distinct from both a sedimentologic and stratigraphic point of view, as related to several control factors, including the physiographic and geological setting, the river input, the arid climate, the tectonic setting, and the degree of protection from the open ocean. As a consequence of these controls, distinct south-north trending sedimentary packages have formed, each one extending tens of kilometres in length and several kilometres in width. These distinct sedimentary packages are completely different one from each other and are either generally sharply latitudinally and longitudinally juxtaposed one against each other or separated by Pleistocene uplands or fluvial non-marine sediments. Each one of the south-north trending stratigraphic sequences has environmentally distinctive shoaling facies and, being separated over short distances by uplands, gives the impression of a series of closely juxtaposed ‘sub-basins’. In fact, particularly for the Holocene, the stratigraphic packages in the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the diversity and the complexity of laterally equivalent contemporaneous units that would provide a geologist working in the stratigraphic record a difficulty and a dilemma on how to interpret and to correlate various facies and intervening uplands.
2. The Carnarvon Basin: its geological and tectonic setting
The Carnarvon Basin is an epicratonic, faulted and folded basin some 535,000 km2 in the offshore portion and some 115,000 km2 in the onshore area. Existing since the Palaeozoic Era, it is a basin elongated northeast-southwest, and is bordered by Precambrian rocks of the Pilbara Craton and Yilgarn Craton [13], and is adjoined by the Perth Basin to the south and the Canning Basin to the north (Figure 1). It has been subdivided into a range of sub-basins and tectonic ridges, the most important of which to this paper is the large-scale division into Northern Carnarvon Basin and Southern Carnarvon Basin (Figure 2). But while there is crustal sagging and crustal faulting on the regional scale in the general Carnarvon Basin [1], tectonism did not seem to play a major part at smaller scales during sedimentation of formational units as it has during the Quaternary epoch. The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and lower to middle Cainozoic sedimentary sequences of the southern Carnarvon Basin comprise formational sheets that are laterally and basin-wide extensive [1, 2] (Figure 2). There is an extensive literature on the Northern Carnarvon Basin and the inland Southern Carnarvon Basin [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] but information on their geology, sub-basins, and stratigraphy is not relevant to the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone of the Southern Carnarvon Basin as presented in this Chapter as the latter in the Quaternary had a change in basin dynamics (with development of smaller isolated sedimentary packages formed in environmentally discrete areas), and is therefore distinct from the general geological setting of the Carnarvon Basin.
Figure 1.
Geological map of Western Australia (from Brocx and Semeniuk [14]) showing cratons and basins, the location of the Carnarvon Basin, and subdivision of the Carnarvon Basin into northern and southern basins.
Figure 2.
Geological map of Southern Carnarvon Basin Western Australia (modified from [15]) showing the tectonic framework (with the main emerging tectonic structures as anticlines) and the major depositional depression, viz., the Bullara Sunkland. Logan [16] subdivided the Bullara Sunkland into a southern part termed the ‘Shark Bay Depression’, a central part termed the ‘MacLeod Graben’, and a northern part termed the ‘Dingo Syncline’. Main geographic names are also shown.
3. The southern Carnarvon Basin in the Quaternary: a mosaic of facies-complicated sedimentary basins
The Quaternary southern Carnarvon Basin, arrayed along some 500 km of the Western Australian coastal and near-coastal zone, shows tectonic and palaeogeographic complication and inter-basinal heterogeneity. There are a multitude of smaller-scale depositional sites (or ‘depositional basins’), each one limited in area extent and each one sharply bordered by uplands or by a contrasting sedimentation style. There are thirteen main Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) stratigraphic packages along the southern Carnarvon Basin; ordered geographically from south to north, these are (Figure 3): a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerly-oriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wave-dominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline deep basin carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay; The Boodalia—a Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand and tidal sand-and-mud sequences and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach to beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments, halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral-reef complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. Selected stratigraphic profiles of the thirteen packages are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Distribution of the 13 main Quaternary stratigraphic packages in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. Most of the stratigraphic packages are Holocene in age, with the Pleistocene and Tertiary rocks (and some Cretaceous rocks) noted in the Legend. Of special note is the south-to-north elongation of the various Holocene stratigraphic packages and the older stratigraphic units.
The stratigraphic packages are separated by 1. tectonically-uplifted Tertiary limestone, 2. emerging Quaternary anticlines form emergent ridges, or 3. aeolian-emplaced Quaternary sediments, with the packages occurring in relatively small and distinct self-contained well-defined depositional basins (such as the bowls of parabolic dunes; terms from Semeniuk et al. [23]). The stratigraphic sequences of the thirteen packages are described in Table 1, and their distribution is illustrated in Figure 4. Detailed stratigraphy and lithologies of the Holocene-age stratigraphic sequences are described in various publications [15, 16, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31], and summarised in Table 2. Figure 4 illustrates the location of the distinct and discrete sedimentary packages and their inter-relationship as arrayed along the length of the southern Carnarvon Basin.
Stratigraphic package (south to north)
Height, thickness, width, and length of the stratigraphic package2
Relation to adjoining uplands and to adjoining stratigraphic packages
1. Limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay [15]
10–40 m above MSL. 10–20 km wide, 180 km long, up to 150 m thick
Tamala limestone: a Pleistocene aeolianite comprising carbonate and quartz calcarenite
Forms a barrier to Shark Bay
2. Pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay [24, 25]
In small packets within the inlets of eastern shore Edel Land 8 km × 3 km, up to 30 km × 6 km; 3–5 m thick seaward-thickening wedge
Boat Haven Sand3, a stratigraphic unit of bioturbated sand formed under seagrass bank conditions
Packets of seagrass-bank-dominated calcareous sediment cradled between uplands in a limestone rocky shore invaginated coastline
3. Aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay [15]
120 km long × 20 km wide, with heights 20–70 m above MSL
Peron Sandstone: a Pleistocene red sand broadly elongate dune complex with cuspate, straight, curved, and irregular margins (former coastal barrier); stratigraphically, composed of several episodes of dune building separated by soils
Forms a peninsula partition within Shark Bay and the source of quartz sand within the Shark Bay depositional system
4. Metahaline to hypersaline shoaling sedimentary package of south-eastern Shark Bay [25]
3–10 km wide, 100 km overall length as measured along the Hamelin Basin shore
Wooramel Sand3 (earlier Holocene metahaline seagrass bank sediments) overlain by Hutchinson Formation and (onshore) the shoreline ribbon of Hamelin Coquina
Ribbon-like (metahaline) calcareous seagrass bank sediments shore-parallel and flanking the south- eastern shore of Shark Bay lithologically passing up into (hypersaline) oolite sediment and tidally into stromatolites
Triangular wedge 15 km × 15 km of sand, 1–2 m thick, with local spits and cheniers
Un-named
Deltoid accumulation at the mouth of the Wooramel River
6. Wooramel seagrass bank deposits: extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay [24, 25, 26]
Wedge-like calcareous seagrass bank sediments flanking the eastern shore of Shark Bay
7. Mainly wave-built platforms and some seagrass bank deposits: extensive shore-parallel wedge of sediment western and eastern coast of the Peron Peninsula, central Shark Bay [25]
30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick
Denham Sand3—metahaline wave-built sand platform and seagrass bank sediments
Sharply adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand, and onlaps the red sand hinterland
8. Deep water marine embayment plains (10–15 m deep) underlain by calcareous mud, shelly mud, and sand [25]
100 km long, 20–25 km wide, 5–6 km wide, 0.5–1.5 m thick
Sharply adjoins the shallow water seagrass bank sediments and wave-built platform sediments
9. The Boodalia, a Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic deposit, as a subset of the Gascoyne Delta, and its laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex north of Shark Bay [15]
25 km along coast, 25 km wide, up to 6 m thick [26], triangular seaward-lobed sedimentary deposit
Sharply and laterally adjoins the Gascoyne Sand and Babbage Island Formation, and underlies and laterally adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand
10. Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex (Bejaling Beach Ridges) north of Shark Bay [27]
30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick
Babbage Island Formation3—beach-ridge and tidal lagoon complexes at the river mouth; Gascoyne Sand3—the offshore and near-shore cross-bedded sand that forms the delta slope of the Gascoyne Delta; Bejaling Sand3—beach ridge complex to the north of the river mouth
Sharply and laterally adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand, and onlaps the red sand hinterland
11. Tertiary-limestone-barred evaporite sequence of Lake McLeod [16]
Evaporites 130 km long, 20–40 km wide, 8 m thick
MacLeod Evaporite comprised of the members Texada Halite, Ibis Gypsite, and Cygnet Carbonate Member [16]
Evaporite sequence cradled in a graben
12. Barrier of Tertiary limestone and cemented Pleistocene aeolian sediments as a barrier to Lake McLeod [16]
Tertiary and Pleistocene limestone barrier 20–50 m above MSL 130 km long
Thickness depending on height (i.e., 20–50 m thick)
Sharply bordered by Holocene sediments
13. Holocene Ningaloo coral-reef complex [28] fringing the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range
Coral reef 150 km long, 2–5 km wide, up to 5 m thick
Plastered on and flanking rocky shore cut into Tertiary limestone
Table 1.
Description and settings of the 13 major stratigraphic packages in generalised sequences.1
Location of stratigraphic packages shown in Figure 3.
These geomorphic and stratigraphic systems are variable and the figures for length, width, and height, while providing an estimate of their dimensions, are indicative only.
Some of the stratigraphic units were not properly defined in the various original publications on this region [15, 16, 27, 28], and are in the process of being formally named [29].
Figure 4.
The disposition of the lithologically distinct and spatially discrete sedimentary packages arrayed along the length of the southern Carnarvon Basin. Also shown are the south-to-north uplands of Pleistocene aeolian and aeolianite bodies and the uplifted Tertiary and Cretaceous limestone formations that either act as barriers to or cradle the Holocene depositional sites.
Stratigraphic package (south to north) (numbering follows that in Table 1)
Fine scale stratigraphy
2. Pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay
Boat Haven Sand1—bioturbated shelly calcareous quartzose and underlain by thin calcilutite, and overlain by laminated sheet laminated sand, laminated beach sand, and beach-ridge sand; inland, where hypersaline, there is development of carbonate crusts [24, 25]
4. Shoaling sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay
Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1 overlain by laminated and cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin Coquina
5. Deltoid deposit of river sediments at the mouth of the Wooramel River central-western Shark Bay
Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1 overlain by laminated and cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin Coquina
6. Extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank sequence eastern coast, northern Shark Bay
Wooramel Sand1—bioturbated seagrass bank sand overlying a thin calcilutite and overlain by laminated sand of beach ridges and spits
7. Mainly wave-built platforms and some seagrass bank deposits: extensive shore-parallel wedge of sediment western and eastern coast of the Peron Peninsula, central Shark Bay [25]
30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick Denham Sand1—metahaline wave-built sand platform and seagrass bank sediments; sharply adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) sand and the Boodalia Formation1, and onlaps the red sand hinterland of Peron Sandstone
8. Deep water marine embayment plains underlain by sheets of calcareous mud, shelly mud, and sand
100 km long, 20–25 km wide, 5–6 km wide, 0.5–1.5 m thick Freycinet Formation1 sharply adjoins the shallow water seagrass bank sediments and wave-built platform sediments
10. Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex north of Shark Bay
Cross-bedded Gascoyne Sand1 overlain in the south by laminated to bioturbated (root-structured) beach-ridge sand and ribbons of tidal mud of the Baggage Island Formation, and overlain in the north by laminated to bioturbated (root-structured) beach-ridge sand referred to the Bejaling Sand
11. Evaporite sequence of Lake McLeod
Thin unit of the Cygnet Carbonate Member overlain by the crystalline 5–6 m thick Texada Halite and, in turn, by the Ibis Gypsite (in situ and reworked gypsum crystals)
13. Coral-reef complex of the Ningaloo Reef fringing the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier
Coral framework (domal, arborescent, mixed, tabulate and encrusting corals), coral rubble, skeletal sand, and intercalated sheets of alluvial-fan sediment = Ningaloo Limestone
Table 2.
More detailed description of fine-scale stratigraphy of the Holocene stratigraphic packages.
There are a number of reasons why these stratigraphic packages have developed as separate systems and separated in these sedimentologically distinct geographic regions; they are: physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate, migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean.
The physiography and geology of this part of the coastal and near-coastal Carnarvon basin comprises 1. tectonically-emerging ridges (that Logan et al. [15] term ‘anticlines’), 2. aeolian-emplaced coastal calcareous sand bodies (that when cemented form resistant upstanding ridges and, when mobilized into parabolic dunes and when later cemented form a limestone-rocky invaginated coast), and 3. aeolian-emplaced coastal quartz sand ridge. These large-scale and smaller-scale ridges and uplands form the cradle within which Holocene sedimentation was localised. As such, the Holocene sedimentation was/is occurring in lowlands, or along the open coast. The Pleistocene stratigraphic units generally form the uplands to the Holocene sediments as limestone aeolianites or red sand dune deposits [15].
Locally, riverine input has developed deltoid sedimentary accumulations along the coast, viz., the Wooramel Delta and the Gascoyne Delta. The Gascoyne Delta, since it is partly exposed to open Indian Ocean conditions and strong southerly winds, is an extremely asymmetric delta, with northerly-propelled deltaic sand forming a ribbon of shore-parallel beach ridges north of the river mouth.
The arid climate is a major factor determining sedimentation patterns and diagenesis of the Holocene sediments and, during the Holocene, with Earth axis precession the Tropic of Capricorn (separating the Tropical climate from Subtropical climate) has migrated northwards-centred on Shark Bay several thousand years ago it is now located near Exmouth Gulf [30]. This was one of the factors that changed the sedimentation styles in Shark Bay and along the coast of Cape Range.
In recent times, Shark Bay is partitioned into hydrochemical fields from its oceanic exterior to its protected interior (e.g., Hamelin Pool, Figure 2), viz., the salinity changes from oceanic in the north to metahaline and then hypersaline in southern parts [31]. This is partly due to its south-eastern interior portions being isolated from oceanic influences and, as such, there is more restricted circulation from ocean to interior, but also is due to the extreme evaporation acting on the south-easterly restricted parts of the Bay and to the evolution of a circulation-restricting shallow-water submarine seagrass bank that evolved in the Faure Island area [31]. Seagrass bank sedimentation occurs in those parts of Shark Bay where there is oceanic and metahaline salinity, and is eliminated when salinity becomes hypersaline.
Much of Shark Bay is protected from the open ocean and, as such, many of the facies therein reflect this. Where the coast is exposed to the Indian Ocean, it is subject to prevailing swell, wind waves, and strong sea breezes, and wave-dominated conditions prevail, e.g., the wave-dominated and asymmetric delta of the Gascoyne River. Further, where there is a rocky coast (such as the tectonically-uplifted Cape Range), with open ocean conditions and a tropical climate, coral reefs are developed (e.g., the Ningaloo Reef).
4. Discussion and conclusions
The Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin in its modern sedimentology, palaeosedimentology, and palaeogeography is an array of facies-complicated patterns determined by megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate. It contrasts with other sedimentary basins mentioned above (e.g., the Paris Basin, the Paradox Basin, the Sydney Basin, amongst others) that have more laterally-extensive formational sheets. Indeed, the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin does not have latitudinally and longitudinally extensive formational sheets, and the individual sedimentary packages of significant thicknesses are discrete and cannot (axiomatically) be correlated from depositional basin to depositional basin. Each of these sedimentary packages would appear in the geological record as discrete isolated lenses (each with its own internal sedimentary signatures and sedimentary sequences indicative of an internal relationship of lithofacies within the package), and would be assigned to different formations.
To highlight and contrast this facies-complicated array within the Southern Carnarvon Basin, we use the coastal zone of the Perth Basin in the southwest of Western Australia, the Canning Coast in northwest of Western Australia, and selected basins from around the World. In this comparison, we have direct field experience with the Perth Basin, Canning Basin, Kimberley Basin, Eucla Basin, the Paris Basin, the Tindouf Basin, and southern parts of the Karoo Basins. The remaining information has been obtained from the literature.
The coastal zone of the Perth Basin extends for some 400 km and (apart from the occasional shore-normal narrow estuary) portrays a fairly consistent sequence of beaches, beach ridges, and coastal dunes [23, 32, 33], that while largely shore-parallel and close to shore can extend inland for kilometres and, locally, have prograded seawards for over 10 km [33]. These coastal formations are composed of lithologically fairly uniform quartzose calcareous medium sand. Similarly, along 600 km of the Canning Coast [34], the coastal zone of the Canning Basin is relatively consistent comprising longitudinally-extensive beaches, beach ridges, and (in small embayments) limestone barriers sheltering calcilutite basins; the coastal sands are quartzose calcareous medium and coarse sand (viz., Shoonta Hill Sand and Cable Beach Sand of Semeniuk, respectively [34]).
However, prior to comparing the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Southern Carnarvon Basin with other sedimentary basins globally, there are two inter-related factors that need discussion in order to establish a framework for these comparisons; these are: 1. systems can be inherently internally complex in terms of sedimentary dynamics and facies resulting in small-scale complex stratigraphy or, alternatively, relatively simple (even if reflecting an upward shoaling energy-related system) [35],and 2. the concept of a formation and its use within the comparative Table 3.
Sedimentary basin
Location, area, longest length
Key laterally-extensive, relatively thick basin-wide formations, their lithologies and thicknesses
Basin-extensive Wianamatta Shale (300 m thick), Hawkesbury Sandstone (230–290 m thick), the Newcastle and Illawarra Coal Measures of coal seams, sandstone sheets, and shale (150–500 m thick)
Five major basin-extensive lithological sequences of Proterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, accounting for a stratigraphic thickness of some 5000 m and assigned to formational and/or group level; sandstone dominates the sequences; lithologies are quartzose sandstones, felspathic sandstones, minor siltstones, and minor volcanic rocks
Western Australia to South Australia; 1,141,000 km2; 1200 km
Basin-extensive sheets of skeletal limestone (bryozoa, foraminifera, molluscs, calcareous algae forming calcarenites, rudstones, and calcareous muddy limestones) and some sandstone; lithologically fairly consistent and extensive across the basin (e.g., Abrakurrie Limestone 120 m thick; Colville sandstone 25 m thick; Nullarbor Limestone 45 m thick; Wilson Bluff Limestone 335 m thick)
Basin-extensive sheets and lenses of limestone, sandstone, chalk, shale/marl, dolomite, oolite, and evaporites, each lithologic unit of relatively regular thickness, each either 300 m, 400 m, 500 m, or 600 m thick
United States of America: Utah, SW Colorado, extending into NE Arizona and NW New Mexico; 85,470 km2; 280 km
Asymmetric basin with western basin dominated by thick salt (up to 2500 m thick) and eastern basin dominated by limestone with lesser dolomite, bioherms, shale (1400 m thick)
Anti-Atlas, Morocco, and Algeria; 100,000 km2; 700 km
Basin-extensive sheets of sandstone, shale, limestone, marls, coral beds, conglomerate; individual formations comprise sandstone (500 m thick), interbedded limestone and shale (500 m thick), marls and marly limestone (700 m thick), and evaporite (up to 100 m thick)
Scattered series of sub-basins over northern to southern Africa and Madagascar, the largest of which are the main Karoo Basin 700,000 km2, 1500 km long, and the Kalahari Basin 2,500,000 km2, 1500 km long
The main Karoo Basin: asymmetric, with basin-extensive sheets of mudstone and sandstone, totaling 7000 m in thickness for the uppermost unit, viz., the Beaufort Group of formations, sheets of shale, sandstones, wackestones, chert, dolomite and coal, totaling 3200 m for the middle unit, viz., the Ecca Group of formations, and diamictite, tillite, totaling 800 m for the lowermost unit, viz., the Dwyka Group of formations
Table 3.
Global perspective: generalized and simplified description of selected sedimentary basins and their stratigraphy (for Australian stratigraphy, refer to Geoscience Australia [36]).
In the first instance, sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex laterally and vertically. For example, floodplain sedimentology and the resulting stratigraphy, and the stratigraphic complexity associated with channel switching in fluvial settings are examples (e.g., Figures 404, 409 & 410 in Reineck & Singh [37]) where there can be marked lateral and vertical lithological variation. So too for deltas –for instance, while a wave-dominated, sand-dominated delta may produce a relatively even and repetitive sequence of subtidal to tidal to beach-ridge facies, cf., Allen [38], a mixed sand-and-mud river-dominated system can result in a plethora of facies which are randomly arrayed and which become more complex where there has been major channel switching [27, 37]. In contrast, coastal beach-to-dune sequences and marine shelf sequences result in relatively predictable shore-parallel sheets of stratigraphic sequences reflecting gradients in wave energy, tides, and aeolian effects for the former [35], or vertically stacked lithologies of energy-related sequences for the latter [37].
In the second instance, in literature reviews of ancient sedimentary sequences globally that are to be used for comparative analyses in this Chapter, it is important to address the concept and definition of a formation as used by a given author, i.e., whether an author in defining a formation was focused on small-scale features, or used a broad-scale approach. Given that sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex (e.g., fluvial systems as noted above, or deltaic systems, cf. Figures 452, 453, & 456 in Reineck and Singh [37]) or, conversely, stratigraphically relatively simple (e.g., shelf systems), in our selection for comparative purposes of the ancient stratigraphic case studies, we focused on those examples where there was enough lithological detail to ensure that the stratigraphic sequences were adequately described and could be validly compared between the basins listed in Table 3. Following the criteria set out in the International Codes and Standards (e.g., the International Commission on Stratigraphy; http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-stratigraphicguide) for assigning formational status to rock bodies, in our review of the literature we assessed a rock body could be defined as a ‘formation’ if it had one of the following characteristics: 1. dominantly of one lithology (e.g., the Hawkesbury Sandstone in the Sydney Basin [3]); 2. mainly of two or three recurring interbedded lithologies mappable as a suite; or 3. a mixture of interbedded lithologies complexly inter-related but the whole suite being clearly recognised as a heterogeneous unit against underlying and overlying rock strata. Our conclusions were that is a formation was valid, and if it was mapped and correlated as being basin-extensive then its lithologically defining characteristics were present from one end of the basin to the other.
As noted in Section 1, globally, there are numerous sedimentary basins that are filled with laterally and longitudinally extensive formations. For comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin, we have selected the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [6], the Eucla Basin [7], the Paris Basin [4, 5], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], and the Gourara Basin [12]. Most of these basins have experienced some degree of tectonism resulting in normal faults and low-amplitude folds, but the sedimentary formations therein are easily correlated across large tracts of their respective basins. Information on the size of these basins and the composition of the laterally-extensive formations is presented in Table 3. As is evident in Table 3, most of the basins selected for comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin have basin-wide and extensive formations and contrast markedly with the Quaternary formations of the southern Carnarvon Basin of this Chapter in that they are thick, not markedly discontinuous, and can be correlated over large distances.
In this context, comparing the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin with other Western Australia sedimentary basins and with other selected basins Worldwide, it is clear that the Southern Carnarvon Basin stands as an important model globally of basin development – there is interplay of megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate resulting in a series of disparate sedimentary packages that are in relative close proximity to each other.
In summary, the onshore Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary array of facies-complicated sedimentary small basins where distinct but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages have formed over a relatively small scale. It is an example where sedimentary packages can be markedly diverse over short distances. As such, this coastal and near-coastal part of the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if analyzing a basin in the stratigraphic column.
Conflict of interest
We have no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, Quaternary, Shark Bay, Lake MacLeod, Gascoyne Delta, Quaternary tectonics, facies-complicated sedimentary basins",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72632.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72632.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72632",totalDownloads:103,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 18th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 27th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The onshore southern Carnarvon Basin in Western Australia, in existence since the early Palaeozoic, has a history during the Palaeozoic and Tertiary of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterally-extensive sequences of sediment. Its sedimentary history became more complicated in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of sedimentary facies and packages and basin complexity over relatively short distances, with several regions that are sedimentologically and stratigraphically distinct related to the factors of physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate, migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean. For the Pleistocene and Holocene epoch, there are distinct north-trending stratigraphic packets, each with their environmentally distinctive shoaling facies sharply juxtaposed against each other or separated by Pleistocene non-marine sediments; in geographic order, from south to north, these are: a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerly-oriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wave-dominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay; the Boodalia Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by tidal sand-and-mud sequences, and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach-to-beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments, halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. The coastal and onshore near-coastal southern Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary basin, where sedimentary packages can be markedly different over short distances, and illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if analyzing such a basin in the stratigraphic column. This feature of extreme diversity of sedimentary facies and packages within and between separate contemporaneous ‘sedimentary basins’ is the theme of this contribution.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72632",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72632",signatures:"Vic Semeniuk and Margaret Brocx",book:{id:"9879",title:"Geochemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Geochemistry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miloš René, Dr. Gemma Aiello and Prof. Gaafar El Bahariya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9879.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The Carnarvon Basin: its geological and tectonic setting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The southern Carnarvon Basin in the Quaternary: a mosaic of facies-complicated sedimentary basins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hocking RM, Moors HT, van de Graaf WJE. Geology of the Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western Australia Bulletin. 1987;133:288'},{id:"B2",body:'Hocking RM. Carnarvon Basin. Geological Survey Memoir. 1990;3:457-495'},{id:"B3",body:'Packham GH. The geology of New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia. 1969;16(1):654'},{id:"B4",body:'Griffin TJ, Grey K. Kimberley Basin. Western Australia Geological Survey Memoir. 1990;3:293-304'},{id:"B5",body:'Hocking RM. Eucla Basin. In: Western Australia Geological Survey Memoir 3. 1990. pp. 548-561'},{id:"B6",body:'Claude M, Mégnien F, editors. Synthèse Géologique Du Bassin De Paris: Volume I. 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In: MacNiocaill C, Ryan PD, editors. Continental Tectonics. The Geological Society of London; 1999. pp. 271-311'},{id:"B23",body:'Semeniuk V, Cresswell ID, Wurm PAS. The Quindalup Dunes: The regional system, physical framework and vegetation habitats. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 1989;71:23-47'},{id:"B24",body:'Read JF. Carbonate bank and wave-built platform sedimentation, Edel Province, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974. pp. 1-60'},{id:"B25",body:'Hagan GM, Logan BW. History of Hutchinson Embayment tidal flat, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974. pp. 283-315'},{id:"B26",body:'Davies GR. Carbonate bank sedimentation, eastern Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Carbonate Sedimentation and Environments Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970. pp. 85-168'},{id:"B27",body:'Johnson DP. Sedimentary facies in an arid zone delta: Gascoyne delta, Western Australia. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 1982;52:547-563'},{id:"B28",body:'Collins LB, Zhu ZR, Wyrwoll KH, Eisenhauer A. Late Quaternary structure and development of the northern Ningaloo Reef, Australia. Sedimentary Geology. 2003;159:81-94'},{id:"B29",body:'Semeniuk V. Rationalization of stratigraphic nomenclature in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. 2020. In preparation for episodes'},{id:"B30",body:'Semeniuk V. Predicted response of coastal wetlands to climate changes—A Western Australian model. Hydrobiologia. 2013;708:23-43. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-012-1159-0'},{id:"B31",body:'Logan BW, Cebulski DE. Sedimentary environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Sedimentary Environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970. pp. 1-37'},{id:"B32",body:'Searle DJ, Semeniuk V. The natural sectors of the Rottnest Shelf Coast adjoining the Swan Coastal Plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 1985;67:116-136'},{id:"B33",body:'Searle DJ, Semeniuk V, Woods PJ. The geomorphology, stratigraphy and Holocene history of the Rockingham-Becher plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 1988;70:89-109'},{id:"B34",body:'Semeniuk V. Sedimentation, stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and Holocene history of the Canning Coast, north-western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 2008;91:53-148'},{id:"B35",body:'Semeniuk V. Pleistocene coastal palaeogeography in southwestern Australia—Carbonate and quartz sand sedimentation in cuspate forelands, barriers and ribbon shoreline deposits. Journal of Coastal Research. 1997;13:468-489'},{id:"B36",body:'Australian Stratigraphic Units Database 2020. Available from: https://www.ga.gov.au/data-pubs/datastandards/stratigraphic-units'},{id:"B37",body:'Reineck HE, Singh IB. Depositional Sedimentary Environments. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1980'},{id:"B38",body:'Allen JRL. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta: A summary and review. In: Morgan JP, editor. Deltaic Sedimentation—Modern and Ancient. Vol. 15. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication; 1970. pp. 138-151'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vic Semeniuk",address:"vcsrg@iinet.net.au",affiliation:'
V & C Semeniuk Research Group, Western Australia
School of Arts and Sciences, Notre Dame University, Western Australia
Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Murdoch University, Western Australia
Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Murdoch University, Western Australia
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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