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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10979",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Parenting - Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Parenting is a lifelong task and parents are always remaining as a parent. Parenting in the present situation faces many challenges which need to be reviewed and understood with profuse equanimity and alacrity. This book tries to consider the process of parenting in different conditions such as during COVID-19 lockdown, in the refugee camps, and in different cultural structures and economic conditions. Situations that families face due to changing conditions such as global changes which cause lifestyles, immigration patterns, social conflicts, and raising children with developmental disabilities have been discussed. Topics such as professional concern with child care and education, gender roles and caregiving, and father’s involvement in parenting, have been covered in different chapters of the book.",isbn:"978-1-83969-973-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-972-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-974-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95672",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",numberOfPages:252,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1334,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 2nd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52145/images/system/52145.png",biography:"Dr. Sayyed Ali Samadi was born and raised in Mahabad the Kurdish city of Iran. He studied in Iran and the UK. He is an active researcher and an advocate in the field of developmental disabilities. His background is in Instructional Technology, child psychology, after which he received his Ph.D. in Intellectual and developmental disabilities. He has been acted as the advisor for establishing health and educational services for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders in Low- and middle-income countries. He has published over 40 research papers in international peer-review journals and published several books and book chapters in both Persian and English. Presentably he is working as the senior advisor for establishing the health, rehabilitation, and training services at Bahoz center in Erbil the Kurdistan region of Iraq.",institutionString:"University of Ulster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Ulster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1334",title:"Parenting",slug:"parenting"}],chapters:[{id:"78724",title:"Decolonizing Imperialized Upbringing Styles in the African Context",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100256",slug:"decolonizing-imperialized-upbringing-styles-in-the-african-context",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the African traditional society, parenting was something everyone looked forward to. Right from childhood the African people were brought up and socialized towards this great expectation. Moreover, parenting was not just a couple’s assignment but communal and all societal structures were aligned in such a way that there was parenting everywhere. However, given the realities of our changing times, the promise of an enjoyable and easy time in parenting has highly been curtailed by many factors. Parenting in the African context has been challenged from many quarters. Many parents are grappling with the question of errant and extremely independent breed of children. Part of the problem has been Africa’s alignment to globalizing forces. For example, the decades of the 90s saw crusades in advocacy for Africa to adopt more alien styles of families. With this came smaller families mimicked and modeled more from Western and global conceptualizations of family. Parenting has been left to nuclear parents, and single parents. Opportunities for parenting have been minimized and this has complicated the equation for a balanced African society. This chapter explores imperializing factors that have complicated parenting in Africa contributing to continued loss of African communality and proposes superlative imperative as a method of decolonizing and neutralizing this tide of influence without reverting to the extremely traditional styles of parenting. It particularly places the African Christian church at the centre of the decolonization process.",signatures:"Julius Kithinji Kiambi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78724",authors:[{id:"422295",title:"Dr.",name:"JULIUS",surname:"KIAMBI",slug:"julius-kiambi",fullName:"JULIUS KIAMBI"}],corrections:null},{id:"78649",title:"The Ubuntu Parenting: Kairos Consideration for the 21st Century Dynamics and Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100101",slug:"the-ubuntu-parenting-kairos-consideration-for-the-21st-century-dynamics-and-globalization",totalDownloads:93,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ubuntu is a well-defined principle and way of life in many African communities. Over the past decades, a significant amount of empirical and theoretical work has accumulated about the principle of Ubuntu. The principle has been tested and applied in many professions and faculties such as leadership, theology, sociology, education, and health. Ubuntu is also applicable in psychology around child development and parenting. Parenting is both an art and science of child nurturing. Admittedly, parenting facilitates and nurtures child development. Thus, parenting models continue to be reviewed and interrogated. This chapter has discussed how the decorations of Ubuntu can be applied in the parenting dynamics of the twenty- first century. In this chapter I have applied the experience of being African as the ground to explore the Ubuntu parenting founded on the African and ecological systems perspective. This experiential approach has been supported by the qualitative research method of reviewing and analyzing available literature about parenting and ubuntu.",signatures:"Blessing Shambare",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78649",authors:[{id:"422364",title:"Dr.",name:"Blessing",surname:"Shambare",slug:"blessing-shambare",fullName:"Blessing Shambare"}],corrections:null},{id:"80022",title:"A Review of Parenting in A Multicultural Country: The Malaysian Experience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101173",slug:"a-review-of-parenting-in-a-multicultural-country-the-malaysian-experience",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The multicultural nature of Malaysian parents expectedly gives rise to heterogenous parenting practices. Despite this heterogeneity, the country’s common collectivistic background that values familism may have shaped parenting behaviours. Since there is a great influence of culture on parenting, there appears to be a need to explore the Malaysian way of parenting. This review aimed to assess, synthesise, and organise the available research evidence on parenting behaviours and parent-child interactions in Malaysia. Recent publications from 2002 to 2021 were examined using a narrative approach. A literature search was conducted using the Scopus, Dimensions.ai, Google Scholar databases, and citation tracking using keywords such as parenting style, parenting, parent-child interaction, parent-child relation, and childrearing. Twenty-four papers on parenting styles, 13 on parenting practices, and 19 on parent-child interactions were included for review. The majority of the studies were quantitative and published in the last couple of years. While findings revealed diverse parenting styles in the country, culturally-conformed parenting behaviours are thought to be more effective than the standard authoritative parenting. Recommendations are made for future research.",signatures:"Ruziana Masiran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80022",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80022",authors:[{id:"424598",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruziana",surname:"Masiran",slug:"ruziana-masiran",fullName:"Ruziana Masiran"}],corrections:null},{id:"79316",title:"The Caregivers’ Perspective in Coping with the Challenges Faced by Orphans and Vulnerable Children at the Household Level in Zimbabwe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101232",slug:"the-caregivers-perspective-in-coping-with-the-challenges-faced-by-orphans-and-vulnerable-children-at",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Notwithstanding the psychosocial support interventions by the government and its stakeholders in ‘orphans’ and ‘vulnerable’ children (OVC) care and support in Zimbabwe in the past two decades, the challenges faced by caregivers in coping with OVC has unabatedly escalated. Whilst many studies have been carried out in Zimbabwe about the challenges faced by OVC, little has been directly written about the traumatic and psychosocial challenges faced by the caregivers in coping with the escalating challenges of OVC in Zimbabwe. This phenomenological qualitative study examines the challenges faced by caregivers in coping with the OVC burden at the household level within the Gutu rural community of Zimbabwe. In-depth interviews were used to gather data about the perceptions and lived experiences of the 15 caregivers and 5 OVCs who were purposively sampled within the Gutu District of Zimbabwe. The findings reveal that despite the willingness of the caregivers to absorb the OVCs, the care and support at the household level is fraught with several socio-economic challenges whose scale and complexity often exceed the capacity of caregivers to effectively mitigate. The study, therefore, recommends multi-stakeholder interventions which are aimed at economic empowerment of the caregivers at the household level.",signatures:"John Ringson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79316",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79316",authors:[{id:"306414",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Ringson",slug:"john-ringson",fullName:"John Ringson"}],corrections:null},{id:"81061",title:"Online Training for Parents of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders during COVID-19 Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102949",slug:"online-training-for-parents-of-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Caregiving for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) during COVID-19 lockdown was a challenge for parents. Daycare centers were closed, and parents had to provide 24-hour caregiving. Parents and children spent more time together during the pandemic. This study aimed to understand the impacts of online systems as parental support and to comprehend the parental perception regarding this type of service. Eight weeks of training were provided for the volunteer daycare centers. The centers covered a sizable group of parents of children with ASD in different age levels. A mixed-method approach for data collection was considered to understand the impacting factors. Telecommunication facilities enable daycare service providers to continue their support from a distance by enabling parents to provide care for a longer period and in a wider range during the pandemic. Parental feedback after the training course was collected. A low dropout rate was reported. Parents, in general, were satisfied with the course. Different contributing factors contributed to this satisfaction. Results also indicate that the use of online parental support is a good choice for parents in emergencies and times of lockdown. To understand the advantage and shortcomings of online parents’ training services, further studies are needed.",signatures:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81061",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81061",authors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"79261",title:"Exploring the Quality of “Quality Time”: A Temporal View on Mothers’ Experiences during COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101174",slug:"exploring-the-quality-of-quality-time-a-temporal-view-on-mothers-experiences-during-covid-19",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic forced many parents, especially mothers, to juggle paid work and supervise home-schooled children for extended periods. While educators, mental health professionals, and the popular media often constructed this forced family time as a unique opportunity for “quality time,” studies are increasingly recognizing its adverse effects on mothers’ well-being. Integrating sociology of time theories with feminist criticism of the intensive mothering ideology, this chapter links idealized cultural representations of mother-child time to the dominant ideologies of “intensive mothering.” According to these ideologies, mothers’ time with children is irreplaceable and crucial for children’s optimal development. Therefore, mothers should devote more and more time to their children’s physical and mental needs. Based on content analysis of text data from parenting online advice columns, blogs written by mothers, and mothers’ Facebook groups, this chapter examines whether and how notions of time and temporality create, maintain, and challenge intensive mothering ideologies during the pandemic.",signatures:"Ortal Slobodin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79261",authors:[{id:"424000",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortal",surname:"Slobodin",slug:"ortal-slobodin",fullName:"Ortal Slobodin"}],corrections:null},{id:"79726",title:"Between Home and School: Exploring Parents’ Experiences of Educating in a Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101408",slug:"between-home-and-school-exploring-parents-experiences-of-educating-in-a-pandemic",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Drawing on open ended survey data constructed during the Spring-Summer of 2020 at the height of COVID-19 related lockdowns, this chapter explores parents’ experiences of parenting young people with specific learning difficulties during a pandemic using a theoretical model based on the work of Bourdieu, previously developed by Ross. Bourdieusien principles underpin this study of parents’ individual sense-making of home-schooling their children. This sense-making is highlighted as framing parents’ interactions with professionals working with their children. There is a particular focus on parents’ attempts to procure and engage with appropriate support for their children with specific learning difficulties. Systemic expectations relating to home-schooling and parents’ roles in this are delineated and clarified. The intersection of systemic expectations on parents and their interactions with professionals is deconstructed to highlight the difficulties parents encountered with their ever-shifting roles during the course of home-schooling their children. Recommendations for practice are then drawn out.",signatures:"Helen Ross",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79726",authors:[{id:"324010",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Ross",slug:"helen-ross",fullName:"Helen Ross"}],corrections:null},{id:"79795",title:"Parental Education, Ethnicity, and Functional Connectivity between Nucleus Accumbens and Frontoparietal Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101335",slug:"parental-education-ethnicity-and-functional-connectivity-between-nucleus-accumbens-and-frontoparieta",totalDownloads:103,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While studies have indicated an association between socioeconomic status (SES) and neuroimaging measures, weaker SES effects are shown for Blacks than Whites. This is, in part, due to processes such as stratification, racism, minoritization, and othering of Black people in the United States. However, less is known about Latino youth. This study had two aims: First, to test the association between parental education and the right and left nucleus accumbens (NAcc) resting-state functional connectivity with the frontoparietal network (FPN) in children; and second, to investigate ethnic heterogeneity in this association. This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. We analyzed the resting-state functional connectivity data (rsFC) of 10,840 US preadolescents who were between 9 and 10 years old. The main outcomes were the NAcc resting-state functional connectivity with FPN separately calculated for right and left hemispheres. Parental education was our independent variable. Family structure, sex, and age were covariates. Furthermore, ethnicity (Latino vs. non-Latino) was regarded as the moderator. We used mixed-effects regression for data analysis with and without interaction terms between parental education and ethnicity. Most participants (n = 8690; 80.2%) were non-Latino and 2150 (19.8%) were Latino. Parental education was associated with higher right and left NAcc resting-state functional connectivity with FPN. Ethnicity showed statistically significant interactions with parental education, suggesting that the positive associations between parental education and right and left NAcc resting-state functional connectivity with FPN were different in non-Latino and Latino children. For right hemisphere, we found significantly stronger and for left hemisphere, we found significantly weaker association for Latino compared with non-Latino preadolescents. Preadolescents’ NAcc resting-state functional connectivity with FPN depends on the intersections of ethnicity, parental education, and laterality.",signatures:"Shervin Assari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79795",authors:[{id:"311058",title:"Dr.",name:"Shervin",surname:"Assari",slug:"shervin-assari",fullName:"Shervin Assari"}],corrections:null},{id:"81060",title:"Stories of Struggle and Resilience: Parenting in Three Refugee Contexts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103827",slug:"stories-of-struggle-and-resilience-parenting-in-three-refugee-contexts",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"One in four children around the world live in a conflict or disaster zone and crises can last for decades. Globally, refugee situations have become protracted with more children born to refugee parents spending their childhood, and at times their entire lives outside their country of origin. The challenges refugees face before, during, and after being displaced have serious consequences for families. Displacement often occurs multiple times and includes tremendous daily uncertainty. If families resettle, the process of adapting to new cultures requires and fosters remarkable resilience and navigational skills. This chapter tells the stories of how parents navigate challenging circumstances in three contexts: refugees within their own country, refugee camps outside of their country, and refugees who have resettled in a host country.",signatures:"Alia Assali, Manar Younis, Nicole Sager, Marios Dakis and Deborah Young",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81060",authors:[{id:"320585",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Young",slug:"deborah-young",fullName:"Deborah Young"},{id:"320586",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Sager",slug:"nicole-sager",fullName:"Nicole Sager"},{id:"438090",title:"Prof.",name:"Alia",surname:"Assali",slug:"alia-assali",fullName:"Alia Assali"},{id:"438093",title:"Mrs.",name:"Manar",surname:"Younis",slug:"manar-younis",fullName:"Manar Younis"},{id:"438095",title:"Mr.",name:"Marios",surname:"Dakis",slug:"marios-dakis",fullName:"Marios Dakis"}],corrections:null},{id:"79257",title:"Communication in Healthy Parenting: The Interplay of Positive Parenting Strategies and Parents’ Communication Styles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101026",slug:"communication-in-healthy-parenting-the-interplay-of-positive-parenting-strategies-and-parents-commun",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter intends to review theory and research in parenting studies from the family communication perspective. This will include discourse on the interaction between parenting and communication and how these influence child-rearing outputs. Evaluating healthy parenting on the criteria of effective communication, the chapter shall focus on how communication mitigates diverse parenting challenges to bring about positive child-rearing outcomes in parent–child relationships. To do this successfully, efforts shall be made in the chapter to interrogate diverse parenting strategies recommended in the research literature and parents’ communication styles to see how these impact child-rearing in a changing society. From the foregoing, the chapter shall illustrate the contributions of positive parenting strategies and communication styles in mitigating challenges of child-rearing in a changing society.",signatures:"Amarachi Ijeoma Dooshima Simon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79257",authors:[{id:"423262",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Amarachi",surname:"Ijeoma Dooshima Simon",slug:"amarachi-ijeoma-dooshima-simon",fullName:"Amarachi Ijeoma Dooshima Simon"}],corrections:null},{id:"79404",title:"Parental Alienation: In the Child’s Worst Interest",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101231",slug:"parental-alienation-em-in-the-child-s-worst-interest-em-",totalDownloads:314,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Parental alienation (PA) is a form of childhood emotional abuse in which one parent instrumentally uses the child to inflict psychological harm on the other parent for revenge. The consequences of parental alienating behaviours range from mild (e.g., the child shows a certain resistance towards visiting the targeted parent but warm parenting is still possible) to severe, where the positive affective parent–child bond is severed and extremely difficult to reinstate under family therapy. In PA processes, parenting is disrupted with the targeted parent and dysfunctional with the alienating parent. Consequently, the child is at a high risk of developing internalising (e.g., depression, anxiety) and externalising (e.g., use of drugs/alcohol, violence) problems during later developmental stages and through the lifespan. Although the prevalence and severity of PA cases in our societies are largely unknown, in part because the construct is still an ongoing debate among academics, practitioners and family justice professionals, different authors defend that it should be treated as a public health problem. Early prevention should be the primary objective and family justice, child protection and mental health services must coordinate efforts to support the families and promote the best conditions for the development of affected children.",signatures:"Teresa C. Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79404",authors:[{id:"193768",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Teresa C.",surname:"Silva",slug:"teresa-c.-silva",fullName:"Teresa C. Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"79783",title:"Creating Communities of Parents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101754",slug:"creating-communities-of-parents",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Norwegian Open Kindergartens facilitate access to professional advice and peer support, supporting parents to take part in collective learnings processes, renegotiate their roles and build social networks. Drawing on a study of five Open Kindergartens located in three Norwegian municipalities, this book chapter discusses how these spaces create opportunities to develop parenting skills and negotiate what it means to be a parent. Open Kindergartens are drop-in meeting places where parents and children take part in everyday activities as part of a diverse group. Open Kindergartens provide a space to learn parenting by doing, in a safe and non-judgmental environment, facilitated and supported by a range of professionals. This approach supports integration in local communities and contrasts with many parenting programs that are professionally led and often highly normative.",signatures:"Ingunn Skjesol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79783",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79783",authors:[{id:"424903",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingunn",surname:"Skjesol",slug:"ingunn-skjesol",fullName:"Ingunn Skjesol"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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\r\n\tThe pathogenicity of microorganisms are directly associated with multiple virulence factors secreted by microbial community. Bacterial adhesion to the host through pili is the first virulent attribute of microbial infection with expression of cell surface components to invade the host cells. Bacteria can also secret multiple virulence factors, such as degrading enzymes such as proteases, haemolysin, and elastase, these enzymes enhance bacterial dissemination. Furthermore, the accumulated extracellular polysaccharides, assembly of biofilm layers and low penetration of antimicrobial agents is another important virulent behavior. This book will review the virulence attributes of the most important pathogenic bacteria including Pseudomonas Sp., Vibrio Sp., Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus and Enterococcus Sp. The canonical pathogenic mechanisms will be elucidated and how each virulence factor is related to microbial infection and invasion. Additionally, the recent efforts to inhibit the release of these virulence factors with the goal of designing novel antivirulence agents will be explained.
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Currently, she is working as an associate professor in the Microbiology and Immunology Department, Mansoura University, Egypt. \nShe has more than 40 publications in international journals. She is interested in the study of bacterial virulence and resistance. She is also working on the inhibition of quorum sensing as an antipathogenic approach to counter bacterial resistance and virulence. She is a reviewer of PLOS One, scientific reports, Frontiers in Microbiology, Microbial Pathogenesis, Microbiology Research International, and other impacted journals. 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His main research interests are bacteriology, Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, bacterial toxins, vibrios, vibrosis, bacterial resistance, bacterial virulence factors, regulation systems of virulence factor production, quorum sensing, microbial biodiversity, phylogeny, virology, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and complement systems.",institutionString:"Mansoura University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"225753",firstName:"Marina",lastName:"Dusevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225753/images/7224_n.png",email:"marina.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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They can also be used to correlate structure with properties. There is a host of characterization techniques used to identify materials. They include scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, TEM, XRD, X-ray fluorescence, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) and synchrotron techniques. However, no single technique can give a full analysis of the material being characterized. In practical research work, conclusions have to be drawn by using 2 or 3 characterization techniques. This chapter examines the use of various characterization techniques for researching geopolymers.
Aluminosilicate binder gel has an amorphous structure. Some years back, a study of amorphous structures was not possible since characterization techniques had not advanced to that extent. But, now it is possible to study amorphous structures, and hence characterization of geopolymers, which can occur in the amorphous state, is possible. Most of the literature in geopolymers concentrates on cements and substitutions/additions to cement. An additional advantage is the high compressive strength of geopolymers. Many geopolymers are manufactured using binders, and most of these binders exist in an amorphous state. These binders are obtained by the reaction between an alkali source and a solid aluminosilicate powder. The aluminosilicate can be one among metakaolin, fly ash and/or blast-furnace slag. These geopolymers are increasingly being used as construction materials to replace Portland cement [1, 2, 3]. Geopolymers based on natural zeolite have also been studied and found to have good adhesion to concrete. These geopolymers have been characterized using XRD and SEM [4]. Fly ash has also been activated by alkali to form a geopolymer, but there are concerns regarding mechanical properties of this material [5]. Geopolymers based on phosphoric acid and illito-kaolinitic clay have been synthesized with reasonably good compression strength [6]. Hence, among all the geopolymers studied, kaolinite-based geopolymers seem to hold promise for the future, and this geopolymer has been used mainly for description of characterization.
Characterization methods have been classified into (a) microscopy (b) X-ray-based tomography and fluorescence (c) and other modern methods of characterization which include imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance, FTIR spectra and synchrotron. Each division of characterization has been described briefly before taking up case studies. Selective characterization techniques have been described with metakaolin as an example. Other geopolymers have also been characterized as and when required. During the description of selective characterization techniques, the use of characterization in metakaolin has been dealt with first, and then some more examples of characterization of other geopolymers have been studied as and when required.
Microscopy is commonly used in research and lab studies to throw light upon the detailed features of a material. Optical micrographs are generally used to study the metallurgical microstructures. But, in the case of geopolymers, we are concerned with the pore formation, distribution and other more intricate features. So either scanning electron microscope (SEM) or transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used in recent research. Figure 1 summarizes the types of rays that are produced when an electron hits a sample target.
Different types of reflected and transmitted rays.
Electron beams strike the surface of the sample in all cases of electron microscopy. It would be worthwhile to have a short discussion of what happens when the electron beam strikes the surface. The Figure 1 shown above gives a gist of the type of rays emitted after striking a sample. The backscattered electrons are used in SEM backscattered image. Unscattered electrons are used in TEM. Auger electrons are used in Auger spectroscopy, and emitted X-rays are used in EDS (electron dispersive spectra) and EPMA (electron probe microanalysis).
Scanning electron microscopy has been widely used to study fractured surfaces. The images give an idea of whether the fracture is ductile or brittle. Sometimes, it is possible to have a mixed mode failure too (Figure 2).
Working principle of SEM—source [
Figure 3 shown above gives in brief the differences between SEM and TEM. Here, the specimens have to be prepared to thin slices of less than 100 nm thickness. Again, similar to SEM, specimen preparation is of utmost importance. Vacuum has to be maintained in the TEM, and any flaw in the maintenance of vacuum will reflect in the performance of the TEM. Usually, dislocation density and second phase precipitation can be clearly seen in TEM images.
Difference between light microscope, SEM and TEM.
The electron gun is a source of electrons. The electrons are focused with the help of condenser lens and objective lens. There is a chamber to hold the workpiece. Care should be taken to prepare the workpiece very carefully and specialists are required for SEM sample preparation. The chamber consists of a backscatter detector and a secondary detector. So the SEM can be operated under two modes.
Figure 4 depicts uniform distribution of metakaolin and possibly a ductile fracture. The SEM image above shows a wide variety of shapes of fly ash, tending towards a spherical shape. There seems to be agglomeration and there also seem to be some cracks. Cracks often lead to brittleness. This SEM micrograph of a fly ash geopolymer seems to indicate mixed mode of failure (Figures 5 and 6).
SEM image of metakaolin; source—Wiki Image [
SEM image of geopolymer fly ash after heating at 820 Celsius—courtesy of Temujin et al. [
SEM micrograph of fly ash geopolymer [
Again, this SEM shows an even wider distribution of particles and a very large particle size distribution too. It appears, from the cracks seen and the fragments in the SEM that in this case, there has been a brittle fracture. This possibility is supported by the fact that most concrete fails in a brittle fashion. Addition of geopolymer/substitution of various geopolymeric elements like fly ash could change the morphology and influence fracture to some extent.
Research in these areas is still in the nascent stage. However, it is worth mentioning here that considering the danger that Mother Earth is facing under the deluge of huge amounts of metallic and ceramic waste, it would be a very worthwhile task to look for alternatives to concrete or make some substitutions to concrete to make it more environmentally friendly. It is here that geopolymeric materials could help (Figure 7).
SEM micrograph clay-based geopolymer brick cured at 85 Celsius for 24 hours [
Here, since the geopolymer is clay-based, the SEM shows a ductile type of fracture. Curing may be necessary to improve strength and bonding. Usage without curing may lead to lower tensile strength. Microcrack formations are seen in the SEM, but these are too small to be of any importance or create any immediate danger of failing to the geopolymer. Another study of ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)-amended fly ash was conducted by Sharma AK et al. This can be used as soil conservative. The SEM shown below shows a fairly ductile fracture. The interface condition is good and porosity is not seen. This indicates that there is good contact between soil particles and cementitious mix. C-S-H and calcium oxide formations have also been confirmed in this study. SEM evidence has shown that fly ash mixed with GGBS has the potential to improve the properties of expansive soil with a minimum requirement of chemical additives such as lime (Figure 8).
C-S-H bonds and aggregation [
In Figure 9, clustering can be seen. The bright-field transmission electron micrograph of a slag-based geopolymer is shown in Figure 9. The figure shows the clustering of slag. This may have a deleterious effect on properties.
Bright-field image of slag-based geopolymer.
In Figure 10(a) Medri et al. [8] tested two metakaolins manufactured industrially by the company Imerys with two different kiln technologies. One called M1000 is calcined in a rotary kiln and characterized by rounded massive aggregates of lamellar particles. The second, called M1200S, calcined in a flash kiln, is made up of fine lamellar particles with lower agglomeration. Figure 10(b) reports that the geopolymer structure is characterized by gel (amorphous) phase, and also some crystalline phases are present as in most geopolymers.
(a) SEM images of natural and synthetic metakaolins (Cui et al.) [
TEM image shows agglomeration of slag, which can be seen with SEM also, but SEM can be used only for surface studies, whereas TEM can be used to find details of subsurface.
Many different cross-sectional views are created suing X-rays. These are then assembled to create a 3D image of the object. The size of the pixels which are created in this manner so created are in micrometers and hence the word, microtomography. It should be noted that the 3D model is a virtual model and is not in real time. These pixel sizes have also resulted in the terms high-resolution X-ray tomography, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT or μCT) and similar terms. In today’s terminology, tomography automatically implies computer tomography.
Figure 11 illustrates the features of a slag-based geopolymer using the X-ray microtomograph. Furthermore, histogram, Figure 11, also depicts particle size distribution. In general, fly ash-based polymers have been studied by Das et al. and characterized by X-ray tomography [14].
X-ray microtomography scan of a sodium silicate-activated binder (80% slag/20% metakaolin, activat) (b) a histogram depicting volume of pixels of the volume of interest.
The X-ray tomography shows the distribution of phases. Slag particles can be clearly seen as a white product. There also seem to be some cracks, which, if allowed to propagate, could lead to premature failure of the component in use (Figure 12).
X-ray fluorescence micrographs of a sodium metasilicate-activated binder (75% slag/25% metakaolin) [
According to The Royal Chemical Society, X-Ray Fluorescence is an imaging technique where a beam of X-rays is directed at the specimen-Rays are emitted due to transitions and the intensities of the X-rays emitted due to are detected as a function of wavelength and position. As these energies are element-specific, X-ray fluorescence microscopy can be used to determine spatially resolved elemental composition.
The X-Ray fluorescence image shown above shows different emitted colors for inner gel and for outer gel. As can be seen, the differences in Ca/Si ratio also can be mapped based upon the color.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra can be used to identify elemental groups. Each group has a characteristic shift in wavelength. The shifts for different geopolymers are shown in Figure 14.
Figure 13 depicts wavelength shift [15].
The shift in wavelengths in the case of aluminum and silicon in aluminosilicate geopolymers. The first peak is for aluminum-based and the second peak is for silicon-based amorphous polymers [
Figure 14 depicts the difference between amorphous and semi-crystalline geopolymers. Mathematical analysis has been done on these peaks, and Gaussian peak deconvolution has been used to characterize short range order in T-O-T bonds, where T can be either Al or Si [15]. Fly ash and consolidated materials have been studied using NMR. The signals obtained are wide in nature, indicating a heterogeneous distribution of Si atoms in these matrices [16].
Shift in amorphous geopolymer as compared to semi-crystalline geopolymers [
According to the 29Si RMN MAS spectra of fly ash-based geopolymer, the main shift equal to −94,66 ppm indicates the presence of Q4 (2 Al) and Q4 (3Al) units in the geopolymer matrix [17]. The shift equal to −107 ppm corresponding to the Q4 (0Al) coordination was less represented, which points to the Al penetration into the [SiO4] 4- skeleton. This interpretation of the NMR spectra is also shared by other workers [18, 19].
A schematic diagram of FTIR spectroscopy is reported in Figure 15. There is a broadband infrared source, which gives radiation. This radiation is split in the beam splitter. The split beam gets deflected onto the sample through a parabolic mirror. The sample is kept in an atomic force microscope. The radiation from the reflection from the sample is detected using a detector.
Schematic of FTIR spectroscope.
Figure 16 gives the difference between the spectra for soft kaolin and metakaolin. There is a distinct change in the spectral lines. Comparison of spectra for red mud fly ash-based geopolymers is given in Figure 15.
Spectra for (a) soft kaolin and (b) metakaolin [
The vertical dotted lines in Figure 17 both indicate the position of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of Si-O-T for geopolymer gels. The dip or movement of the Si-O-T bond has to be carefully noticed while interpreting results.
FTIR spectra of unsoaked RFFG sample and RFFG samples soaked in (a) sulfuric acid (pH = 3.0) and (b) deionized water (pH = 7.0) for 1, 56 and 120 days [
Generally, as shown in Figure 18, stretching, bending and twisting are clearly seen as dips in the FTIR.
Stretching, bending and twisting as seen in FTIR spectra.
A synchrotron is a high energy device in which particles are accelerated to a very high voltage. Figure 19 is a schematic diagram of a synchrotron.
A schematic of a synchrotron.
A
The block diagram shown in Figure 19 shows the particles subjected to acceleration, injection, bending and focusing and final ejection.
Figure 20 reports a typical synchrotron infrared spectrum of a metakaolin-based geopolymer. Information on the Si/Al-O bonds can be deduced from this spectrum. Homogeneity of distribution can be determined using this data. This is an important result with consequences in geopolymer mix design for optimal gel structure and stability.
Synchrotron infrared microscopy of metakaolin-based geopolymer [
Synchrotron infrared microscopy data for geothermal silica-sodium aluminate geopolymer binders have been generated by John L. Provis et al. Figure 21 shown above gives the synchrotron peaks without (a) and with 0.5 wt.% nano-Al2O3 seeding (b).
Synchrotron peaks (a) without and (b) with seeding [
A summary of selected characterization techniques that have been used to study geopolymers has been given in this chapter. Some concrete examples of research work on geopolymers have been reviewed, and characterization techniques that have been practically applied in research have been explained.
I thank Intech Publishers for motivating me to write this chapter. I thank the management, SSN College of Engineering, for the academic freedom given. I thank all members of my family for their encouragement and help offered at various times.
Lipedema is a chronic underrecognized adipose tissue (AT) disorder distinguished by the symmetrical accumulation of painful fat in the lower body, predominantly in the thighs. The clinical presentation of lipedema resembles that of obesity, lymphedema, and other AT disorders, so it is often misdiagnosed and mistreated [1, 2, 3, 4]. Lipedema is diagnosed by a thorough physical examination in conjunction with the patient’s family and medical histories. Healthcare providers identify lipedema through the following criteria: bilateral and symmetrical distribution of subcutaneous fat predominantly in the legs that excludes the hands or feet, minimal pitting edema and a negative Stemmer’s sign which can indicate edema followed by a set of detailed criteria that characterize regionalization of fat accumulation and pain, time of change in fat distribution, and diet resistance to discern the type and stage of the patient.
There are five different types of lipedema, which are based upon the regions of prominent fat deposition. Type 1: the fat builds up in the buttocks and hip; Type 2: the fat spreads from the buttocks to the knees with fat folds around the inside of the knee; Type 3: the fat extends to the hips and ankles, the feet are not affected; Type 4: the fat is increased in the upper arms sparing the wrist and Type 5: the fat accumulates in the lower legs only [2, 5, 6]. Patients may present with more than one type depending on the progression of the disorder. Additionally, patients present at three different stages, depending on the severity of fat accumulation and the onset of other symptoms [2, 5, 6, 7]. Stage 1: the skin is smooth with small fat lobules; Stage 2: the skin has indentations with pearl-sized fat nodules and Stage 3: the skin has large extrusions with overhanging fat causing tissue deformities. Lymphedema may also develop collaterally at any stage of the disorder but does not alone qualify a case of lipedema [2]. Unlike many AT disorders, lipedema is largely irresponsive to lifestyle interventions such as diet and exercise, but liposuction and decongestive therapy are effective treatment options [1]. While neither are curative, liposuction is widely accepted as the better treatment option for its ability to provide long-term improvement to appearances, functionality, mobility and bruising while reducing edema, spontaneous pain, sensitivity to pressure. Combined decongestive therapy (CDT) such as pre- or post-operative lymphatic drainage or use of compression garments in recovery weeks may be conducted in support of the procedure [2, 4].
Lipedema predominantly affects females and often manifests during time of hormone fluctuations, during puberty, childbirth, or menopause [7, 8], indicating that estrogen and estrogen signaling play a role in the pathogenesis of lipedema via direct impacts on adipocytes and immune cells, and/or secondary effects on the brain control centers [9, 10]. However, the exact mechanism(s) of action remain unclear [11, 12]. Although lipedema is a common disease (11% of women worldwide), no data are yet available to demonstrate the prevalence of lipedema in pre- and post-menopausal or pregnant women. In addition, cases of lipedema in males are very rare; however, men who develop lipedema tend to have high levels of estrogen but low testosterone levels [2, 5, 6]. Understanding the mechanisms of the life-long transitions of estrogen levels and interactions with AT will define the pathogenesis of lipedema more thoroughly while identifying novel diagnostic and treatment options.
This review will describe the potential role of estrogen in the development of lipedema. The effect(s) of estrogens on the immune system will be described, the association of estrogen signaling on tissue adipogenesis and inflammation will be explored and the application of estrogen as a potential therapy in preventing the progression of this disease will be discussed.
Estrogens are hormones that regulate adipose tissue metabolism by controlling food intake, energy expenditure and body distribution. Estrogens have widespread effects on several organs around the body and therefore play a role in a variety of physiological functions and disorders. Estrogens can act on receptors in both the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane to mediate protein expression involving cell proliferation and metabolism [12]. Estrogens are present in three forms: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Estradiol is the most extensively studied, as it plays key roles in reproductive phase functioning and a large variety of chronic disorders. There are three receptors that have distinct presences and functions around the body. Alterations in estrogen activity or the absence of estrogen receptors (ER) results in the accumulation of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), a phenomenon observed in lipedema patients [5, 9, 13, 14]. Szél et al. hypothesized that alteration in ERs is involved in the regulation of appetite and weight gain which might explain why lipedema patients accumulate fat and have difficulty losing it with diet and exercise [10]. Furthermore, Yi et al. showed that estrogen regulates the expression of leptin, a hormone that controls hunger and body weight, in adipocytes via ERs [15] supporting the hypothesis that lipedema is a hormonal disease.
Estrogen exerts its function through the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ). Both ERα and ERβ receptors appear in significantly high concentrations in SAT of premenopausal women, as signaling from estrogens mediates adipose deposition throughout the body [9, 16]. However, ERα expression is reduced in the SAT of clinically obese females and postmenopausal women treated with estradiol compared to their normal-weight counterparts [14, 17, 18]. Interestingly, Erβ, which serves an antagonistic role on ERα-mediated gene expression, is highly expressed in postmenopausal women in comparison to premenopausal women [19]. Such findings raise the question of whether a correlation of the concentrations of estrogen receptors in adipose tissue could elucidate a similar relationship between estrogen receptor concentrations in lipedema AT. Additionally, a study conducted by Gavin et al. discovered described that the concentration of ERα is decreased and ERβ concentration is increased in the lower extremities of overweight patients, associating the variable concentrations to sexual dimorphisms in regionalized fat deposition for individuals [20]. As discussed earlier, fat accumulates in the lower extremities of lipedema patients, implying a potential role of ER in its pathogenesis. Furthermore, Dieudonné and colleagues evaluated the expression of ERs in preadipocytes and adipocytes in a cohort of lean subjects and determined that males and females statistically share similar levels of both ERα and ERβ within intraabdominal AT (IAT) and SAT [14]. Females have slightly higher concentrations of ERα and ERβ globally than males. However, when induced with estradiol, expression of ERα in the SAT in females increased significantly more than in IAT. In these same conditions, the SAT in females have a significantly increased expression of ERβ while all other levels of ERβ (IAT in females, SAT and IAT in males) remained the same. Cases of increased regionalized lipid accumulation are closely correlated to estrogen deficiency [21, 22, 23, 24]. In contrast, in an estrogen-sufficient state, excess fat is stored in the gluteal-femoral region, rather than the abdominal region. One mechanism has been postulated as a factor in this association is the acute administration of estrogens to postmenopausal women which reduced basal lipolysis in SAT, particularly in the femoral region, further supporting a role for estrogens in regional fat deposition in lipedema patients [25].
The third estrogen receptor, G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is expressed on the membrane at lower concentrations in adipose tissue but nonetheless, with several important effects. GPER has been widely studied in regulation of body weight, inflammation, insulin sensitivity, and metabolic dysfunction [26, 27, 28, 29]. Several studies demonstrated that mice lacking GPER demonstrate an increase in adiposity (mass and adipocyte size) and decrease in energy expenditure compared to their wild type mice [29, 30, 31]. Studies have also shown that the lack of GPER or ERα expression in mice show similar characteristic of metabolic syndrome such as inflammation, obesity, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance [26, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Although the actions of estrogens on GPER have not yet been fully elucidated, examining the crosstalk between ERs and estrogen will help understand their function in the development of lipedema.
Estrogens have been shown to play a role in gender and regional adiposity. Several studies revealed that women have ~10% more early stage preadipocytes in abdominal SAT and ~35% more in femoral SAT [35, 36]. However, only ERα is expressed in preadipocytes, suggesting a role for estrogen in adipogenesis that is not mediated by the antagonistic mechanisms of ERα and ERβ [16]. Lacasa et al. found the mechanisms involved by which estrogen stimulates preadipocyte proliferation, supporting a role of estrogen in adipogenesis [13, 37]. However, Eaton et al. postulated that local adipocyte-produced estrogen may play a role in preventing preadipocyte differentiation based on data from two studies where treatment of preadipocytes with estrogen, both in vitro and in vivo, inhibited adipogenesis and lipogenic gene expression [13, 38]. The distribution of preadipocytes and adipocytes along with the expression of estrogen receptors on differentiated adipocytes could play a role in the pathogenesis of lipedema, as regionalized and sexually distinct adipocyte hypertrophy is one of the central defining characteristics of the disorder.
Activation of ERα, ERβ, and GPER on adipocytes elicit an intranuclear response, causing up or down-regulation in the expression and activity of proteins such as leptin and lipoprotein lipase (LPL), which are involved in lipid regulation in the body [39, 40]. Through this regulation of protein expression, estrogen partially mediates weight control and lipogenesis-lipolysis mechanisms. Moreover, several studies have shown that estrogen treatment altered the expression of several genes involved in lipogenesis. A study conducted by Homma et al. revealed a negatively controlled estrogen response element in the LPL gene, indicating that estrogen decreases activity of LPL, a protein that regulates lipid uptake by adipocytes and leads to lipogenesis, which inhibits adipose deposition [41]. Another study has shown that estrogen stimulates the expression of leptin in human breast tissue [42]; thus, estrogen might play an important in the regulation of adipose tissue. We have shown that leptin gene expression is increased in adipocytes differentiated in vitro from adipose-derived stem cells obtained from obese lipedema patients compared to the same cells from healthy controls [43]; however, the effect of estrogen on the expression of leptin in lipedema has yet to be determined. Additionally, ERβ has been shown to be a negative regulator of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a key transcription factor highly expressed in AT and controls the expression of LPL, glucose transporter type 4 (Glut 4) and leptin; thus, a decrease in ERβ expression increases adipogenesis which is detected in lipedema SAT [43]. However, further studies will be needed to study the correlation between the loss of ERs expression and the increase adiposity in AT disorders.
Estrogen exerts regulatory effects on the immune system through ER-dependent and independent pathways [44], which can be both positive and negative depending on a wide array of factors such as the level of estrogen, expression of ERs, cell types and the environment [45]. Lipedema AT is characterized by hypertrophic adipocytes and activated immune cells such as macrophages and mast cells [46, 47, 48]; thus, direct, and indirect cellular interaction through auto- and paracrine secretions of inflammatory cytokines via the ER signal transduction pathway have an immense impact on the tissue function [7, 19, 35]. Several studies have shown that a decrease in estrogen levels results in increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukins (IL)-6, IL1-β and Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) as is the case with women undergoing menopause or oophorectomy [49]. On the other hand, in the case of pregnant women or in women taking ectopic estrogens, suppressed immune responses are observed [48]. Hence, as estrogen levels fluctuate in lipedema patients during their lifetime, the inflammatory signals in the tissue may as well. This correlation between estrogen levels and onset of inflammation could provide insight into the pathophysiology of lipedema-associated inflammation.
Estrogen is widely known as a central regulator of fat metabolism and regional deposition. In premenopausal women, estrogen is synthesized in the ovaries during menstruation [19]; however, it is depleted as they age. In adipose tissue, androgens are aromatized into estrogens to restore hormonal levels and prevent the progression of hormonal-related diseases [17, 19, 50]. One study found increased aromatase activity in a group of obese individuals, supporting a correlation between this shift of hormone production and metabolic disease [51]. However, estrogen deficiency or depletion, such as in the case of ovariectomy, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or the lack of a functional aromatase gene, causes weight gain which is associated with comorbidity, cardiovascular disease, and other diseases; thus, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was shown to be an effective treatment [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. In the context of AT, administration of exogenous estradiol to premenopausal women decreases LPL activity in AT of the lower extremities, which are primarily affected in lipedema [58]. However, another study conducted by Lindberg et al. found that the treatment of postmenopausal women with oral ethinyl estradiol (50 μg/day) for three weeks increased adipose tissue LPL activity in femoral adipocytes [59]. Other studies expand on this, finding that estrogen treatment of adipocytes decreased the expression of genes related to adipogenesis and lipogenesis such as PPAR-γ and LPL [19, 38, 58]. Furthermore, administering estrogen resulted in a significant decrease in LPL activity in adipose tissue [52]. Similarly, Pederson et al. discovered that estrogen treatment almost doubled insulin binding affinity in rat adipocytes. Control rats had 11% weight gain in 7 days whereas estrogen treated rats gained only 4% in the same period. Adipocytes were significantly larger in control rats compared to adipocytes from estrogen substituted rats. Interactions of estrogens with androgens to mediate these processes were also discovered, with two studies observing the effects of HRT that further substantiate an association between androgens and weight gain [54, 60]. Davis et al. reported that administering androgens with estrogens in hormone replacement therapy seemed to antagonize or reduce the effects of estrogens on fat deposition and weight loss. Likewise, Gamberini et al. reported administration of antiandrogens with the typical estrogen dosage results in more efficient weight loss. While the effects of androgens in lipedema cases have been underdefined in this literature review, the pathophysiological effect of androgen therapy implies a treatment option for cases of lipedema. Clinical research has also found that women receiving estrogen HRT have relatively increased protection from metabolic syndrome and decreased AT deposition in the intra-abdominal region [13, 61, 62, 63, 64]. Additionally, as mentioned above, post-menopausal clinical subjects developed high levels of inflammatory cytokines had associated decreases in such levels following estrogen treatments [13]. All these data confirm that the physiological impact of estrogen is altered as females passes through reproductive benchmarks, and thus estrogen may be a potential treatment of Lipedema patients.
Furthermore, it has been proposed that activation of ERα can induce the browning of white adipocytes, referred to as beiging, through induction of lipolysis mediated by adipose tissue triglyceride lipase [65]. It is known that premenopausal women have more brown adipose tissue (BAT) and are more sensitive to brown adipose tissue activation than men or postmenopausal women. Selective activation of ERα by pyrazole triol (selective ERα agonist) increased markers of beiging in vitro [65]. The results of this study indicated that selective activation of ERα in adipocytes can induce beiging through the induction of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) mediated lipolysis providing free fatty acids as an energy source to activate Uncoupling protein (UCP)-1 [66]. Another study conducted Yepuru et al. demonstrated that activation of ERβ increases mitochondrial function and energy expenditure; thus, ERβ ligands have anti-obesity and antimetabolic disease effects [67] and might be more beneficial than estradiol treatment which unselectively activates both ERs. In vitro and in vivo studies have suggested that selective ERβ ligand reduces the expression of genes associated with white adipose tissue and promote the expression of genes associated with brown adipose tissue. This ligand additionally increases the mitochondrial oxygen consumption without an increase in physical activity [68]. Additional research is needed to gain insight into whether selectively activating of one estrogen receptor over another confers more benefits than activating both unselectively. Given these results on the selective activation of estrogen receptors, there is an increased effort to characterize specific molecular pathways to induce white adipose tissue browning; thus, presenting another potential treatment for lipedema patients.
Lipedema is a severe chronic adipose tissue disorder that affects women worldwide. Although the pathophysiology of the disease has not been fully elucidated, several lines of evidence have suggested estrogen dysfunction may be central to the development of lipedema. The loss of estrogen can additionally induce cardiovascular disease and create an insulin resistant dyslipidemia state that can have long term implications on the metabolic profile of a patient. Thus, studying the role played by estrogen in the processes are involved in the pathogenesis, AT inflammation, fibrosis, and angiogenesis, will provide researchers insights into the mechanism involved in the development of the disease and will help direct future study on hormonal therapy as a form of treatment for lipedema. Through these efforts, the correlation revealed between hormones and adipogenesis in AT will lead to evaluate lipedema as a hormonal disease.
This work was funded by a grant from the Lipedema Foundation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Urban tunnels are often made in soils with very low values of overburden. Risks of collapse and large deformations at the surface are high; thus negative impact on old buildings are likely to occur if appropriate measures are not taken in advance, when designing and constructing the tunnel. For deep tunnels with high overburden and low rock mass properties, squeezing conditions and excessive loads around the excavation can jeopardize the stability of the tunnel, leading to extensive collapse. The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4414,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"66828",title:"Breathing Monitoring and Pattern Recognition with Wearable Sensors",slug:"breathing-monitoring-and-pattern-recognition-with-wearable-sensors",totalDownloads:3062,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter introduces the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, and the reasons for measuring breathing events, particularly, using wearable sensors. Respiratory monitoring is vital including detection of sleep apnea and measurement of respiratory rate. The automatic detection of breathing patterns is equally important in other respiratory rehabilitation therapies, for example, magnetic resonance exams for respiratory triggered imaging, and synchronized functional electrical stimulation. In this context, the goal of many research groups is to create wearable devices able to monitor breathing activity continuously, under natural physiological conditions in different environments. Therefore, wearable sensors that have been used recently as well as the main signal processing methods for breathing analysis are discussed. The following sensor technologies are presented: acoustic, resistive, inductive, humidity, acceleration, pressure, electromyography, impedance, and infrared. New technologies open the door to future methods of noninvasive breathing analysis using wearable sensors associated with machine learning techniques for pattern detection.",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Taisa Daiana da Costa, Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara, Camila Santos Cristino, Tyene Zoraski Zanella, Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto and Percy Nohama",authors:[{id:"192464",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Percy",middleName:null,surname:"Nohama",slug:"percy-nohama",fullName:"Percy Nohama"},{id:"285706",title:"MSc.",name:"Taísa Daiana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa",slug:"taisa-daiana-da-costa",fullName:"Taísa Daiana Da Costa"},{id:"285707",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Vara",slug:"maria-de-fatima-fernandes-vara",fullName:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara"},{id:"285708",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila Santos",middleName:null,surname:"Cristino",slug:"camila-santos-cristino",fullName:"Camila Santos Cristino"},{id:"285709",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme Nunes",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira Neto",slug:"guilherme-nunes-nogueira-neto",fullName:"Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto"},{id:"293109",title:"BSc.",name:"Tyene",middleName:null,surname:"Zoraski Zanella",slug:"tyene-zoraski-zanella",fullName:"Tyene Zoraski Zanella"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20608,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:305,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1925,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"24",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82089",title:"Perspective Chapter: Breaking the Barriers – Additive Technologies (AX) for Integrated Process Chains and Integrated Devices (IDs) for Hybrid Product Architectures",slug:"perspective-chapter-breaking-the-barriers-additive-technologies-ax-for-integrated-process-chains-and",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104891",abstract:"Additive technology has evolved from rapid prototyping to rapid tooling and manufacturing of load-bearing parts for productive use. Application potential is limited by constituent strengths and weaknesses. To enfold its full potential, research, development, and industrial application have to facilitate combinations of additive and conventional technology. The concept of additive parts manufacturing has to be expanded to a mature technology contributing and facilitating hybrid products and integrated process chains. From a two-dimensional reference model, approaches to integration are derived, and their status is briefly outlined: Efforts to facilitate postprocessing by design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) and hybrid manufacturing have been raised to awareness and are being worked on. Yet, integration of pre-fabricated structures is hardly accounted for, although it bears the potential for a paradigmatic shift in manufacturing: With a wider concept of layer-based processes, Additive Technology could form the core technology for integration of components and functions to Integrated Devices, following the model of the Integrated Circuits and packaging technology in microelectronics and Microelectromechanical Systems. First developments are outlined, but research and development effort has to be dedicated to novel additive processes for this application. Finally, workflows for product developers need to be modified and trained to plan hybrid product architectures already in conceptual phases.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Matthias Dahlmeyer and Sebastian Noller"},{id:"81952",title:"Perspective Chapter: Multi-Material in 3D Printing for Engineering Applications",slug:"perspective-chapter-multi-material-in-3d-printing-for-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102564",abstract:"3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing is one of a novel method in manufacturing of materials with increased accuracy of manufacturing in terms of complexity in parts, design of aerospace and defense parts, light-weighting, etc., This manufacturing method involves layer-by-layer printing or deposition of materials or metals into the perfectly aligned especially in corners, edges and in most complex designs. The design process mostly involved software so that production cost could be estimated in the design stage itself. Additive Manufacturing is one of the most promising approach for small and low-volume productions. The filament used for the process is prominent to the designer, along with the various printing processes. Recent modern printing techniques involve multiple nozzles, whereas designers can use multiple materials on single printing. The use of multi-material in a single part enables the manufacturer to rapidly produce products which have specific applications. This chapter discusses about various multi-material with different mechanical properties that can be used for structural applications through different printing technologies on various precious applications. This technology is quickly adopted by even small-scale industries in recent times.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Rajkumar Velu, R. Sathishkumar and A. Saiyathibrahim"},{id:"80282",title:"Modeling of LPBF Scanning Strategy and its Correlation with the Metallic 316 L, 321, and Alnico Magnets Samples Structure",slug:"modeling-of-lpbf-scanning-strategy-and-its-correlation-with-the-metallic-316-l-321-and-alnico-magnet",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102073",abstract:"This chapter presents the influence of powder bed laser scanning strategy on the crystallographic structure of the fused specimens 316 L, 321 stainless steel, and Alnico magnets. The main parameters affecting structure are as follows—laser power, stripe width, number of repeated passes with different power, and type of scanning (circle, bidirectional or interlaced, etc.). Changes in the crystallographic structure are studied with regard to melt pool geometry, surface temperature, and surface heat transfer. The correlation is shown between stripe width and laser beam focal spot diameter. Depending on the ratio between stripe width and laser beam focal spot diameter one can see growth elongated and oriented grains or quasi-equiaxed non-oriented grains. The influence of the energy input on the melt pool size and the microstructure of the sample is studied. The influence of the scanning mode (bidirectional and circular) on the temperature distribution in the sample and the microstructure of the sample made of Alnico alloy is considered. All these experimental and model examples clearly demonstrate that it is possible to produce a controllable structure during LPBF process building for advanced additive manufacturing.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Kuznetsov, Anna Mozhayko, Ivan Shakirov, Vitaliy Bobyr, Mikhail Staritsyn and Anton Zhukov"},{id:"81649",title:"Pure Copper: Advanced Additive Manufacturing",slug:"pure-copper-advanced-additive-manufacturing",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103673",abstract:"This book chapter elaborates on different additive manufacturing (AM) processes of copper and copper alloys. The scope is to give the reader a basic understanding of the state-of-the-art of copper additive manufacturing by different AM technologies, such as laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), laser metal deposition (LMD), binder jetting (BJ), and metal-fused filament fabrication (M-FFF). Furthermore, we want the reader to be able to use this knowledge to find and assess potential use cases. Recently, with the commercial availability of green laser sources, the difficulties for laser processing of pure copper were overcome, which gave AM technologies, such as LPBF and LMD new momentum and increased interest. AM technologies involving a subsequent sintering step. They are relatively new and gained interest due to fast build-up rates (BJ) or ease of operation (M-FFF). We will cover important material-related properties of copper and its implications for manufacturing and application (e.g. absorption, sinterability, conductivity, and its dependency on impurities). Further, we address applications for AM copper, present the state-of-the-art for above mentioned AM technologies and share our own recent research in this field.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Lukas Stepien, Samira Gruber, Moritz Greifzu, Mirko Riede and Aljoscha Roch"},{id:"81624",title:"Functionally Modified Composites for FDM 3D Printing",slug:"functionally-modified-composites-for-fdm-3d-printing",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104637",abstract:"Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technique used to fabricate solid thermoplastic polymer objects directly from computer-modeled designs. The current uses for this technology are restricted due to a limited choice of materials, which offer minimal functionality to the printed 3D parts. To expand the application space for FDM-based 3D printing, this chapter is aimed to add functional attributes to printable polymers through the creation of thermoplastic composites. The work focuses on a simple fabrication method to create composite for FDM printing and analytical techniques to characterize dispersion, thermal, and mechanical properties of the nanocomposite. Lastly, the functional characteristics of the FDM printed nanocomposite including their conductivity, ferromagnetism, and radiation shielding properties were studied.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Smith Woosley and Shyam Aravamudhan"},{id:"81187",title:"Quality Control of Metal Additive Manufacturing",slug:"quality-control-of-metal-additive-manufacturing",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103121",abstract:"Metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) is an emerging technology for rapid prototype manufacturing, and the structural integrity of printed structures is extremely important and should meet the specifications and high standards of the above industries. In several metal AM techniques, residual stresses and micro-cracks that occur during the manufacturing procedure can result in irreversible damage and structural failure of the object after its manufacturing. Thus effective quality control of AM is highly required. Most Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques (X-Ray, Computed Tomography, Thermography) are ineffective in detecting residual stresses. Bulk, cost, and resolution are limitations of such technologies. These methods are time consuming both for data acquisition and data analysis and have not yet been successfully integrated into AM technology. However two sets of NDT techniques: Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT) and Eddy Current (EC) Testing, can be applied for residual stress detection for AM techniques. Therefore a crucial and novel extension system incorporation of big data collection from sensors of the both techniques and analysis through machine learning (ML) can estimate the likelihood of the AM techniques to introduce anomalies into the printed structures, which can be used as an on-line monitoring and detection system to control the quality of AM.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Bojie Sheng, Jamil Kanfoud and Tat-Hean Gan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",slug:"hongwei-ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",slug:"sotirios-goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",slug:"takashi-kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"wellington-santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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