IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\n
Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
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\r\n\tNext-generation textiles represent an exciting and interesting topic within the textiles sector. They are an intersection set between life science (for example medicine, microbiology, and comfort or strain) and technical applications (textile chemistry, engineering, and testing and certification). Developments in one of these areas affect the other one; for example, the invention of superabsorbent and gel-forming materials affected the production of a new type of baby diapers. Next-generation textiles can also be considered an important part of technical textiles, being used for different purposes such as chemical and biohazard protection. They present an important aspect from an economic point of view and the necessity for their production has been increasing; for example, a huge necessity for smart medical textiles comes from the increase of the elderly population in developed countries. In the last few decades, the rapid development of command cotton fabrics also occurred. This affects all textile sectors, for example, biodegradable fibers for implantations, three-dimension spacer fabrics, and reduction of bacterial growth by using silver ion-based textiles finishing. In this and other ways, the fields concerning the next-generation textiles have been growing rapidly and are becoming a more complex area to understand.
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1. Introduction
ASA is a rare entity incidentally diagnosed during conventional transthoracic echocardiography (TTE). It is defined as the presence of redundant and mobile interatrial septal tissue extending to at least 15 mm during the cardiorespiratory cycle. The incidence of ASA has been reported at about 2% in patients undergoing TTE [1]. Patent foramen ovale (PFO) and ASA have been cited as potential risk factors for cryptogenic stroke. For example, ASA was observed in 7.9% of patients with a history of possible embolic stroke. Most patients with previous cerebral ischemic events and ASA also have an interatrial shunt, usually via PFO. Interatrial shunt has been reported in 56-78% of patients with ASA [2]. To our knowledge, there have been few reports of surgical intervention in ASA, for which the surgical indications are not yet defined. We describe herein two cases of surgical repair of giant ASA.
2. Case report 1
A 59-year-old Asian female referred to our surgical team was admitted to our hospital for investigation of ASA after complaining of frequent palpitations starting eight years previously. ASA had been confirmed two years earlier in an examination for palpitation, to which the patient was very sensitive, making frequent visits to the emergency department. The arrhythmia consisted of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (AF), which was refractory to antiarrhythmic medication. The medication did not include any anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents. Physical examination was normal. Auscultation detected no murmurs, rubs, or gallops, but a split S1 was noted. Laboratory data on admission were within normal limits except for slightly elevated liver enzyme, possibly due to chronic hepatitis C. Initial EKG showed no abnormality. Chest radiograph demonstrated a cardiothoracic ratio of 0.50 and no remarkable findings. TTE revealed a giant ASA with mobility into the right atrium and nearly prolapsing into the tricuspid orifice (Figure 1). It also showed a mildly dilated right ventricle with no valvular dysfunction. Right ventricular systolic pressure was calculated to be 43 mm Hg. Chest computed tomography (CT) with contrast dye showed 47×22 mm of protruding tissue at the site of the atrial septum. Transesophageal echocardiogram demonstrated PFO at a site close to the superior vena cava and ascending aorta. In view of the enlarged right ventricle and paroxysmal AF, in addition to the high risk of stroke, surgical repair was recommended and performed.
The surgical approach was through medial sternotomy. Cardiopulmonary bypass was established and bilateral pulmonary vein isolation was performed with a bipolar radiofrequency device. Right atriotomy was then carried out. The aneurysm lay next to the fossa ovalis, enabling detection of PFO (Figure 2). The aneurysm in the interatrial septum was removed, a right atrium maze procedure was performed, and the defect was closed with a 4-0 polypropylene running suture.
The patient tolerated surgery very well and had an uneventful postoperative recovery without occasional paroxysmal AF. A postoperative MRI was performed, but no shunt flow was detected. TTE showed the same result. The patient was discharged uneventfully after surgery and remains symptom-free and in good health at two years postoperatively.
Macroscopically, the mass consisted of a thin protrusion of the atrial septum. The histological results from the septum showed a degenerative cardiac muscle with fibrosis. There was no evidence of atherosclerosis, specific inflammation, or tumorous lesion.
Figure 1.
Giant atrial septal aneurysm (47×23 mm) with mobility into the right atrium nearly prolapsing into the tricuspid orifice
Figure 2.
Intraoperative picture showing 50×25 mm of protruding tissue at the site of the atrial septum
3. Case report 2
A 37-year-old Asian woman with a 10-month history of general malaise and dyspnea was referred to our division. The patient had been well until a month earlier, when she began to have episodes of chest oppression. Transthoracic echocardiography showed almost normal wall motion without valvular dysfunction apart from the unusual feature of atrial septal defect (ASD) (Figure 3). It showed the atrial septum extending into right atrium and multidirectional right to left shunt flow using the color Doppler image. The ejection fraction was 64% and the shunt ratio was 50% (Qp/Qs=2.0). The patient was referred to our surgical team as a case of ASD.
The patient underwent an ASD closure. Following medial sternotomy, cardiopulmonary bypass was established. Right atriotomy was then carried out. The defect appeared to resemble ASD secundum, but protruded as seen in ASA had two large cribriform holes and numerous small pinholes (Figure 4). The aneurysm in the interatrial septum was removed and the defect was closed with a 4-0 polypropylene running suture.
The patient tolerated surgery very well and had an uneventful postoperative recovery without symptoms. The patient was discharged uneventfully after surgery and remains symptom-free and in good health at 12 months postoperatively.
Figure 3.
Echocardiography showing shunt flow through atrial septal defect. The multiple direction of the flow suggested the presence of a number of holes in the atrial septum.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Atrial septum with numerous small pinholes and cribriform atrial septal defect
4. Discussion
The incidence of ASA has been found to be higher after a cerebral ischemic event in patients evaluated with transesophageal echocardiogram. A meta-analysis of case-control studies found that the presence of a PFO, ASA, or both was significantly associated with ischemic stroke in subjects less than 55 years of age [2, 3]. It is reported from PFO-ASA study that the presence of PFO together with ASA is a significant predictor of recurrent stroke [4]. Aggressive therapy such as warfarin or surgical repair may be the best option in such patients, but this question needs to be assessed in randomized clinical trials. The 2004 American Academy of Neurology practice parameter concluded that the combination of PFO and ASA increases the risk of subsequent stroke in medically treated patients below age 55 compared with other cryptogenic stroke patients without atrial abnormalities. It also concluded that there is insufficient evidence to evaluate the efficacy of surgical or endovascular closure [5].
The pathological mechanisms that lead to the development of ASA have not yet been clarified. To explain the association between ASA and cryptogenic stroke, two mechanisms have been proposed. Because of the frequency of intraatrial shunt, paradoxical embolism may occur. In patients with ASA without intracardiac shunt, it has been hypothesized that direct thrombi form within the aneurysm or as a result of atrial fibrillation, causing embolism [6].
Surgery is seldom performed for ASA patients. Shinohara and colleagues reported on a three-year follow-up of ASA [7], while Aoyagi and colleagues reported on a case of ASA and stenotic mitral valve [8]. In these two cases ASA was successfully removed and the atrial septum repaired with a pericardial patch. The reports concluded that surgery may be considered as an alternative therapy for patients with atrial arrhythmia and ASA.
The present cases occurred in patients without history of stroke, but who had numerous strong predictors of cryptogenic stroke, including ASA, PFO, ASD, and AF. The right ventricle was mildly dilated and right ventricular pressure mildly elevated in one case. Although the indications for surgical treatment of ASA and PFO remain undetermined, we considered that the symptoms were unlikely to resolve and that surgical intervention was the only curative treatment available. We reported in the above on cases of ASA. We believe surgical repair should be considered for giant ASA to reduce the future risk of cerebral embolism or heart failure.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38621.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/38621.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38621",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38621",totalDownloads:2228,totalViews:423,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:18,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2011",dateReviewed:"April 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 29th 2012",dateFinished:"August 27th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/38621",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/38621",book:{id:"2818",slug:"aneurysm"},signatures:"Soh Hosoba, Tohru Asai and Tomoaki Suzuki",authors:[{id:"143555",title:"Dr.",name:"Soh",middleName:null,surname:"Hosoba",fullName:"Soh Hosoba",slug:"soh-hosoba",email:"sohosoba@belle.shiga-med.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shiga University of Medical Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"148452",title:"Prof.",name:"Tohru",middleName:null,surname:"Asai",fullName:"Tohru Asai",slug:"tohru-asai",email:"toruasai@belle.shiga-med.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shiga University of Medical Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"148453",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Tomoaki Suzuki",slug:"tomoaki-suzuki",email:"suzukit@belle.shiga-med.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shiga University of Medical Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Case report 1",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Case report 2",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'HanleyP. C.TajikA. J.HynesJ. K.EdwardsW. D.ReederG. S.HaglerD. J.SewardJ. B.1985Diagnosis and classification of atrial septal aneurysm by two-dimensional echocardiography: report of 80 consecutive cases. J Am Coll Cardiol; 613701382'},{id:"B2",body:'AgmonY.KhandheriaB. K.MeissnerI.GentileF.WhisnantJ. P.JDSicksO’Fallon. W. M.CovaltJ. L.DOWiebersSeward. J. B.1999Frequency of atrial septal aneurysms in patients with cerebral ischemic events. Circulation 9919421944\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'OverellJ. R.BoneI.LeesK. R.2000Interatrial septal abnormalities and stroke: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Neurology 5511721179'},{id:"B4",body:'MasJ. L.ArquizanC.LamyC.ZuberM.CabanesL.DerumeauxG.CosteJ.2001Patent Foramen Ovale and Atrial Septal Aneurysm Study Group. Recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both. N Engl J Med 34517401746'},{id:"B5",body:'MesseS. R.SilvermanI. E.KizerJ. R.HommaS.ZahnC.GronsethG.KasnerS. E.2004Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: recurrent stroke with patent foramen ovale and atrial septal aneurysm: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 6210421050'},{id:"B6",body:'SchneiderB.HanrathP.VogelP.MeinertzT.1990Improved morphologic characterization of atrial septal aneurysm by transesophageal echocardiography: relation to cerebrovascular events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1610001009'},{id:"B7",body:'ShinoharaT.KimuraT.YoshizuH.OhsuzuF.2001Three-year follow-up of an atrial septal aneurysm. Ann Thorac Surg. 7116721673\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'AoyagiS.KosugaT.FukunagaS.UedaT.2009Atrial septal aneurysm associated with mitral valve disease. Ann Thorac Surg. 88:1024.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Soh Hosoba",address:null,affiliation:'
Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
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1. Introduction
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Graminae species) and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, having shrub or tree canopy cover not exceeding 2% (Figure 1) [1, 2]. Grasslands provide feed resources for grazing animals that include livestock and wildlife [3]. In addition, grasslands provide essential ecosystem services that include water catchments, biodiversity reserves, and socio-cultural and recreational needs [4, 5]. Grasslands are found in every continent and comprise 26% of the world’s total land area and 80% of agricultural land and represent a wide variety of ecosystems [6].
Figure 1.
Typical grassland of Serengeti ecosystem in Northern Tanzania.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have more than 100,000 km2 of grassland [6]. According to Sulla-Menashe and Friedl [7] Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 2019 Land cover product (MCD12Q1) and International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) vegetation cover classes, the grasslands dominated by herbaceous annuals (<2 m) in Tanzania cover 385,427 km2 which are distributed in different parts of the country.
Climate conditions and human activities affect the productivity of grasslands in Tanzania in terms of Net Primary Production (NPP) [8]. The general pattern of NPP in Tanzania shows a decreasing trend in the northeast-southwest, while the most significant decrease in NPP mainly occurred in the northeast [8, 9]. On the other hand, it predicted that the mean NPP values in the western, eastern, and central parts would increase by 2050 [8, 9]. Therefore, it implies an increase in the population of grazing animals with a consequential impact on people’s livelihood in these areas. Thus, the prediction poses a need to establish baseline information on the capacity of grasslands to support livestock and wildlife with consequent effects on people’s livelihood.
It is certain that grasslands provide numerous services and are central to the livelihoods and economies of many people in the country. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the current situation to develop strategies for sustaining this important biome. Therefore, this study was conducted to depict the importance of grasslands in Tanzania, their sustainability challenges, and how to keep productive grasslands in Tanzania.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study area
This study covers all regions of Tanzania mainland as shown in the map (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Distribution of grasslands in Tanzania mainland (source: Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute GIS unit 2021).
2.2 Data collection and analysis
A systematic review of the scientific literature to obtain information on the grasslands of Tanzania was conducted using guidelines outlined by researchers [10, 11]. The study was done using various search engines, including Google Scholar, to establish the body of knowledge concerning the subject. The process involved a pre-defined search protocol using filters for keywords to audit search relevance and applicability [10]. The authors used experience from research conducted in Serengeti and Ugalla ecosystems and the eastern Tanzania grasslands to supplement the information obtained from the literature. The R software version 3.5.0 was used for data visualization with the ggplot2 package and analysis for correlation of human, wildlife populations and human-wildlife conflicts.
3. Findings
Findings explained in this section combine ideas extracted from various sources of literature and authors’ comprehensive understanding of the grasslands of Tanzania accrued by research experience.
3.1 Characteristics of Tanzania’s grasslands
Grasslands are very diverse and widely distributed in Tanzania, with a range of dominant species depending on rainfall patterns, soil type, altitude, and management or grazing system. Themeda triandra is one of the most widespread grass species in Tanzania, and it is the dominant grassland type in central and northern Tanzania [9, 12]. However, the species is very variable and shows wide adaptation to growth in both the highlands and the lowlands. Themeda, Bothriochloa, Brachiaria, Sporobolus, Digitaria, and Heteropogon mixtures are common in the open dry areas such as the Serengeti plains (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Mixed plant species in open wooded grassland of western Serengeti, Tanzania.
Short tufted ecotypes of Themeda triandra are found at high altitudes and taller, more woody types are located in the open lowlands [9]. The dominant grass species in the drylands of central Tanzania include Cenchrus, Aristida, and Heteropogon. These grasses normally grow in association, and the establishment pattern of herbaceous plants is generally determined by the environment and soil texture [13]. Hyparrhenia, Hyperthelia, and Pennisetum polystachyon tall grass are common in the miombo woodlands of western Tanzania. The miombo forest is a vital vegetation type covering the southern two-thirds of Tanzania [14].
Pennisetum grasslands are classified into two types: high altitude grasslands of Pennisetum clandestinum and savannah grasslands of Pennisetum mezianum and Pennisetum purpureum [9, 15]. P. clandestinum is a prostrate stoloniferous perennial grass that is widely distributed in high altitudes (1400 m to over 3000 m.a.s.l P. purpureum is a tall, erect, vigorous perennial species that grows in damp grasslands and forest areas up to 2400 m.a.s.l.). At the same time, Pennisetum mezianum occurs in soils with impeded drainage heavy clay soil (Kavana, personal observation). Panicum maximum is a common grass in the eastern part of Tanzania and it is often associated with Bothriochloa in abandoned sisal farms in the coastal areas (Kavana, personal observation). The Panicum-Hyparrhenia is recognized as a region along the Coast northwards from Tanzania, Kenya, and finally into Somalia [15]. P. maximum is more typical grass of shady places in the foothills of Mountain ranges up to 2000 m.a.s.l. and is a pioneer grass that comes in after clearing and cultivating the lowland forest [15]. The Sporobolus-dominated grasslands usually exist on seasonally dry alkaline soils and are not destroyed by fire [16]. Therefore, grassland habitats provide valuable pastures in semi-arid areas of Tanzania where Sporobolus pyramidalis, S. marginatus, S. ioclados and S. cordofanus sometimes occur in association. S. consimilis and S. spicatus association occurs as a mosaic along the lakeshore for example along Lake Burunge in northern Tanzania [16].
In southern miombo woodlands of Tanzania, T. triandra is a dominant grass and widespread and occurs at different topographic positions [17]. On deeper Plateau soils tall grasses of Hyperthelia dissoluta and Andropogon gayanus of about 2 m dominate. On hill slopes, Hyparrhenia newtonii and Andropogon schirensis with a height of about 1.2–1.4 m is very frequently present. On leached soils grasses are mostly 0.6–0.8 m, Aristida adscensionis is primarily dominant [17].
In the western miombo woodlands of Tanzania, there are extensive, continuous woodlands interspersed with seasonally inundated grasslands known as “mbuga” in the Kiswahili language (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Typical characteristics of grassland in Ugalla ecosystem assessed by researchers from Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute.
According to an unpublished report by Kavana and Kakengi [18] they observed that common grasses in seasonally flooded plains include Cynodon dactylon, C. articularis, C. cyperoides, C. difformis, C. dives, C. esculantus, C. involucratus, Cyperus papyrus, C. rotundus, Phragmates mauritianus, Pennisetum purpureum, Sporobolus spp, Echinochloa pyramidalis and Oryza longistaminata (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Seasonally flooded grassland plains of Western Serengeti were assessed by researchers from Tanzania Wildlife Research Institution.
In settlement areas where miombo woodlands are cleared for agricultural and grazing lands, the common grasses include Panicum maximum, P. repens, Panicum trichocladum, P. trichocladum, Pennisetum polystachyon, P. polystachyon, Rhynchelytrum repens, Setaria homonyma, S. sphacelata, Sporobolus africanus, S. fimbriatus, S. ioclados, Sporobolus pyramidalis, S. sanguineus, Urochloa decumbents and U. echinolaenoides (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Robust Pennisetum polystachyon and Rhynchelytrum repens in agricultural land, western Tanzania.
Some characteristic mosaic grassland occurs proximal to Lake Rukwa where dominant grass species stand a change with soil alkalinity progressing towards the lake [19]. Cymbopogon begins in less alkaline soil (pH 7.5–8.5) followed by Hyparrhenia, Chloris, Cynodon, Sporobolus robustus, Echinochloa, Cyperus, Diplachne, and Sporobolus spicatus at pH 9.5–11 [19]. Therefore, Tanzania is diverse and influenced by climatic conditions, soil, and anthropogenic activities [8].
3.2 Importance of grasslands for grazing animals
Grasslands can be classified as natural and improved grasslands. Natural grasslands are dominated by native grass species mixtures that occur naturally, while improved grasslands are developed by seeding and vegetative propagation of selected grass species [20]. Grasses form a basal diet for both livestock and wildlife animals that make livestock production in the traditional sector and the most protected areas for wildlife to rely on [21]. This situation leads to Livestock-wildlife competition that operates through two sets of processes within the social-ecological systems and economic processes that influence Livestock and wildlife-based enterprises as sources of income for people and the nation, respectively [20]. The authors considered that ecological processes affect the relative efficiencies of livestock and wildlife species in utilizing grasslands’ feed and water resources. As a result, the contribution of livestock enterprises to people’s livelihood generally exceeds the contribution of wildlife conservation to the livelihood of people within the same area [22]. Further studies show that economic processes result typically in agricultural returns to outcompete wildlife returns and the patchwork of land use within rangelands intensifies towards croplands and fragmented rangelands [22, 23]. This scenario corroborates observations made in the grasslands of Tanzania, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Large Herbivore Units (LHU) population for livestock and wildlife in grasslands of Tanzania (source: Authors’ computation based on TZFAOSTAT_data [24, 25]).
Population trends in Figure 7 indicate that livestock increased continuously from 1995, possibly due to an increase in demand for livestock products that resulted from the increase in the human population. It has been reported that there is a close relationship between increases in cattle and growth in the human population that result from the need for livestock products to cater to the growing human population [26]. However, livestock in grasslands increases typically at the expense of wildlife [26]. Many studies show that markets, technology, and infrastructure development, the position of a rangeland/grassland on its production possibility frontier (PPF), changes with agricultural production becoming specialized, driving down the possibilities for wildlife production [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The overall population trend of grazers in the grasslands of Tanzania indicates a steady increase in the population [32]. This implies an increase in grazing pressure in grasslands that entails the need for close monitoring of the grasslands of Tanzania for sustainable livestock and wildlife production [8].
Frequent and severe droughts in many parts of Tanzania are being felt with their associated consequences on food production and water scarcity, leading to food shortages and insecurity, water scarcity, hunger, and it provides poor forage for animals [33]. Prolonged drought is a significant driver of grassland ecosystems and is likely to lead to increased wildfires and loss of wetland habitats that are critical habitats for migratory bird species and species migration and habitat shifts [34]. An increase in temperatures, reduced rainfall, and drought is already being observed in some regions of Tanzania [35]. In particular, the northern part of Tanzania-central Serengeti grassland is projected to become even drier in this century [36]. In wetter areas, forests are likely to encroach on existing grasslands. In contrast, deserts are projected to expand in extent and move upward in elevation in increasingly arid areas, causing “desertification” of arid grassland ecosystems. Such a process will greatly affect the productivity of the grasslands ecosystem, impacting animal welfare [35, 36].
3.2.1 Natural grasslands
Survival of wildlife in protected areas and livestock production in the traditional sector in Tanzania rely on grasslands dominated by native grass species. The native grass species provide a basal diet for both wildlife and livestock herbivores. Native grass species inherently vary in biomass and nutrient contents they supply to the grazing animals. This compels wildlife and livestock to select certain grass species when grazing to meet their energy and nutrient requirements [37]. For a grass species to be consumed by grazing animals, it must belong to edible plant species (i.e., not harmful). Among edible plant species, some species are highly desirable, desirable, and less desirable. Plant species that are not edible are termed undesirable plants in terms of grazing animals’ feeding value [37]. The natural grasslands of Tanzania are mainly composed of desirable and highly desirable grass species (Figure 8). This composition supports the survival of large numbers of grazing wildlife and livestock in the country.
Figure 8.
The desirability of grass species in western Serengeti natural grassland. Source: Authors’ computation based on Kavana et al. [38].
Nutritive value of grasses in natural grasslands vitiates in quality rapidly across months within a year (Figure 9). This makes it rather difficult for natural grassland to support the high productivity of grazing animals throughout the year. High grazing animal production and products follow periods of high quantity and quality of grasses in grasslands [39]. In other words, there is natural synchronization of the reproduction cycle such that most of the calving occurs during periods of high quantity and quality of grasses in natural grasslands [39].
Figure 9.
Quantity and quality of grasses in Ugalla ecosystem’s natural grasslands. Source: Authors computation from unpublished research data.
3.2.2 Improved grasslands
Improved grasslands in Tanzania are classified according to usages, such as pasture production farms for haymaking and grazing farms for dairy production. These farms are seeded with improved grass species: Chloris gayana, Cenchrus ciliaris, Pennisetum purpureum, Panicum maximum, Setaria sphacelata, Tripsacum laxum and improved varieties of Brachiaria species. In some cases, leguminous species are over-sowed in grass farms to improve the quality of hay. Common leguminous species mixed with grass include Desmodium uncinatum, Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Stylosanthes guianensis, S. guianensis, Pueraria phaseoloides, Clitoria ternatea and Calopogonium mucunoides.
A considerable amount of work for improved grassland was carried out in Tanzania at Kongwa Pasture Research Centre with large-scale sowing of C. ciliaris under large-scale management [40, 41, 42]. Material initially selected in Tanzania was much more widespread use outside the country: common cultivars of tropical pasture plants developed from Tanzanian material in Australia include C. ciliaris “Biloela”, C. gayana ‘Callide’ and Neonotonia wightii ‘Clarence’ [43]. Mixing grasses with legumes is considered to increase dry matter production of grass. The highest dry matter yield of C. ciliaris was observed in a mixture with Phaseolus atropurpureus, S. guianensis and C. pubescens [44].
3.3 Contribution of grasslands to the livelihood of rural communities
A direct result of the contribution of grassland to the livelihood of people and the national economy in Tanzania is that local people rely mainly on grassland for the production of livestock products. The trend of meat production from grasslands (Figure 10) shows that meat production increased at a decreasing rate, and the value of meat produced from grasslands increased progressively. This indicates that livestock keeping in grasslands is a lucrative business that contributes to rural people’s economy. However, the contribution of meat produced from grassland to the total meat produced by grazing livestock showed a declining trend. This could be attributed to the decline in the potential of Tanzania’s grassland of Tanzania to support large herds of grazing animals. The potential of grasslands to support grazing animals is affected by environmental fluctuations and increased human activities [45, 46]. Human population increase resulted in the expansion of cultivated land at the expense of grassland, and the need for animal products led to the keeping of large herds of livestock [26]. This situation causes shrinkage of grassland and overgrazing, reducing grassland’s potential to support grazing animals in the country.
Figure 10.
Quantity and value of meat produced from grasslands and other places of Tanzania. Source: Authors’ computation based on livestock and fisheries basic data and Tanzania in figures 2016 documents.
Grasslands contribute more than 60% of milk produced in Tanzania, and the value of milk produced increased steadily (Figure 11), contributing more than 2500 billion TZS to people’s economy. However, the contribution of grassland to the total milk produced in Tanzania has been slightly increasing year after year [47]. This might be caused by improvement in urban dairy farming and probably deterioration of grasslands in terms of quantity and quality of feed resources availability in communal grasslands that need to be evaluated.
Figure 11.
Contribution of grassland to milk production and economy of people in Tanzania. Source: Authors’ computation based on Tanzania in figures document [47].
3.4 Challenges on the sustainability of grasslands
Agriculture poses a significant challenge for the sustainability of grasslands in Tanzania. Current agriculture production is hinged on the expansion of mono-cropping farms to increase food production for the growing human population. In many cases, the expansion of crop farms is done at the expense of grasslands. Land clearing and cultivation for crop production re-structure and disrupts a previously stabilized grassland ecosystem. The disturbed ecosystem due to cultivation immediately begins succession where annual grasses and forbs adapted to bare land conditions and disturbed soil invade the site and become established. This situation results in changes in plant species composition of the grassland.
Grasslands are the main grazing areas for livestock where most of the grazing lands in the country are communally managed. Poor livestock grazing management results in soil compaction due to the effects of animal trampling, leading to poor water infiltration. Removal of plants due to many grazing livestock in communal lands causes bare land (Figure 12). In combination with poor water, infiltration causes surface water runoff during the rainy season that erodes soil.
Figure 12.
Bare land due to overgrazing and trampling in the grassland of western Serengeti.
Soil erosion of bare land during the rainy season removes top fertile soil resulting in low soil fertility. Poor soil fertility causes the establishment of a limited number of plant species resulting in low plant composition on grassland. Low plant species composition leads to low above-ground biomass production that causes an insufficient feed resource base for grazing animals.
A high number of grazing animals in a shrinking grassland with an insufficient feed resource base in terms of quantity and quality results in high utilization pressure by grazing animals. High grazing pressure exerted on highly desirable and desirable grass decreases the potential of grassland to support grazing animals.
Effects of climate change on the grasslands of Tanzania could be manifested in relation to the variability of temperature and precipitation [8]. Climate change projections indicate that western parts of the country, central, north, Lake Victoria basin, eastern parts of Lake Nyasa, south-western and north-eastern highlands are projected to feature increased minimum temperature [48]. An increase in temperature is associated with an increase in the photosynthetic rate of plants under optimum soil moisture. Projections of precipitation indicate that Coastal regions, parts of north-eastern highlands, northern areas, western and southern parts of the Lake Victoria basin will experience an increase in annual rainfall. This implies that most of the grasslands of Tanzania are expected to increase Net Primary Production (NPP) of grass biomass. Therefore, the main limitations for the sustainability of most grasslands of Tanzania will be extensive crop cultivation and livestock population grazing.
3.5 Way forward to sustain grasslands
An increase in the human population triggers a need for food sufficiency that stimulates cultivation of land and livestock keeping which is based on the availability of land. This shows that in many cases increase in the human population in rural areas results in the expansion of cultivated land to cater to food demand. However, this scenario occurs when land is available for expansion of crop farms but changes to intensive cultivation when land is scarce.
Changing from extensive crop cultivation to intensive cultivation and reducing grazing pressure is inevitable for the sustainability of grasslands in Tanzania because the land is a fixed commodity. Intensive cultivation will be achieved by increasing production in the same land units by increasing agricultural inputs and technology. Reducing grazing pressure in grasslands will be achieved by either reducing the number of grazing animals per unit of land or reducing the duration of grazing on grassland units.
Determinants of the holistic direction that agro-pastoralism is developing in Tanzania are still not clearly understood. A combined model including economic, social, ecological components and wildlife conservation is needed to enable predictions about the future of agro-pastoralism in areas that are adjacent to protected areas.
4. Conclusions
Our review details the significance of grasslands in Tanzania. Grasslands of Tanzania are diverse, and their diversity is influenced by both climatic, soils, and topographic variations across Tanzania. They support an enormously larger number of livestock and wildlife populations.
Grasslands of Tanzania show a big potential to support people’s livelihood through meat and milk production, but its contribution is declining. However, such ecosystems experience overgrazing, conversion to agricultural lands, frequent annual fires, and climate change.
Evaluation of the grasslands of Tanzania is worthwhile to establish baseline information or trends that will be used for comparison in long-term monitoring of grasslands condition. This can only be achieved if proper land use plans are put in place, especially in all rural settings and improved management systems that operate at different regimes across Tanzania.
Evaluation of the grasslands of Tanzania is inevitable to establish baseline information for comparison in long-term monitoring of grasslands condition. However, we can only achieve this if proper land use plans are implemented, especially in rural settings.
Conflict of interest
The authors proclaim no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"grass species, grazing, livestock, Serengeti, Ugalla ecosystem, wildlife",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79504.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79504.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79504",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79504",totalDownloads:149,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 10th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 21st 2021",datePrePublished:"November 29th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 29th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In Tanzania, pure grasslands cover is estimated to be 60,381 km2, about 6.8% of the total land area, and is distributed in different parts. These grasslands are diverse in dominant grass species depending on rainfall, soil type, altitude, and management or grazing system. They support livestock and wildlife distributed in different eco-tomes and habitats of the country. The potential of grasslands for the livelihood of rural people is explicit from the fact that local people depend solely on natural production to satisfy their needs for animal products. Analysis of grazing lands indicated that livestock population, production of meat, and milk from grasslands increased. But the wildlife population, when considered in terms of livestock equivalent units (Large Herbivore Units) showed a declining trend. The contribution of grasslands to the total volume of meat produced in the country showed a declining state, while milk production showed a slight increase. This situation entails a need to evaluate the grasslands of Tanzania to ascertain their potential for supporting people’s livestock, wildlife, and livelihood. This study concluded that more research is needed to establish the possibility of grasslands to keep large numbers of grazing herbivores for sustainable livestock and wildlife production.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79504",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79504",signatures:"Pius Yoram Kavana, John Kija Bukombe, Hamza Kija, Stephen Nindi, Ally Nkwabi, Iddi Lipende, Simula Maijo, Baraka Naftali, Victor M. Kakengi, Janemary Ntalwila, Sood Ndimuligo and Robert Fyumagwa",book:{id:"10895",type:"book",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Aamir Iqbal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-834-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-833-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-835-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"249866",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-aamir-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. 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Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Mahale-Gombe Wildlife Research Center, Tanzania
Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Head Quarters, Tanzania
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Now, is Associate Professor of the State University of the North Fluminense “ Darcy Ribeiro†(UENF) and has experience in the Food and Chemical Engineering areas, with emphasis in Processes Engineering, Transport Phenomena, Unit Operations and in Biotechnological Processes, acting mainly in the following subjects: fermentation, biological effects of the electromagnetic field, biorreatores assisted by electromagnetic field and biocatalysis and its researches is focused in the biofuels production (ethanol and biodiesel) by nonconventional methods.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Norte Fluminense",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"117497",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan-Adrian",surname:"Todorut",slug:"ioan-adrian-todorut",fullName:"Ioan-Adrian Todorut",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"117885",title:"Dr.",name:"André",surname:"Guimarães",slug:"andre-guimaraes",fullName:"André Guimarães",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rio de Janeiro State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"117889",title:"MSc.",name:"Aline",surname:"Rocha",slug:"aline-rocha",fullName:"Aline Rocha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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Services included are:
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
\n\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Various textile production methods used for the formation of textile preforms are explained. Composite fabrication methods are introduced. Engineering properties of textile composites are reviewed with regard to specific application areas. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. 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He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. 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She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. 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