\r\n\tAtherosclerosis is a systemic disease. Some 60% of patients with peripheral artery disease will have ischaemic heart disease, and 30% have cerebrovascular disease. Within five years of diagnosis, 10-15% of patients with intermittent claudication will die from cardiovascular disease. Therefore, management begins with the identification and modification of risk factors that are common to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, and stroke. Treatment goals include reducing cardiovascular risk and improving functional capacity. Revascularization is indicated for persistent symptoms. \r\n\tThe main objective of the book is to deal with peripheral arterial disease in the most diverse aspects. Addressing issues such as pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, clinical aspects, treatment, and prognosis. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-532-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-531-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-533-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"80be3d16e4c8f89f3501ed408729f695",bookSignature:"Prof. Ana Terezinha Guillaumon, Dr. Daniel Emilio Dalledone Siqueira and Dr. Martin Geiger",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11872.jpg",keywords:"Atherosclerotic Disease, Revascularization, Vascular Surgery, Lower Limb, Critical Limb Ischemia, Tibial Artery, Fibular Artery, Ultrasonography, Doppler, Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonography, Ankle-Brachial Index, Bypass Femoropopliteal, Angioplasty, Stent.",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 27th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Full professor and head of vascular and endovascular surgery service at UNICAMP, with 150 journal papers published in vascular surgery journals, ongoing research in organ, tissue, and lower limb ischemia and reperfusion, and member of the Brazilian Society of Vascular Surgery - SBACV.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher experienced in general, vascular, and endovascular surgery, affiliated with the State University of Campinas and the Santa Casa de Misericórdia Hospital in Curitiba. Dr. Siqueira is a member of the Brasilian College of Surgeons (CBC) and the (CBC) and the Brazilian Society of Vascular Surgery (SBACV).",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Practitioner surgeon with a specialization in the area of Endovascular Surgery, member of the Brazilian College of Surgery, Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery (SBACV), and the Society for Vascular Surgery (US).",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251226",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Terezinha",middleName:null,surname:"Guillaumon",slug:"ana-terezinha-guillaumon",fullName:"Ana Terezinha Guillaumon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251226/images/system/251226.jpg",biography:"Ana Terezinha Guillaumon obtained an MD and Ph.D. in Vascular Surgery from the Surgical Science Department, School of Medical Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil. She is a full professor and head of Vascular/Endovascular Surgery at the UNICAMP as well as head of the Microprocedures and Vascular Research Laboratory. She is also head of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery Hospital de Clínicas, UNICAMP. Dr. Guillaumon is a member of the Brazilian Society of Vascular Surgery (SBACV). Her areas of research interest include aortic aneurysm, ischemia and reperfusion, ischemic nephropathy, and carotid disease. She works on the development of new vascular and endovascular devices. 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Specialization in Endovascular Surgery at the University of Valladolid / Spain, Universitätsklinikum Münster / Germany and AZSint Blasius / Belgium. Board Certified in Vascular Surgery/ Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery (SBACV). Master in Science/ Campinas State University. 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1. Introduction
Soybean meal is considered the “gold standard” among intact protein sources used in the feed industry (Cromwell, 1999). It has an excellent amino acid profile that complements cereal grains in diet formulation, as methionine is typically the only limiting amino acid for poultry. Soybean meal is characterized as either from dehulled beans or beans having hulls (NRC, 1994). Dehulled soybean meal has a higher composition of crude protein, amino acids and metabolizable energy than soybean meal produced from soybeans having hulls (NRC, 1994); Soybean meal is known to vary in amino acid composition among samples. Geographical location of soybean production, soybean variety, and processing methods are factors known to influence variability of crude protein and amino acid composition of soybean meal (Parsons et al., 1991, 2000; de Coca-Sinova, 2008, 2010; Baker et al., 2011). de Coca-Sinova (2008) evaluated amino acid composition of soybean meal samples obtained from Argentina, Brazil, Spain, and the United States. Crude protein content varied from 45.2 to 50.6% with lysine expressed as a percent of crude protein ranging from 5.51 to 6.26%. Samples from Spain had the highest crude protein content, whereas lysine expressed as a percentage of crude protein was the highest for samples obtained in the United States.
Moreover, soybean varieties are being selected to contain higher amino acid concentrations than conventional soybean varieties resulting in soybean meals having more balanced amino acid content for swine and poultry diets (Baker and Stein, 2009; Baker et al., 2011). Baker et al. (2011) reported high protein soybean meal having a crude protein and lysine composition of 54.86 and 3.56% compared with conventional soybean meal containing crude protein and lysine contents of 47.47 and 3.14%. Soybean meal is known to vary in crude protein and amino acid content among soybean production years and using current amino acid data bases of soybean meal composition are important to avoid variability in diet formulation with swine and poultry (Table 1).
Amino acids originating from intact protein sources are not digested and absorbed with 100% efficiency. Formulating diets on a digestible amino acid basis is increasing around the globe and this formulation strategy allows for the use of lower cost feed ingredients that may contain amino acids that are less available to the animal while minimizing nitrogen excretion. Digestible amino acid composition is calculated by multiplying a digestible coefficient by amino acid total composition. Digestible coefficient is the digestibility percentage of an amino acid in a specific feed ingredient or a complete diet. In poultry, amino acid digestibility coefficients for feed ingredients are typically determined using a true digestibility assay with cecectomized roosters (Parsons, 1986) or standardized amino acid assay using broilers (Lemme et al., 2004). Amino acid digestibility coefficients have been reported to be higher with cecectomized roosters compared with using broilers (Garcia et al., 2007; Adedokun et al., 2007). Amino acid digestibility assays are highly variable and a large number of assays are needed for specific feedstuffs to generate accurate digestibility coefficients. Amino acid digestibility coefficients for soybean meal have been found to range from 82 to 93% (Table 2).
Sriperm et al., 20111
Evonik2
Novus3
Lysine
3.23±0.11
2.95±0.07
2.96±0.15
Methionine
0.77±0.04
0.64±0.01
0.64±0.04
Cysteine
0.69±0.04
0.70±0.02
0.64±0.05
Arginine
3.73±0.19
3.48±0.11
3.41±0.17
Tryptophan
0.68±0.68
0.64±0.01
0.66±0.04
Isoleucine
2.31±0.09
2.15±0.06
2.20±0.13
Leucine
3.90±0.15
3.61±0.09
3.63±0.17
Valine
2.41±0.09
2.25±0.05
2.33±0.13
Histidine
1.35±0.07
1.26±0.03
1.25±0.06
Phenylalanine
2.65±0.02
2.40±0.06
2.37±0.12
Sample size
225
457
75
Table 1.
Essential amino acid composition (%) of soybean meal obtained from various regions of the United States. 1Values are expressed on a dry matter basis as average ± SD and were determined from samples analyzed in 2009 at Ajinomoto Heartland LLC’s amino acid laboratory. 2Values are expressed on a “as-is basis” as average ± SD and were determined from samples analyzed in 2010 at Evonik’s amino acid laboratory. 3Values are expressed on a “as-is basis” as average ± SD and were determined from samples analyzed in 2010 at Novus International Inc., amino acid laboratory.
True Digestibility1
Standardized Assay2
Lysine
91±2.8
90
Methionine
92±2.5
91
Cysteine
84±5.1
82
Threonine
88±3.4
85
Arginine
93±2.8
93
Tryptophan
89±4.8
89
Isoleucine
92±3.3
89
Leucine
92±2.2
89
Valine
91±2.5
88
Histidine
90±6.5
92
Phenylalanine
92±3.7
88
Sample size
88
37
Table 2.
Digestible amino acid coefficients (%) of soybean meal. 1Values are expressed as average ± SD of 88 samples from Ajinomoto Heartland. 2Values are expressed as average of 35 samples from Evonik.
2. Soybean meal in poultry and swine feeds
Soybean meal is the most commonly-used source of protein for poultry and swine feeds in the world, with 67% of the animal feed market (Pettigrew et al., 2002). In order for a feed ingredient to be considered an important component of an industry feeding program, it must have several fundamental qualities. First, it must provide one or more important nutrients. Second, it must be available in amounts that allow it to be used regularly and on a large scale. Third, it must be cost effective to use. Soybean meal abundantly fits into this category as a high-protein product with good amino acid balance that is highly digestible. It is available in large quantities year round and has had most of the associated antinutritional compounds inactivated. Interestingly, antinutritional factors in soybeans are relatively easy to inactivate and are reduced substantially by normal soybean processing. This is in contrast to many of the other commonly-used plant proteins that have non-labile antinutritional factors (Pettigrew et al., 2002).
In the early years of compound feed production, grain products were paired with animal protein meals that provided a natural balance of vitamins and minerals in addition to protein. As animal protein products such as fishmeal became more expensive, and synthetic sources of vitamins (particularly vitamin B12) were developed, soybean meal captured a larger portion of the animal feed protein market. Modern feed formulation programs further increased the demand for soybean meal as the principle protein source as least cost diet formulation became more common.
Worldwide, nearly 2/3 of the protein sources used in animal feeds come from soybean meal, with canola meal, cottonseed meal and sunflower meal providing additional plant protein sources. In the United States, plant protein source usage in animal feeds is primarily (92%) soybean meal. Over half of the soybean meal produced in the United States is fed to poultry (Waldroup and Smith, 1999). Approximately 66% of protein in broiler feeds comes from soybean meal. With the development of reasonably-priced synthetic methionine sources, feed manufacturers are now able to produce relatively simple feeds based on a combination of corn and soybean meal with supplementation of minerals, vitamins and methionine. Swine account for 27% of the soybean meal used in animal feeds in the United States. Soy protein’s digestibility, combined with a relative abundance of lysine, which is the first limiting amino acid in swine feeds, make soybean meal an excellent protein source for swine.
Most areas of swine and poultry production have economical access to soybean meal for compounding animal feeds. In some places, however, local access to soybeans has led to interest in the processing of full fat soybeans meals for local usage. Full fat soybean meal, often an extruded product, has the advantage of higher energy values due to the full complement of oil in the native seeds as compared to commercial soybean meal, which has had most of the oil extracted for sale (Reese and Bitney, 2000). Other advantages include: 1) the addition of fat to a feed in a more easily-handled granular form and 2) the addition of fat to a feed in a form that is less likely to reduce pellet quality (Waldroup, 1985).
Performance results indicated that there was significant variation in the nutrient content from various batches of extruded soybean meals (Reese and Bitney, 2000). The authors concluded that it would be difficult to compare extruded soybean meal to regularly-processed soybean meal for this reason. It would be wise if considering these products to do extra nutrient analysis. Numerous research groups have explored the use of full fat soybean meals in poultry feeds as well (Waldroup, 1985). Extruded full fat soybean meals have seen limited use, although dry roasting, followed by grinding, has also been tested. Waldroup and Cotton (1974) determined the levels of full fat soybean meal that could be included in mash broiler feeds before performance suffered (less than 25%). Higher levels could be utilized in pelleted broiler feeds because the pelleting process causes more cell wall disruption and increases the digestibility of full fat soybean meal products (Waldroup and Cotton, 1974).
Soybean geneticists are continually improving productivity characteristics of soybeans for crop production. Additionally, efforts have been underway for some time to enhance the quality of soybeans in relation to animal feeding of soybean meal (Bajjaleih, 2002). Areas of interest include increasing levels of sulfur containing amino acids, increasing the proportion of soybean meal phosphorus that is available for digestion (reducing phytate-bound phosphorus) and increasing energy availability through selection away from carbohydrate fractions of low availability to monogastrics.
3. Protein digestion
Dietary protein consists of complex polypeptides, which must be cleaved into dipeptides and amino acids to facilitate absorption. In poultry, the crop, proventriculus, gizzard, pancreas, and small intestine have an active role in protein digestion (Moran, 1982). Proteolysis is the first stage of digestion and it occurs in the proventriculus and gizzard (Hill, 1971). The contents found in the proventriculus and gizzard have a pH of 1.80 and 2.50, respectively, which is relatively lower than the crop, small intestine, cecum, and cloaca (Figure 1). This low pH is central to gastric digestion. The Proventriculus is the site for pepsin and HCl production and contains gastric glands located in the mucosa (Toner, 1963). At low pH, protein denaturation occurs through unfolding of proteins and cleavage of peptide bonds by pepsin, which is an endopeptidase.
Figure 1.
pH of the contents in the digestive tract of poultry (Herpol and Van Grembergen, 1967)
One of the functions of the pancreas is to supply digestive enzymes for protein digestion (Brody, 1994). Trypsin, chymotrypsin A, chymotrypsin B, proelastase, and carboxypeptidase are produced by the pancreas and these enzymes are endopeptidases with the exception of carboxypeptidase (Brody, 1994). Pancreatic enzymes play a central role in protein digestion in the small intestine by breaking down polypeptides into oligopeptides (Alpers, 1994; Lowe, 1994). Approximately 13 peptidases are present in the brush border membrane or the cytoplasm of the small intestine that breakdown oligopeptides into dipeptides and amino acids (Alpers, 1994). The resulting dipeptides and amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine for the synthesis of body proteins.
Soybean meal that has been underprocessed contains trypsin inhibitors, which are antinutritional factors. These proteins bind to trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen preventing the conversion into their active forms limiting protein digestion. A detailed description of trypsin inhibitors will be discussed in the following section.
4. Trypsin inhibtor in soybean meal and protein digestion
Growth depression effects due to antinutritional factors present in soybeans have been well-documented for more than half a century (Ham et al., 1945; Chernick et al., 1948; Liener, 1953; Lyman and Lepkovsky, 1957; Gestetner et al., 1966). Trypsin inhibitor is the primary antinutritional factor in soybean meal (Araba and Dale, 1990a,b; Anderson-Hafermann et al., 1992; Mian and Garlich et al., 1995), which is a globulin-type protein having a molecular weight of 24,000 and isoelectric point of 4.5 (Kunitz, 1945). Trypsin inhibitor inhibits the conversion of zymogens to active proteases of trypsin and chymotrypsin. The mechanism of action differs for trypsin and chymotrypsin (Kunitz, 1947). Trypsin inhibitor binds with trypsinogen to form an irreversible compound preventing the formation of an active protease. Conversely, trypsin inhibitor action of chymotrypsin is less pronounced forming a reversible dissociated compound (Northrop, 1922).
In addition to its detrimental effects on proteolytic action, trypsin inhibitor dramatically affects the size of the pancreas and amount of trypsinogen produced. Chernick et al. (1948) reported that pancreas weight as a percent of body weight was increased by 56% and had 43% higher trypsinogen content per gram of pancreas nitrogen content with chicks fed diets containing raw soybean meal compared with diets containing heat-treated soybean meal. Moreover, Lyman and Lepkovsky (1957) reported low trypsin content in the small intestine of rats immediately after feeding a diet containing raw soybean meal, but increased 3 fold the normal concentration 6 hours postfeeding. This provides evidence the pancreas produced trypsinogen in excess to compensate for the trypsin inhibitor. Hence, the justification for the trypsin content observed several hours after feeding. The inhibitory action is reduced by subjecting soybeans or soybean meal to heat by deactivating anti-nutritional toxins (Hayward et al., 1936; Kunitz, 1947). Broiler growth has been shown to be increased by approximately 140 to 150% with autoclaving raw hexane-extracted soybeans or soybean meal compared with chicks fed diets containing raw hexane-extracted soybeans or soybean meal not subjected to heat (Araba and Dale, 1990b; Anderson-Hafermann, 1992). If adequate heat is not applied during soybean processing, soybean meal will be produced containing active toxins compromising its nutritional value.
5. Overheating of soybean meal
Overheating of soybean meal reduces its nutritional value for poultry (Renner et al., 1953; Warnick and Anderson, 1968; Araba and Dale, 1990a). It has been shown that overcooking of soybean meal decreases digestibility of amino acids (Lee and Garlich, 1992; Parsons et al., 1992). The explanation for the decreased amino acid digestibility and reduced growth responses appear to be related to the Maillard reaction with cross-linking involved to a lesser extent. Parsons et al. (1992) examined the effects of overprocessing dehulled, solvent-extracted soybean meal by autoclaving at 121◦C and 105 kPa for 0, 20, 40, and 60 min. Increasing the time of autoclaving reduced total concentration of lysine, arginine and cysteine, but other amino acids were not influenced by overprocessing. The largest decrease in true amino acid digestibility occurred with lysine, cystine, histidine, and aspartic acid, whereas digestibility of threonine, serine, alanine, and leucine was decreased to a lesser extent. Moreover, a growth assay using broiler chicks determined that autoclaving at 121◦C for 40 min reduced lysine bioavailability by 15% compared with birds fed soybean meal not subjected to autoclaving. The destruction of lysine and arginine content of soybean meal and reduced lysine digestibility due to autoclaving indicates the presence of the Maillard reaction. In addition to chemical composition, color differences are apparent with soybean meal subjected to overprocessing indicating a browning during the latter stage of Maillard reaction (Figure 2).
Maillard reaction is a series of complex reactions occurring when feed ingredients, food, and animal tissues are subjected to overprocessing (Iqbal et al., 1999; Fayle and Gerrard, 2002). The series of reactions involve early, advanced, and final stages (Mauron, 1981). In the early reactions, amino groups react with aldehyde groups of free sugars producing a schiff base, which cyclizes to form a glycosylamine (Mauron, 1981; Dillis, 1993). The glycosylamine undergoes a rearrangement to form either Amadori products (1-amino-1-deoxy-2-ketose) if produced from glucose or Heyns products if derived from fructose. In this series of reactions, ε-amino group of lysine is affected the most and ε-amino groups located at the terminal end of proteins are also involved but to a lesser extent. With lysine, an aldose is changed to a ketose creating a fructosyl-lysine. In the advanced reactions, Amadori or Heyns products are decomposed to form deoxydicarbonyl sugars and these resulting sugar derivatives can react with other amino acids producing aldehydes, ketones, and/or deoxydicarbonyl compounds (Dillis, 1993). Heterocylic compounds (pyrazines, pyrroles, pyridines, and thiazoles) are formed during the latter stages of these reactions, which are known to provide aromas and flavor to food (Mauron, 1981; Dillis, 1993). In the final reactions, food or feed ingredients are characterized by exhibiting a dark color associated with brown melanoidin pigments produced by this set of reactions, hence the name of browning well known for the Maillard reaction (Hurrell and Carpenter, 1981). Proteins are modified through cross-linking reactions as deoxydicarbonyl sugars or carbonyl compounds react with amino acids (Mauron, 1981; Dillis, 1993).
Poor digestibility of intact protein sources subjected to overprocessing (Maillard reaction) may be due to the formation of Amadori or Heyns products, reduced absorption of lysine, and the formation of cross-links (Mauron, 1981; Sherr et al., 1989; Dillis, 1993). Sherr et al. (1989) determined that, in the presence of Maillard products derived from lysine (glycosylated lysine derivatives), absorption of lysine was inhibited. The glycosylated lysine derivatives compete with lysine for absorption carriers, but the majority of these derivatives have poor utilization with excretion being 72 and 96% of the amounts absorbed. The cross-links are not very digestible as endogenous proteases are not able to cleave this complex during digestion resulting in poor utilization to the animal. Soybean meal contains sugar complexes in the form of raffinose and stachyose and overprocessing may contribute to Maillard reactions (Hancock et al., 1990). Cysteine content has been shown to be reduced in soybean meal with overprocessing (Parsons et al., 1992). Cysteine is not thought to be involved with Maillard reactions, but rather forming lanthionine during overprocessing (Miller et al., 1965; Hurrell et al., 1976). With the formation of lanthionine, cysteine would probably be expected to decrease when soybean meal is subjected to overprocessing.
Figure 2.
Soybean meal samples exposed to varying temperatures with samples on the bottom row subjected to excessive heating as noted by the darker color (Courtesy of Dr. N. Dale, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia).
6. Analytical assays to estimate soybean meal quality
Based on the popularity of soybean meal as a protein source in poultry and swine feeds, it is not surprising that quite a lot of time and effort are expended in measuring soybean meal protein quality. Over the years, a number of techniques have been examined to measure the protein quality of plant protein products. Those most used in practice have changed as research-based comparisons of the various techniques have shed light into the relative merits of each. Currently, the analytical technique most commonly used to measure soybean meal quality is protein solubility, perhaps combined with the urease test. Protein solubility has been a tool to test soybean meal solubility for many decades (Smith and Circle, 1938, Lund and Sandstrom, 1943). These early attempts examined protein solubility in water. Later, a range of acid and alkaline chemicals were compared for their utility in measuring soybean meal protein solubility. More recently, Araba and Dale (1990a) and Parsons et al. (1991) examined the use of a 0.2% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. Protein (nitrogen) concentration is then quantified using the kjeldahl method. In general, KOH solubility decreases as the degree of heat treatment associated with soybean processing increases. While raw soybean products would be 100% soluble, they obviously have a full complement of antinutritional factors that have not been deactivated. Research comparing protein solubility to other measures of protein quality indicate that KOH solubilities between 78 to 84% are optimal for animal performance. Values ranging from 84 to 89% are slightly under-processed and may be acceptable for older animals, while values under 74% are over-processed and will have reduced lysine digestibility. Araba and Dale (1990b) compared protein solubility to Orange G binding and trypsin inhibitor activity. They found that protein solubility compared favorably to measurements of broiler growth and trypsin inhibitor activity while the Orange G binding technique was not sensitive to processing changes in autoclaved soybean meals (Figure 3). The combined works of Araba and Dale (1990a,b) concluded that the KOH solubility test is useful for detecting both over-processed and under-processed soybean meals.
The urease test has been used for some time as a measure of soybean meal processing. Urease is an enzyme in soybean meal that is of little interest in animal nutrition. It is, however, easier to measure than many of the antinutritional factors of interest. Because trypsin inhibitors and lectins are denatured by heat processing of soybeans at a similar rate to the urease enzyme, testing for urease is a useful marker for degree of soybean meal underprocessing (Caskey and Knapp, 1944; Wright, 1981). Unfortunately, the urease test does not do an adequate job of measuring overprocessed meals. Over time, meals ranging from 0.05 to 0.15 change in pH were considered properly processed for poultry. Recently, meals higher than a 0.15 pH change have been deemed usable by older chickens. Also, changes in soybean processing methods have raised questions regarding the lower range of this test (i.e. levels under 0.05 pH may not cause problems).
Figure 3.
Effects on protein solubility and Orange G binding of overprocessed soybean meal (Araba and Dale, 1990b).
Despite the ease of measuring the urease enzyme as opposed to more complicated assays, it is possible to routinely measure trypsin inhibitors in soybean meals. Directly measuring trypsin inhibitors in soybean meals is obviously a desirable assay and trypsin inhibitors are one of the major antinutritional factors of note. Kakade et al. (1974) described the most commonly-used method for determining trypsin inhibitors in soybean products for animal feeds. Work by Mc Naughton et al. (1981) indicated that direct measurement of trypsin inhibitor levels was an accurate indicator of animal performance for undercooked soybean products. For practical applications, the easier-to-complete urease test still predominates as a marker for under-processed soybean meals.
The use of Orange G dye to determine the amount of heat processing a soybean meal sample has been subjected to is based on the dye’s ability to bind the free ε-amino group of lysine under acidic conditions. As lysine progressively becomes less available during extended heat processing, less of the Orange G dye can bind. Moran et al. (1963) correlated Orange G dye binding with broiler chick growth and found agreement across a range of heat treatments (autoclaving in this case). Araba and Dale (1990b) found protein solubility more sensitive to soybean meal processing variation than the Orange G binding technique.
There are other dye binding tests that have been suggested as methods to monitor soybean meal quality, including the cresol red test (Olomucki and Bornstein, 1960; Vorha and Kratzer, 1991) and coomassie blue staining (Vorha and Kratzer, 1991). A coomassie blue dye solution can be used to titrate protein solubility after KOH treatment in place of the kjeldahl protein test (Kratzer et al., 1990). The optical density of the stained proteins is then measured against a set of lysozyme standards at 595 nm. Coomassie blue staining may be more accurate than the kjeldahl procedure at measuring protein solubility because coomassie blue binds with intact proteins and not free amino acids (Vorha and Kratzer, 1991), also, the coomassie blue dye test would be faster in producing results than using the Kjeldahl portion of the KOH solubility test. Because this is, in essence, a KOH solubility test, it is particularly useful in detecting overprocessed soybean meals.
Protein dispersibility index refers to the amount of soybean meal protein dispersed in water after blending a soybean meal sample in water with a high speed blender. Research by Batal et al. (2000) correlated chick growth with several methods of soybean meal quality assessment in meals that had been heat treated. Their results indicated that protein dispersibility index was a sensitive measure of soybean meal quality and gave better results than either the urease or protein solubility assays. Protein dispersibility indexes of 40 to 45% indicate a soybean meal that is neither over- or under-processed. These authors suggested that the protein dispersibility index will give an accurate picture of soybean processing if paired with another test such as the urease test. A number of other tests have been proposed to measure soybean meal quality, including formaldehyde titration (Almquist and Maurer, 1953) and a fluorescence test (Hsu et al., 1949).
In conclusion, nutritional quality of soybean meal is of utmost importance to optimize the rate and efficiency of growth of poultry. It is necessary for ingredient quality control programs to understand the appropriate assays to determine if soybean meal has been subjected to under- or over-processing (Table 3). Protein solubility assay is easily conducted and provides more reproducible results than trypsin inhibitor activity assay. A value greater than 85% denotes underprocessing, whereas a protein solubility index less than 74% infers overheating. Protein dispersibility index is also a useful tool to measure protein quality with values ranging from 40 to 45% denoting acceptable quality. Conversely, urease activity is useful only for detecting underprocessing because its activity falls to zero as soybean meal has been exposed to overprocessing. Moreover, Orange G binding capacity exhibits small change with soybean meal subjected to overprocessing, hence this assay may not be appropriate to detect overheated soybean meal.
Technique
Underprocessing
Overprocessing
Comments
KOH Solubility
Acceptable Assay
Acceptable Assay
Commonly used
Orange G Binding
Not useful
Very little change
Low sensitivity
Trypsin Inhibitor
Acceptable Assay
Not useful
Complicated, time consuming, and expensive
Urease
Acceptable Assay
Activity falls to zero
Commonly used
Protein dispersibility
Acceptable Assay
Acceptable Assay
Has potential but is not commonly used
Table 3.
Comparison of analytical techniques for under- and over-processed soybean meal
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Dozier, Iii",slug:"w.-a.-dozier-iii",email:"bill.dozier@auburn.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Auburn University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"136330",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph B. (Joe)",middleName:null,surname:"Hess",fullName:"Joseph B. (Joe) Hess",slug:"joseph-b.-(joe)-hess",email:"hessjos@auburn.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Auburn University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soybean meal in poultry and swine feeds ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Protein digestion ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Trypsin inhibtor in soybean meal and protein digestion ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Overheating of soybean meal",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. 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O.1968Limiting essential amino acids in soybean meal for growing chickens and the effects of heat upon availability of the essential amino acids.Poult. Sci. 47281287\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B65",body:'WrightK. N.1981Soybean meal processing and quality controlJ. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58296300\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"W.A. III. Dozier",address:null,affiliation:'
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Moores",authors:[{id:"37445",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",middleName:null,surname:"Gunning",fullName:"Robin Gunning",slug:"robin-gunning"},{id:"45768",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:null,surname:"Moores",fullName:"Graham Moores",slug:"graham-moores"}]},{id:"19746",title:"Conjugated Linoleic Acid: A Milk Fatty Acid with Unique Health Benefit Properties",slug:"conjugated-linoleic-acid-a-milk-fatty-acid-with-unique-health-benefit-properties",signatures:"Kathirvelan Chinnadurai and Amrish Tyagi",authors:[{id:"36882",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathirvelan",middleName:null,surname:"Chinnadurai",fullName:"Kathirvelan Chinnadurai",slug:"kathirvelan-chinnadurai"},{id:"135714",title:"Dr.",name:"Amrish",middleName:null,surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Amrish Tyagi",slug:"amrish-tyagi"}]},{id:"19747",title:"Lunasin, a Cancer Preventive Seed Peptide",slug:"lunasin-a-cancer-preventive-seed-peptide",signatures:"Blanca Hernández-Ledesma, Chia-Chien Hsieh, Vermont Dia, Elvira González de Mejia and Ben O. de Lumen",authors:[{id:"29648",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvira",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez De Mejia",fullName:"Elvira Gonzalez De Mejia",slug:"elvira-gonzalez-de-mejia"},{id:"36395",title:"Prof.",name:"Ben O.",middleName:null,surname:"de Lumen",fullName:"Ben O. de Lumen",slug:"ben-o.-de-lumen"},{id:"36572",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Ledesma",fullName:"Blanca Hernández-Ledesma",slug:"blanca-hernandez-ledesma"},{id:"36573",title:"Dr.",name:"Chia-Chien",middleName:null,surname:"Hsieh",fullName:"Chia-Chien Hsieh",slug:"chia-chien-hsieh"},{id:"92660",title:"Mr.",name:"Vermont",middleName:null,surname:"Dia",fullName:"Vermont Dia",slug:"vermont-dia"}]},{id:"19748",title:"Insights into the Pharmacological Effects of Soy Isoflavones on Catecholamine System",slug:"insights-into-the-pharmacological-effects-of-soy-isoflavones-on-catecholamine-system",signatures:"Nobuyuki Yanagihara, Yumiko Toyohira, Minhui Liu, Susumu Ueno, Masato Tsutsui and Han Zhang",authors:[{id:"33364",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yanagihara",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yanagihara",slug:"nobuyuki-yanagihara"},{id:"37854",title:"Dr.",name:"Yumiko",middleName:null,surname:"Toyohira",fullName:"Yumiko Toyohira",slug:"yumiko-toyohira"},{id:"37855",title:"Dr.",name:"Susumu",middleName:null,surname:"Ueno",fullName:"Susumu Ueno",slug:"susumu-ueno"},{id:"37856",title:"Ms.",name:"Han",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Han Zhang",slug:"han-zhang"},{id:"37857",title:"Prof.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsui",fullName:"Masato Tsutsui",slug:"masato-tsutsui"},{id:"89081",title:"BSc.",name:"Minhui",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Minhui Liu",slug:"minhui-liu"}]},{id:"19749",title:"Occurrence of Biogenic Amines in Soybean Food Products",slug:"occurrence-of-biogenic-amines-in-soybean-food-products",signatures:"Shruti Shukla, Jong-Kyu Kim and Myunghee Kim",authors:[{id:"33323",title:"Prof.",name:"Myunghee",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Myunghee Kim",slug:"myunghee-kim"},{id:"45053",title:"Dr.",name:"Shruti",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",fullName:"Shruti Shukla",slug:"shruti-shukla"},{id:"45055",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Kyu",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Jong-Kyu Kim",slug:"jong-kyu-kim"}]},{id:"19750",title:"Biologically Active Molecules from Soybeans",slug:"biologically-active-molecules-from-soybeans",signatures:"Michio Kurosu",authors:[{id:"33087",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Kurosu",fullName:"Michio Kurosu",slug:"michio-kurosu"}]},{id:"19751",title:"From Soybean Phytosterols to Steroid Hormones",slug:"from-soybean-phytosterols-to-steroid-hormones",signatures:"Feng-Qing Wang, Kang Yao and Dong-Zhi Wei",authors:[{id:"32646",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng-Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Feng-Qing Wang",slug:"feng-qing-wang"},{id:"32662",title:"MSc.",name:"Kang",middleName:null,surname:"Yao",fullName:"Kang Yao",slug:"kang-yao"},{id:"32663",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Dong-Zhi Wei",slug:"dong-zhi-wei"}]},{id:"19752",title:"Genistein Derivatization – From a Dietary Supplement to a Pharmaceutical Agent",slug:"genistein-derivatization-from-a-dietary-supplement-to-a-pharmaceutical-agent",signatures:"Aleksandra Rusin and Zdzisław Krawczyk",authors:[{id:"32402",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Rusin",fullName:"Aleksandra Rusin",slug:"aleksandra-rusin"},{id:"47345",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdzislaw",middleName:"Tadeusz",surname:"Krawczyk",fullName:"Zdzislaw Krawczyk",slug:"zdzislaw-krawczyk"}]},{id:"19753",title:"Soybean Oil: Production Process, Benefits and Uses in Pharmaceutical Dosage Form",slug:"soybean-oil-production-process-benefits-and-uses-in-pharmaceutical-dosage-form",signatures:"H. Yesim Karasulu, Ercüment Karasulu, Mevlüt Büyükhelvacıgil, Mustafa Yıldız, Ahmet Ertugrul, Kadir Büyükhelvacıgil, Zeliha Ustün and Nilay Gazel",authors:[{id:"32324",title:"Dr.",name:"H.Yesim",middleName:null,surname:"Karasulu",fullName:"H.Yesim Karasulu",slug:"h.yesim-karasulu"},{id:"82745",title:"Dr.",name:"Ercument",middleName:null,surname:"Karasulu",fullName:"Ercument Karasulu",slug:"ercument-karasulu"},{id:"83589",title:"Dr.",name:"Mevlut",middleName:null,surname:"Buyukhelvacigil",fullName:"Mevlut Buyukhelvacigil",slug:"mevlut-buyukhelvacigil"},{id:"83590",title:"BSc.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz"},{id:"83591",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Ertugrul",fullName:"Ahmet Ertugrul",slug:"ahmet-ertugrul"},{id:"83592",title:"MSc.",name:"Kadir",middleName:null,surname:"Buyukhelvacigil",fullName:"Kadir Buyukhelvacigil",slug:"kadir-buyukhelvacigil"},{id:"83593",title:"MSc.",name:"Zeliha",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",fullName:"Zeliha Ustun",slug:"zeliha-ustun"},{id:"83607",title:"MSc",name:"Nilay",middleName:null,surname:"Gazel",fullName:"Nilay Gazel",slug:"nilay-gazel"}]},{id:"19754",title:"Beneficial Effects of Bioactive Peptides Derived from Soybean on Human Health and Their Production by Genetic Engineering",slug:"beneficial-effects-of-bioactive-peptides-derived-from-soybean-on-human-health-and-their-production-b",signatures:"Chin Feng Liu and Tzu Ming Pan",authors:[{id:"32209",title:"Prof.",name:"Tzu-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"Tzu-Ming Pan",slug:"tzu-ming-pan"},{id:"45625",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chin-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Chin-Feng Liu",slug:"chin-feng-liu"}]},{id:"19755",title:"Soy Isoflavones as Bioactive Ingredients of Functional Foods",slug:"soy-isoflavones-as-bioactive-ingredients-of-functional-foods",signatures:"Lutz Mariane",authors:[{id:"30301",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariane",middleName:null,surname:"Lutz",fullName:"Mariane Lutz",slug:"mariane-lutz"}]},{id:"19756",title:"Soybean Oil: How Good or How Bad in Comparison with Other Dietary Oils in the Context of Colon Cancer",slug:"soybean-oil-how-good-or-how-bad-in-comparison-with-other-dietary-oils-in-the-context-of-colon-cancer",signatures:"Tatiana Fiche Salles Teixeira, Ana Paula Boroni Moreira, Damiana Diniz Rosa and Maria do Carmo Gouveia Peluzio",authors:[{id:"30193",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Do Carmo",middleName:"Gouveia",surname:"Peluzio",fullName:"Maria Do Carmo Peluzio",slug:"maria-do-carmo-peluzio"},{id:"47516",title:"MSc",name:"Damiana",middleName:"Diniz",surname:"Diniz Rosa",fullName:"Damiana Diniz Rosa",slug:"damiana-diniz-rosa"},{id:"47517",title:"MSc",name:"Ana Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Boroni Moreira",fullName:"Ana Paula Boroni Moreira",slug:"ana-paula-boroni-moreira"},{id:"47518",title:"Ms",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Fiche Sales Teixeira",fullName:"Tatiana Fiche Sales Teixeira",slug:"tatiana-fiche-sales-teixeira"}]},{id:"19757",title:"Anti-Diarrhoeal Aspects of Fermented Soya Beans",slug:"anti-diarrhoeal-aspects-of-fermented-soya-beans",signatures:"P.J. Roubos-van den Hil and M.J.R. Nout",authors:[{id:"30073",title:"Dr.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Roubos-Van Den Hil",fullName:"Petra Roubos-Van Den Hil",slug:"petra-roubos-van-den-hil"},{id:"46996",title:"Dr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:"Rob",surname:"Nout",fullName:"M.J. Nout",slug:"m.j.-nout"}]},{id:"19758",title:"Antioxidant and Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Soy Foods and Cardiovascular Disease",slug:"antioxidant-and-hypocholesterolemic-effects-of-soy-foods-and-cardiovascular-disease",signatures:"Eugene A. Borodin, Iraida G. Menshikova, Vladimir A. Dorovskikh, Natalya A. Feoktistova, Mikhail A. Shtarberg, Tatyana V. 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1. Introduction
Since the ultrafast (femtosecond) laser was demonstrated in the 1980s, the field of terahertz (THz) technologies has emerged with an array of applications appearing in different areas, from spectroscopy and sensing to imaging and high-speed communications [1, 2]. Terahertz radiation is nonionizing radiation and has low photon energies, thus having less chance of tissues, cells, and DNA damage during the spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. In addition, the terahertz radiation can be transmitted through some opaque objects in visible light, which opens an array of detection and security applications. The late development of the THz applications is due to the challenges in the generation and detection within the THz band. Its frequencies of 0.1 to 10 THz (30 μm to 3 mm), sandwiched between the electronic and optical frequencies, cannot be generated by conventional electronics or optical methods [3]. This is because the conventional electronics technologies are insufficient to produce broadband waves at these relatively high frequencies. On the other hand, conventional optical technologies cannot emit THz frequencies due to a fundamental issue; there is no material with a bandgap energy corresponding to the THz frequencies [4]. Fortunately, various ultrafast laser and semiconductors approaches have been examined and established. That leads to demonstration of the first emission of pulsed THz radiation using a dipole photoconductive antenna in 1988 by Smith et al. [5]. After that, the photoconductive devices were used widely to emit and detect broadband THz radiation; such devices have been developed with regards to their materials and structures to enhance the emission and detection of THz radiation. Nevertheless, the THz emission can be done mainly by two main methods, being optical rectification based on electro-optic (EO) crystal and photoconductive THz emitters based on semiconductors [6, 7].
The photoconductive THz emitter is an optoelectronic device with three main components, being the photoconductive materials, the photoconductive electrodes, and the lens [8] (Figure 1). The photoconductive material is a semiconductor having bandgap energy compatible with the photon energy of the ultrashort laser pulses. In addition, the photoconductive material should have optimum characteristics, including carrier lifetime, carrier mobility, breakdown voltage, and dark resistivity [9]. The carrier lifetime is preferable to be short. However, in the case of the photoconductive detector, it must be in the subpicosecond range. A higher breakdown voltage, carrier mobility, and dark resistivity are fundamental characteristics to assure a better photoconductive THz emitter performance in the form of higher radiated power, higher SNR, and broader bandwidth. The second component is the photoconductive electrodes. The photoconductive electrodes are two metal electrodes patterned on top of the device, having a gap in between, namely, a photoconductive gap. The design and dimensions of such a gap will influence the device’s performance. The last component is the lens. The lens is typically integrated with the emitter to accumulate the radiated field; the radiated field will then be focused on the targeted radiation path.
The photoconductive THz emitter can generate the THz radiation following photoexcitation of its photoconductive gap by an ultrashort laser pulse. When the laser pulse is focused into a photoconductive gap, the laser pulse generates free electrons and holes within the semiconductor, having a rate proportional to the laser pulse [10]. The free carriers will then accelerate under a bias field, controlled by the bias voltage, V, produce a transient photocurrent, and ultimately drive the emitter to emit far-field radiation with frequencies spanning into the THz spectrum [11].
This chapter presents the photoconductive devices for THz generation, with insights into their components, limitations, and considerations, and recent progress in this field. In Section 2, a number of photoconductive materials are discussed, the influence of the material and material’s characteristics are addressed. In Section 3, the photoconductive electrodes (structure) are considered. This includes different structures characteristics based on their size, being a large aperture antenna, a small aperture antenna, and the plasmonic antenna, discussing the influences on the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. In Section 4, the limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices are discussed. The presented limitations are mainly related to the bias field and optical (pump) fluence, which appear in the form of radiated power saturation. In addition, the underlying physics of the space charge and near-field saturation is provided. Ultimately, in Section 5, the recent advances in photoconductive devices technology are given, including the integrated devices and the system-on-chip technologies.
2. Photoconductive materials
In general, the photoconductive THz emitter performance differs based on the photoconductive material and structure. Therefore, the photoconductive material will be the focus of this section. The optimum photoconductive materials would be crystal lattices with a direct bandgap between the valence and conduction bands. This bandgap determined the absorption wavelength of the exciting laser pulse. Other factors that play a significant role in choosing suitable materials are low carrier lifetime and high carrier mobilities. The most studied materials for photoconductive devices are gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), quantum well of InGaAs, indium aluminum arsenide (InAlAs), and a combination of group III-VI materials. This section will explore the photoconductive materials GaAs, ion-implantation in GaAs, InGaAs, and multi-quantum wells InGaAs/InAlAs.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a III–V semiconductor that has a bandgap of (Eg ∼ 1.42 eV at 300 K) corresponding to the emission wavelength of 880 nm [12]. GaAs is compatible with the titanium-doped sapphire (Ti: sapphire) femtosecond pulsed laser sources typically used to illuminate the photoconductive THz emitters. The GaAs has been the most common material and is typically employed in semi-insulating (SI)-GaAs, low temperature-grown (LT)-GaAs, or ion-implanted GaAs. The SI-GaAs grown by liquid-encapsulated Czochralski at 450–600°C [13] is typically a single crystal that has a high resistivity (>107 Ω cm) and a high electron mobility (μ > 7000 cm2/Vs) [14]. The SI-GaAs is considered a cost-effective substrate and has become widely used material for photoconductive devices. However, the research was ongoing to shorten the carrier lifetime. The LT-GaAs grown on SI-GaAs is proved to reduce carrier lifetime two orders of magnitude to below 1 ps compared to SI-GaAs (t > 100 ps) and efficiently generate broadband THz radiations of over 1 THz with high resistivity (107 Ω cm) and reasonable mobility μ (100–300 cm2/Vs) [15]. The growth is typically done by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on the surface of SI-GaAs substrate and growth temperature to between 200°C and 300°C in an arsenic-rich environment [16]. In such a case, it yields a high level of crystallinity, which means higher carrier mobilities and point defects due to excess As precipitants. Higher mobility leads to fast response, and point defects significantly reduce the lifetime (below 400 fs). These point defects act as recombination centers [15]. Increasing the temperature above 250°C will increase the lifetime to be greater than 50 ps. Tani et al. conducted a direct between LT-GaAs and SI-GaAs and studied the effect of growth temperature and anneal time effects where the carrier lifetime of LT-GaAs grown at 250°C and followed by post-growth annealing at 600°C for 5 min was found to be a 0.3 ps [17]. However, the process conditions for LT-GaAs are not easy to reproduce due to unreliable temperature monitoring below 400°C.
An alternative approach is using the ion-implantation technique to create point defects and reduce the lifetime in SI-GaAs by implementing arsenic, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen (proton). Implanting H+ ions are shown to decrease the carrier lifetime of GaAs to sub-picosecond. Then several groups studied the effect of As+3 ion implantation of SI-GaAs and introduced excess As+3 impurities within the crystal structure similar to LT-GaAs [11]. However, the ion-implantation technique of As+3 (GaAs∶ As+3) improved the controllability of the excess As+3 concentration and uniformity as compared to LT-GaAs, making it more reproducible than LT growth [11]. Salem et al. [18] characterized the GaAs:As+ and unprocessed GaAs implanted with various other ions, including hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Their study revealed the lowest THz pulse intensity was observed in the GaAs∶N3− and all devices saturated at a higher pump fluence than nonprocessed GaAs emitter except GaAs:N+. A study by Liu et al. [19] revealed that using multi-energy implanted As+ ions leads to a shorter THz pulse and a higher bandwidth response than using single-energy ions.
The InGaAs are also employed as photoconductive material. It is a great advantage of the III-V compound to engineer the bandgap by changing the composition ratio. For example, the bandgap of the ternary compound indium gallium arsenide (InxGax-1As) can be potentially varied from 1.42 eV (x = 0) to 0.36 eV (x = 1). From a practical point of view, the protentional to achieve 0.8 eV (1550 nm optical excitation) was the motivation for investigating this material for THz applications. Doping InGaAs by iron has been demonstrated to provide required recombination sites for a subpicosecond carrier lifetime, higher optical pump saturation power, and higher breakdown voltage. Wood et al. [20] investigated the InGaAs∶Fe2+ emitter that is grown by using Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) across 830-nm to 1.55-μm optical excitation and found the highest THz power at the 1.2-μm excitation wavelength. This study shows precise control of the Fe-doping added during the epitaxial growth process and the strength of engineering the bandgap of III-V materials compound.
Heterostructure devices consisting of alternate InGaAs/InAlAs multilayer stacks (multiquantum wells) have been proposed [21] as potential materials for photoconductive devices and achieve high performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm. Sartorius et al. demonstrated the first InGa(Al)As-based THz photoconductive devices operating at 1.5 μm [22]. In their device, an MQW comprised of 12 nm InGaAs∶Be2+/8 nm InAlAs as the photoconductive region was grown using standard low-temperature methods on an InP substrate. Moreover, the material dark resistivity increases by four orders of magnitude comparable to bulk InGaAs due to the presence of Be2+ during the growth and the insertion of InAlAs, which has a higher dark resistivity than the InGaAs∶Be2+.
In addition to the GaAs, and InGa(Al)As, many other materials of group III-V such as InAs [23], InSb [23], GaSb [24], GaAsSb [25], and doped InGaAs [26], GaInSb [25] are studied as photoconductive material. Choosing the materials highly depends on the application and operating wavelength. Although LT-GaAs is still the most used material for photoconductive devices and is the most efficient material for 800 nm. However, it exhibits poor absorption at 1.55 μm, where other materials such as InGaAs or InGaAs/InAlAs heterostructure become more attractive. Table 1 summarized some of the photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
Photoconductive material
Advantages
Disadvantages
Active layer
Operating wavelength (nm)
GaAS
The most used materials for THz PCAs and is well studied. It is the most efficient material for 800 nm.
It is not suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength.
LT-GaAs
780
LT-GaAs
770
LT-GaAs
776
LT-GaAs
800
SI-GaAs
800
GaAs:Er
1550
InGaAs
Suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength.
Low dark resistivity.
InGaAs
1550
InGaAs
1550
Multi-QW
Higher dark resistivity. High performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm.
More complication.
InGaAs/InAlAs
1550
other materials of group III-V
The ability to engineer the target excitation wavelength.
More complication. It is not well studied.
InAs
780/ 1550
InSb
780/ 1550
GaSb
800
GaAsSb
800 (up to 1440)
InGaAs
800 and 1500
GaInSb
800
Table 1.
Summary of some photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
3. Photoconductive structure
The photoconductive devices for THz emission have been developed extensively to fulfill the demand for high-performance THz emitters—and thus be essential for spectroscopic and imaging applications. The development of the emitters’ structure is related to its design and dimensions and how that is attributed to the high performance of the THz emission. The performance of the photoconductive THz emitters is determined in the form of radiated power (or the THz spectral amplitude), SNR, and bandwidth. It is worth noting that the bandwidth here manifests itself as is the maximum frequency in the THz spectral amplitude, as a function of frequency, f, before the noise level of the measurements system. This chapter will provide an overview of such development regarding the design and structure of photoconductive THz emitters, with insights into the different emitter structures based on the dimensions, such as large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes THz emitters, small aperture THz emitters, and plasmonic THz emitters.
In the large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes photoconductive THz emitters, the gap between the two electrodes can be large as 4 mm to 130 μm [11]. Such a gap will allow a high level of optical excitation before reaching the saturation issues. Thus, the importance of such emitters stems from the need to scale up the radiated power, which is influenced by the incident optical power. A molded has been developed by Darrow et al. to study and predict the saturation in large-aperture photoconductive THz emitter, which is expected to have the saturation at higher pump fluence than the small-aperture THz emitter does [27].
In the small-aperture photoconductive THz emitter (dipole antenna), the gap between the two electrodes is smaller than in the large-aperture THz emitters, typically below 200 μm. In this case, it will be more difficult to align the laser spot within the PC gap. Although these emitters experience the saturation issues at lower pump fluence, in comparison with the large-aperture THz emitters, these emitters provide broader bandwidth over the large-aperture THz emitters. Our recent work on the design and structure of photoconductive THz emitters based on SI-GaAs examined the influence of bowtie structure characteristics on the THz spectral amplitude and bandwidth [28]. It is found that the bandwidth can be improved from 3.4 THz to 3.7 THz by changing the design of electrode structure from a sharp bowtie to an asymmetric bowtie structure at the same photoconductive gap. That could be attributed to the smaller capacitance of the sharp bowtie structure over the asymmetric bowtie structure, which results in a shorter resistance-capacitance (RC) time constant. The RC time constant, τRC, can be related to the gap conductance (of the photoconductive antenna), G(t), the gap capacitance, C, and the antenna/transmission line impedance, Z0 as [28]:
τRC=2Z0C/2Z0CGt+1,E1
Figure 2 illustrates the biased photoconductive gap with its equivalent circuit, here the redistribution of charge on the electrodes, can be seen as incident voltage waveform, vi(t), reflected voltage waveform, vr(t), and transmitted voltage waveforms, vt(t).
Figure 2.
A biased photoconductive gap at bias voltage, Vb. The inset shows an equivalent circuit of the photoinductive gap having the electrodes with incident voltage waveform, vi(t), reflected voltage waveform, vr(t), and transmitted voltage waveforms, vt(t). The gap conductance is shown as G(t) and the gap capacitance is shown as C. this figure is reprinted from [28].
The plasmonic THz emitter is introduced by Berry et al. by means of increasing the THz radiated power. An improvement of up to 50 times of the THz radiated power is observed using a plasmonic structure compared to a conventional photoconductive THz emitter [29]. The fabricated plasmonic THz emitter was based on LT-GaAs to provide an ultrafast photoconductor response. The distance between the two electrodes was 60 μm; the antenna structure was bowtie without fine tips; the maximum width of the antenna was 100 μm; the minimum width was 30 μm. In the plasmonic structure, the grating structure had a gap width of 100 nm, and the deposited gold had the same width of 100 nm. The optical pump focused on the gap close to the anode to maximize the THz radiation [29, 30]. Figure 3 shows a comparison between the conventional photoconductive antenna and the plasmonic photoconductive antennae as in (a) the conventional photoconductive THz emitter and (b) the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter [32]. In addition to the plasmonic metal structure, the silver nano-islands on the photoconductive surface improve the performance of the photoconductive THz emitter [33]. Georgiou et al. have been recently demonstrated a 3-dimensional photonic-plasmonic photoconductive device. The performance of the THz emission is enhanced by employing a periodic array of nanopillars, which raise the optical absorption on the device surface and optimize the collection efficiency by converting each nanopillar into a single (nano)-photoconductive switch. As a result, nearly the overall generated current and the bandwidth are increased by 50-fold and five times, respectively. However, such a device will request high-tech technology to fabricate it [34]. On the contrary, the metal-based nano-islands structures enhance the photoconductive THz emission with a less complicated fabrication process. It is worth noting that these metal nano-islands can be produced by fine-tuning the deposition and thermal annealing process. Thus, it will offer less complexity during the fabrication in compression of the above-mentioned plasmonic structure.
Overall, the photoconductive structure plays a significant role in the performance of the photoconductive THz emitters. The large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes THz emitters mitigate the influence of saturation for scaling up the THz emission with the optical influence. The small aperture THz emitter (dipole antenna) shows a broader bandwidth, which allows discovering a more comprehensive range of THz frequencies. In addition, the recent studies on plasmonic devices present their significance to the photoconductive THz emitter performance. It also steers the future research and development of high-performance photoconductive devices for spectroscopy, sensing, and imaging applications.
4. Limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices
The underlying physics of the THz emission by photoconductive devices is the core of this section, which helps understand these devices’ behavior. The photoconductive THz emission scales linearly with the applied bias field and pump fluence. However, that can be precise only in the ideal case, at low levels of bias field and/or optical excitation. Higher levels of bias field influence the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Such influence can be seen as thermal effects, space-charge-limited current effects, etc. In addition, the photoconductive device has a limitation at a higher bias field correlated to the breakdown voltage of the photoconductive material. The pump fluence also has an impact, but that can be observed as the saturation of the THz radiation. The saturation (screening) of the THz radiation is mainly associated with two different mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. This section will explore the limitation of the photoconductive THz emission with insights into the material and structure implications on photoconductive THz emitter’s performance.
The THz radiated power (or the THz field amplitude, ETHz) can be scaled with the bias field, Eb, in three different mechanisms, based on the bias filed value and the photoconductive material, being a superliner (red), a linear (blue), and a sublinear (yellow), as shown in Figure 4. The superliner behavior is seen clearly with the photoconductive THz emitters based on GaAs. This superlinearity is associated with the space-charge-limited current due to the deep EL2 traps states [29, 35]. The superliner behavior is associated with the limitations within the semiconductor. This limitation manifests itself as Joule heating within the semiconductor and is observed in the photoconductive THz emitters based on InP [32]. Collier et al. have studied the Joule heating limitation in the photoconductive THz emitters based on InP. They found a correlation between the surface quality and the carrier lifetime, which directly affects Joule heating. In the textured InP photoconductive THz emitters, the carrier lifetime is decreased, which reduces the photocurrent and ultimately diminishes the Joule heating [32].
Figure 4.
The scaling of THz radiated power as the THz field amplitude, ETHz, with the bias field, Eb, in three different methods, being a superliner (red), a linear (blue), and a sublinear (yellow).
The pump fluence impacts the radiated THz power in the form of saturation (screening). At a higher level of optical excitation, the radiated THz power will be saturated. This saturation can be classified into two mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. However, each screening status differs based on the photoconductive characteristics (material and structure) and optical characteristics (pump fluence). It is worth noting that transient mobility (mobility as a function of pump fluence) plays an important role in the emitted THz power and thus in the screening of the THz field [30]. The mechanisms of these two screening effects are explained in the next paragraph.
In the space-charge THz screening, the limitation of the photocurrent within the photoconductive gap is due to the high carrier densities within the photoconductive gap, affected by the high pump fluence. The charges drift in the opposite direction. Thus, the bias field screens and ultimately limits the radiated THz field [36]. In the near-field THz screening, the direction of the radiated THz field is in the opposite direction of the bias field, which limits the linear scale of the THz radiated field with the pump fluence, as increasing the pump fluence will raise the carrier densities within the semiconductor [37]. At the same pump fluence, the carrier densities in the emitter with a large photoconductive gap will be smaller than in the emitters with a small photoconductive gap. Thus, a large photoconductive gap emitter leads to scaling up the radiated THz power for higher levels, which increases the total emitter performance, before reaching the screening issues [30].
Overall, the main limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices can be related to the applied bias field and the exciting pump fluence. The two limitations are correlated with the photoconductive material and structure characteristics. These two limitations prevent the THz field amplitude from scaling linearly with the bias field and pump fluence. Thus, it is essential to design the photoconductive THz emitter carefully. Furthermore, the photoconductive material must be chosen judiciously to meet the demand of the high-radiated THz field for the aforementioned advanced applications.
5. Recent advances in photoconductive devices
A number of the recent advances and research in the field of photoconductive devices are discussed in this section, with insight on the development of the material and structure to enhance the photoconductive THz emission for spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. The section will explore different approaches including:
Quantum dots.
Nanostructured electrodes (non-plasmonic) of the photoconductive device.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices.
Grating photoconductive devices.
The development of the photoconductive THz emission using such new approaches is notable. The quantum dots are mainly related to photoconductive materials. In contrast, the nanostructured electrodes, dielectric metasurfaces, and Grating photoconductive devices are associated with the photoconductive structure. Here, the main interest is to focus on improving the THz emission using these different approaches and the potential enhancement of these devices.
The quantum dots have been employed to boost the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Gorodetsky et al. used InAs quantum dots in bulk GaAs. The short carrier lifetime has captured with the dots in such devices and maintains high carrier mobility [38, 39]. The photo-electronic priorities of the quantum dots can be managed by controlling the characteristics of these dots during epitaxial growth. It is worth noting that quantum dots have three-dimensional effects compared with a one-dimensional effect in the quantum wells. In Gorodetsky et al. study, the active regain consists of InAs quantum dots layer (1–2 nm), InGaAs wetting (5 nm), and GaAs spacer (35 nm). At the top of these layers, an LT-GaAs layer is grown with a 30-nm thickness, the observed boost of such structure is about 5-fold at 1.0 THz [37]. In addition, GaAs with ErAs quantum dots has been demonstrated for exaction laser having a 1550-nm wavelength [40]. The observed conversion rate (from optical to THz power) is 0.18%. However, this result was obtained by using a resonant slot antenna.
Nanostructure electrodes of the photoconductive device show an improvement of the photoconductive THz generation, even without a plasmonic effect. Although the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter is one of the breakings through in the THz generation and detection field, the nanostructure has its encasement on the performance of such devices [41]. Singh et al. examined an antenna nanostructure fabricated by utilizing an electron-beam lithography system (EBL), having a 5-nm titanium layer and a 25-nm gold layer. Hilbert-fractal design is used with different line widths up to 140 nm. An improvement of the emitted THz power by an approximate factor of two is observed using this nanostructure.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices can be used as an alternative method to enhance the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance instead of the plasmonic structure [42]. Although the plasmonic structure delivers better THz field improvement over the dielectric structure, the dielectric structure has a substantial characteristic which is the lack of dissipation [43]. In addition, the optical absorption of the incident light (laser) onto the photoconductive device can be improved by reducing the Fresnel losses, which can be done by using thin films of dielectric materials on top of the photoconductive gap. These dielectric materials (thin films) include SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3, and TiO2 [44, 45]. Figure 5 shows a bowtie antenna having a layer of TiO2 being coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black), “from [45]”.
Figure 5.
The bowtie photoconductive antenna with TiO2 layer, coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black). This figure is reprinted from [45] with the permission of AIP publishing.
The grating structure manifests itself as a periodic array of grooves, lines, slits, etc. The grating structure of the photoconductive devices for THz generation has been studied according to the effective medium approximations (or effective medium theory). The theory can be applied to describe the interaction of light with the grating structure (subwavelength) [46]. Chia et al. have modeled and simulated the influence of grating structure on the THz emission performance by COMSOL Multiphysics software with an insight into the effects of grating geometrical parameters. The author funds an improvement of about 1.63 of the photocurrents obtained by an optimized grating structure of photoconductive THz emitter over the planer emitter structure. This is due to the higher photon absorption, which leads to and leads to more carrier generation within photoconductive material, thus higher photocurrent is observed [46]. Figure 6 shows the simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs and its effects, as in a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter used in the simulation, and b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters, “from [46]”.
Figure 6.
The simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs, as in (a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters. This figure is reprinted from [46].
Nowadays, the development of photoconductive devices regarding materials and structure is a hot research topic. Several publications have discussed many schemes to achieve higher performance of THz generation by photoconductive devices to facilitate the applications in cutting-edge technologies such as THz spectroscopy, THz sensing, and THz imaging. For photoconductive materials, the research focuses on the quantum dots as well as promotes material properties such as the carrier lifetime and carrier mobility. For the photoconductive structure, the implementation of plasmonic and nanostructures shows its advantage for the aforementioned applications. However, utilizing some novel ideas such as grating structure and a precise selection of the dielectric material is demonstrated to boost the performance of photoconductive devices further.
6. Conclusion
This chapter presented the photoconductive devices for THz emission. Several materials have been employed as photoconductive materials. However, GaAs is a typical material for these applications, particularly for the sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser sources, which emit at the same range of the bandgap energy of GaAs. Furthermore, several photoconductive structures have been employed. The plasmonic structure shows the highest impact of the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance over the microstructure photoconductive THz emitters. On top of that, the screening effects of the THz field amplitude is an issue limiting the linear scaling of the THz field with the pump fluence. Such limitations can be diminished using a large-aperture photoconductive antenna. At the end of this chapter, the improvement of these devices’ performance has been considered by viewing some recent work in this area. The work has also presented the influence of the quantum dots, the nanostructured electrodes (nonplasmonic) of the photoconductive device, the dielectric materials in photoconductive terahertz devices, and the grating structure on the photoconductive surface. It is hoped that the presented work can lay a role in continuing advancements of photoconductive devices.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"photoconductive device, photoconductive THz emitter, semiconductor THz emitter, broadband THz emission, photoconductive antenna",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81198.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81198.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81198",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81198",totalDownloads:24,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 28th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 10th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter explores the terahertz (THz) emission from biased semiconductor photoconductive devices. The photoconductive device is an optoelectronic device that is able to emit broadband THz radiation under the optical excitation, by an ultrafast laser, in the existence of a bias field. This chapter explains the basic principle of photoconductive devices with focusing on the main device components, being the photoconductive material and the photoconductive structure. Then, various materials and structures are discussed toward improving the performance of the photoconductive THz emitters. Furthermore, the main limitations and considerations are presented with insight into the different saturation and screening effects due to the bias field and pump fluence. Ultimately, the recent advances and studies of photoconductive THz emitters are presented in terms of material and structure, including the quantum dots, the nanostructure, the use of dielectric materials, and the grating structure on the photoconductive surfaces.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81198",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81198",signatures:"Salman Alfihed and Abdullah Alharbi",book:{id:"10963",type:"book",title:"Intelligent Electronics and Circuits - Terahertz, ITS, and Beyond",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Intelligent Electronics and Circuits - Terahertz, ITS, and Beyond",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mingbo Niu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10963.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-001-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-000-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-002-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"141595",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingbo",middleName:null,surname:"Niu",slug:"mingbo-niu",fullName:"Mingbo Niu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Photoconductive materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Photoconductive structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Recent advances in photoconductive devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nagatsuma T, Ducournau G, Renaud CC. Advances in terahertz communications accelerated by photonics. Nature Photonics. 2016;10:371-379'},{id:"B2",body:'Walther M, Fischer BM, Ortner A, Bitzer A, Thoman A, Helm H. Chemical sensing and imaging with pulsed terahertz radiation. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2010;397(3):1009-1017'},{id:"B3",body:'Kleiner R. Filling the terahertz gap. Science. 2007;318:1254-1255'},{id:"B4",body:'Lewis RA. A review of terahertz sources. 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Applied Physics Letters. 1991;59(25):1.105729'},{id:"B16",body:'Jooshesh A, Bahrami-Yekta V, Zhang J, Tiedje T, Darcie TE, Gordon R. Plasmon-enhanced below bandgap photoconductive terahertz generation and detection. Nano Letters. 2015;15(12):8306-8310'},{id:"B17",body:'Tani M, Matsuura S, Sakai K, Nakashima S-i. Emission characteristics of photoconductive antennas based on low-temperature-grown GaAs and semi-insulating GaAs. Applied Optics. 1997;36(30):7853-7859'},{id:"B18",body:'Salem B, Morris D, Aimez V, Beerens J, Beauvais J, Houde D. Pulsed photoconductive antenna terahertz sources made on ion-implanted GaAs substrates. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter. 2005;17(46):7327'},{id:"B19",body:'Liu T-A. THz radiation emission properties of multienergy arsenic-ion-implanted GaAs and semi-insulating GaAs based photoconductive antennas. Journal of Applied Physics. 2003;93(5):1.1541105'},{id:"B20",body:'Wood CD, Hatem O, Cunningham JE, Linfield EH, Davies AG, Cannard PJ, et al. 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Precise determination of deep trap signatures and their relative and absolute concentrations in semi-insulating GaAs. Journal of Applied Physics. 1997;84(4):1.368258'},{id:"B30",body:'Alfihed S, Jenne MF, Ciocoiu A, Foulds IG, Holzman JF. Photoconductive terahertz generation in semi-insulating GaAs and InP under the extremes of bias field and pump fluence. Optics Letters. 2021;46(3):572-575'},{id:"B31",body:'Berry CW, Jarrah M. Terahertz generation using plasmonic photoconductive gratings. New Journal of Physics. 2012;14:105029'},{id:"B32",body:'Collier CM, Stirling TJ, Hristovski IR, Krupa JDA, Holzman JF. Photoconductive terahertz generation from textured semiconductor materials. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:23185'},{id:"B33",body:'Lepeshov S, Gorodetsky A, Krasnok A, Toropov N, Vartanyan TA, Belov P, et al. Boosting terahertz photoconductive antenna performance with optimised plasmonic nanostructures. Scientific Reports. 2018;8:6624'},{id:"B34",body:'Georgiou G, Geffroy C, Bäuerle C, Roux J-F. Efficient three-dimensional photonic–plasmonic photoconductive switches for picosecond THz pulses. ACS Photonics. 2020;7(6):1444-1451'},{id:"B35",body:'Tian L, Shi W. Analysis of operation mechanism of semi-insulating GaAs photoconductive semiconductor switches. Journal of Applied Physics. 2007;103(12):1.2940728'},{id:"B36",body:'Kima DS, Citrin DS. Coulomb and radiation screening in photoconductive terahertz sources. Applied Physics Letters. 2006;88(16):1.2196480'},{id:"B37",body:'Binder R, Scott D, Paul AE, Lindberg M, Henneberger K, Koch SW. Carrier-carrier scattering and optical dephasing in highly excited semiconductors. Physical Review B. 1992;45:1107-1115'},{id:"B38",body:'Gorodetsky A, Leite IT, Rafailov EU. Operation of quantum dot based terahertz photoconductive antennas under extreme pumping conditions. Applied Physics Letters. 2021;119(11):5.0062720'},{id:"B39",body:'Leyman RR, Gorodetsky A, Bazieva N, Molis G, Krotkus A, Clarke E, et al. Quantum dot materials for terahertz generation applications. Laser & Photonics Reviews. 2016;10(5):772-779'},{id:"B40",body:'Mingardi A, Zhang W-D, Brown ER, Feldman AD, Harvey TE, Mirin RP. High power generation of THz from 1550-nm photoconductive emitters. Optics Express. 2018;26(11):14472-14478'},{id:"B41",body:'Singh A, Welsch M, Winnerl S, Helm M, Schneider H. Non-plasmonic improvement in photoconductive THz emitters using nano- and micro-structured electrodes. Optics Express. 2020;28(24):35490-35497'},{id:"B42",body:'Yachmenev AE, Lavrukhin DV, Glinskiy IA, Zenchenko NV, Goncharov YG, Spektor IE, et al. Metallic and dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices: A review. Optical Engineering. 2019;59(6):061608'},{id:"B43",body:'Yang Y, Kravchenko II, Briggs DP, Valentine J. All-dielectric metasurface analogue of electromagnetically induced transparency. Nature Communications. 2014;5:5753'},{id:"B44",body:'Headley C, Lan F, Parkinson P, Xinlong X, Lloyd-Hughes J, Jagadish C, et al. Improved performance of gaas-based terahertz emitters via surface passivation and silicon nitride encapsulation. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 2017;17(1):17-21'},{id:"B45",body:'Gupta A, Rana G, Bhattacharya A, Singh A, Jain R, Bapat RD, et al. Enhanced optical-to-THz conversion efficiency of photoconductive antenna using dielectric nano-layer encapsulation. APL Photonics. 2018;3:051706'},{id:"B46",body:'Chia JY, Tantiwanichapan K, Jintamethasawat R, Sathukarn A. A computational study on performance improvement of THz signal from a grating photoconductive antenna. Photonics. 2020;7(4):108'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Salman Alfihed",address:"salfihed@kacst.edu.sa",affiliation:'
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All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
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The HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
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The full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
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IntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Every year, the number of palm oil mills increases rapidly, thus increasing the capacity of fresh fruit bunch waste or effluent discharge. Based on the data from the Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2012, Malaysia produced 99.85 million tons of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) per year. However, about 5–5.7 tons of water was required in order to sterilize the palm fruit bunches and clarify the extracted oil to produce 1 ton of crude palm oil resulting in 50% of the water turning into palm oil mill effluent (POME). POME is one of the major environmental pollutants in Malaysia. The characteristics of POME and its behavior, if discharged directly, in water are described in this chapter. The suspended solid and nutrient content in POME could be able to support the growth of algae. 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Many common products and foods are derived from oil palm, its making them one of the most economically important plants. On the other hand, declining supply of raw materials from natural resources has motivated researchers to find alternatives to produce new materials from sustainable resources like oil palm. Oil palm waste is possibly an ideal source for cellulose-based natural fibers and particles. Generally, oil palm waste such as oil palm empty fruit bunches, oil palm trunk, oil palm shell and oil palm ash are good source of biomaterials. Lack of sufficient documentation of existing scientific information about the utilization of oil palm waste raw materials for biomaterial production is the driving force behind the this chapter. Incorporation of various types of biomaterial derived from oil palm waste resources as reinforcement in polymer matrices lead to the development of biocomposites products and this can be used in wide range of potential applications. Properties and characterization of biomaterial from oil palm waste will not only help to promote further study on nanomaterials derived from non-wood materials but also emphasize the importance of commercially exploit oil palm waste for sustainable products.",book:{id:"6730",slug:"palm-oil",title:"Palm Oil",fullTitle:"Palm Oil"},signatures:"Rudi Dungani, Pingkan Aditiawati, Sri Aprilia, Karnita Yuniarti, Tati\nKarliati, Ichsan Suwandhi and Ihak Sumardi",authors:[{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"234728",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudi",middleName:null,surname:"Dungani",slug:"rudi-dungani",fullName:"Rudi Dungani"},{id:"249537",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Aprilia",slug:"sri-aprilia",fullName:"Sri Aprilia"},{id:"249539",title:"Dr.",name:"Karnita",middleName:null,surname:"Yuniarti",slug:"karnita-yuniarti",fullName:"Karnita Yuniarti"},{id:"249541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tati",middleName:null,surname:"Karliati",slug:"tati-karliati",fullName:"Tati Karliati"},{id:"249542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichsan",middleName:null,surname:"Suwandi",slug:"ichsan-suwandi",fullName:"Ichsan Suwandi"},{id:"249543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihak",middleName:null,surname:"Sumardi",slug:"ihak-sumardi",fullName:"Ihak Sumardi"},{id:"256251",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Hartati",slug:"sri-hartati",fullName:"Sri Hartati"}]},{id:"52155",doi:"10.5772/64828",title:"EOR Processes, Opportunities and Technological Advancements",slug:"eor-processes-opportunities-and-technological-advancements",totalDownloads:5532,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes are well known for their efficiency in incrementing oil production; however, the selection of the most suitable method to adopt for specific field applications is challenging. Hence, this chapter presents an overview of different EOR techniques currently applied in oil fields, the opportunities associated with these techniques, key technological advancements to guide the decision‐making process for optimum applicability and productivity and a brief review of field applications.",book:{id:"5143",slug:"chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-ceor-a-practical-overview",title:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR)",fullTitle:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR) - a Practical Overview"},signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Stephen Theophilus, Ahmed Barifcani,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",middleName:"Nekabari",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"179078",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Theophilus",slug:"stephen-theophilus",fullName:"Stephen Theophilus"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52155",title:"EOR Processes, Opportunities and Technological Advancements",slug:"eor-processes-opportunities-and-technological-advancements",totalDownloads:5532,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes are well known for their efficiency in incrementing oil production; however, the selection of the most suitable method to adopt for specific field applications is challenging. Hence, this chapter presents an overview of different EOR techniques currently applied in oil fields, the opportunities associated with these techniques, key technological advancements to guide the decision‐making process for optimum applicability and productivity and a brief review of field applications.",book:{id:"5143",slug:"chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-ceor-a-practical-overview",title:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR)",fullTitle:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR) - a Practical Overview"},signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Stephen Theophilus, Ahmed Barifcani,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",middleName:"Nekabari",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"179078",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Theophilus",slug:"stephen-theophilus",fullName:"Stephen Theophilus"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}]},{id:"60752",title:"Biomaterial from Oil Palm Waste: Properties, Characterization and Applications",slug:"biomaterial-from-oil-palm-waste-properties-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:2917,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Oil palm are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families, especially Indonesia and Malaysia. Many common products and foods are derived from oil palm, its making them one of the most economically important plants. On the other hand, declining supply of raw materials from natural resources has motivated researchers to find alternatives to produce new materials from sustainable resources like oil palm. Oil palm waste is possibly an ideal source for cellulose-based natural fibers and particles. Generally, oil palm waste such as oil palm empty fruit bunches, oil palm trunk, oil palm shell and oil palm ash are good source of biomaterials. Lack of sufficient documentation of existing scientific information about the utilization of oil palm waste raw materials for biomaterial production is the driving force behind the this chapter. Incorporation of various types of biomaterial derived from oil palm waste resources as reinforcement in polymer matrices lead to the development of biocomposites products and this can be used in wide range of potential applications. Properties and characterization of biomaterial from oil palm waste will not only help to promote further study on nanomaterials derived from non-wood materials but also emphasize the importance of commercially exploit oil palm waste for sustainable products.",book:{id:"6730",slug:"palm-oil",title:"Palm Oil",fullTitle:"Palm Oil"},signatures:"Rudi Dungani, Pingkan Aditiawati, Sri Aprilia, Karnita Yuniarti, Tati\nKarliati, Ichsan Suwandhi and Ihak Sumardi",authors:[{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"234728",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudi",middleName:null,surname:"Dungani",slug:"rudi-dungani",fullName:"Rudi Dungani"},{id:"249537",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Aprilia",slug:"sri-aprilia",fullName:"Sri Aprilia"},{id:"249539",title:"Dr.",name:"Karnita",middleName:null,surname:"Yuniarti",slug:"karnita-yuniarti",fullName:"Karnita Yuniarti"},{id:"249541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tati",middleName:null,surname:"Karliati",slug:"tati-karliati",fullName:"Tati Karliati"},{id:"249542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichsan",middleName:null,surname:"Suwandi",slug:"ichsan-suwandi",fullName:"Ichsan Suwandi"},{id:"249543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihak",middleName:null,surname:"Sumardi",slug:"ihak-sumardi",fullName:"Ihak Sumardi"},{id:"256251",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Hartati",slug:"sri-hartati",fullName:"Sri Hartati"}]},{id:"66623",title:"Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerine to Acrolein",slug:"catalytic-dehydration-of-glycerine-to-acrolein",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The biodiesel production yields glycerine as a by-product in quantities around 10 vol% of produced biodiesel. Acrolein can be obtained from glycerine by a dehydration reaction. Catalytic processes in gas phase have been developed to obtain acrolein from a renewable feedstock using heterogeneous catalysts. The main process variables are the reaction temperature, the concentration of glycerol in water, and the space velocity in fixed-bed reactors. A thermodynamic study of the equilibrium has been made to estimate the conversion to equilibrium as a function of temperature. The reactors have been heated usually between 523 and 603 K. Generally, an aqueous glycerol solution is preheated in a preheating zone at a temperature enough to vaporize the feedstock, between 473 and 533 K, depending on the concentration of reactant required in the feed. Some of the most active catalysts in the gas-phase reaction (yield >70%) were NH4-La-β zeolite, Pd/LaY zeolite, hierarchical ZSM-5, WO3/ZrO2, WO3/TiO2, ZrOx-NbOx, WOx-NbOx, WO3-SiO2/ZrO2, NbOx-WOx/Al2O3, H3PO4-MCM-41, SAPO-40, NbPSi, Pd-H3PW12O40/Zr-MCM-41, H3PW12O40/Cs-SBA-15, H3PW12O40/Nb2O5, Cs-doped H4SiW12O40/Al2O3, H4SiW12O40/TiO2, and H4SiW12O40/SiO2.",book:{id:"8448",slug:"glycerine-production-and-transformation-an-innovative-platform-for-sustainable-biorefinery-and-energy",title:"Glycerine Production and Transformation",fullTitle:"Glycerine Production and Transformation - An Innovative Platform for Sustainable Biorefinery and Energy"},signatures:"Israel Pala Rosas, Jose Luis Contreras Larios , Beatriz Zeifert and José Salmones Blásquez",authors:[{id:"94936",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"jose-luis-contreras",fullName:"José Luis Contreras"},{id:"284261",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Pala-Rosas",slug:"israel-pala-rosas",fullName:"Israel Pala-Rosas"},{id:"284262",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Salmones",slug:"jose-salmones",fullName:"Jose Salmones"},{id:"284263",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Zeifert",slug:"beatriz-zeifert",fullName:"Beatriz Zeifert"},{id:"295779",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"jose-luis-contreras",fullName:"Jose Luis Contreras"}]},{id:"64816",title:"PVT Properties of Black Crude Oil",slug:"pvt-properties-of-black-crude-oil",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Precise PVT studies and behavior of phase-equilibrium of petroleum reservoir fluids are essential for describing these fluids and appraising their volumetric behavior at several pressure stages. There are numerous laboratory studies that can be performed on a reservoir sample. The amount of data desired determines the number of tests to be performed in the laboratory. Generally, there are three laboratory tests which characterize hydrocarbon fluids, namely primary study, constant mass depletion, and differential vaporization test. Generally, PVT properties are determined either experimentally or calculated theoretically through published correlations. This chapter presents different PVT laboratory tests that are required to understand the phase behavior of black oils.",book:{id:"7323",slug:"processing-of-heavy-crude-oils-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",fullTitle:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy and Saad Desouky",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",middleName:"Nasr",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"},{id:"210639",title:"Dr.",name:"Saad M.",middleName:null,surname:"Desouky",slug:"saad-m.-desouky",fullName:"Saad M. Desouky"}]},{id:"64885",title:"Environmental Challenges Associated with Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",slug:"environmental-challenges-associated-with-processing-of-heavy-crude-oils",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The petroleum industry is one of the largest industries in the world and plays a pivotal part in driving a nation’s economy. However, the exploration and exploitation of heavy crude oil have raised series of environmental challenges and caused increased concern for the communities where the oil refineries are cited. Activities such as gas flaring and oil spillage have led to the release of toxic organic and inorganic pollutants, which has resulted in acid rain, climate change, and contamination of soil, water, and air. These environmental hazards have caused adverse effects directly or indirectly to the ecosystem. This chapter offers a general overview of the processes involved in the processing and some of the potential environmental challenges associated with heavy crude oil processing.",book:{id:"7323",slug:"processing-of-heavy-crude-oils-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",fullTitle:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Samuel O. Sojinu and Onome Ejeromedoghene",authors:[{id:"265172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Sojinu",slug:"samuel-sojinu",fullName:"Samuel Sojinu"},{id:"275861",title:"Mr.",name:"Onome",middleName:null,surname:"Ejeromedoghene",slug:"onome-ejeromedoghene",fullName:"Onome Ejeromedoghene"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"702",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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