\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
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In the same time, by modulating some target functions of the body, the food components might have benefic psychological and physiological effects, beside the nutritional ones, already accepted.
In fact, food must contribute to health improving/protection and sustain systems of defence against different aggressions. We are situated at a new frontier of nutrition, in which the foods are evaluated by their biological potential and by their ability to reduce the risk of developing certain diseases. We can talk today about the fact that food for health represent an expanding field:
In essence, probiotic functional food are products that, by their biological active compounds and consumed in current diets, contribute to optimal human physical and psihycal health.
The appearance and development of functional probiotic food are the response of production field to the results of cellular and molecular biology field research, which demonstrates the implication of food components in proper functioning cellules and subcelular structures. The importance of these studies is essential in contemporaneous context in which the environment assaults by many ways the human body, fully stressing it’s protection, adaption and equilibrium maintenance systems. By their specific action, the food components might contribute to the maintain the normal parameters of cellular edificium and of the human body equilibrium.
Nowadays we are assisting to an intensification of research in food – alimentation – health relationship field. The ideea that food might increase/defend health due to active biological components from it’s composition conquers more and more acceptability in the scientific community and there are many publication in this field. Unlike the last years, the customers from many countries become more and more interested in health beneficial determined by alimentation, including probiotic functional food. In Romania, even before the adherence to UE, there were registered studies concerning manufacturing of probiotic functional foods, especially in dairy industry and explaining the induced benefits for health.
In this trend of food science are included some of the studies developed over the years by researchers from Galati Food Science and Engineering Faculty.
The name probiotic comes from the Greek „
The term „probiotic“ was first used by [2] in 1965 to describe the „substances secreted by one microorganism that stimulate the growth of another“. A powerful evolution of this definition was coined by [3] in 1974, who proposed that probiotics are „organisms and substances which contribute to intestinal microbial balance“ [4]. In more modern definitions, the concept of an action on the gut microflora, and even that of live microorganisms disappeared [5] in 1998 defined probiotics as the „food which contains live bacteria beneficial to health“, whereas [6] in 2001 defined them as „microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being“.
Some modern definitions include more precisely a preventive or therapeutic action of probiotics. [7] in 1997 for example, defined probiotics as „microorganisms which, when ingested, may have a positive effect in the prevention and treatment of a specific pathologic condition“. Finally, since probiotics have been found to be effective in the treatment of some gastrointestinal diseases [6], they can be considered to be therapeutic agents. It is clear that a number of definitions of the term „probiotic“ have been used over the years but the one derived by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization [8] and endorsed by the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics [9] best exemplifies the breadth and scope of probiotics as they are known today:“live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host“.
This definition retains historical elements of the use of living organisms for health purposes but does not restrict the application of the term only to oral probiotics with intestinal outcomes [10]. Despite these numerous theoretical definitions, however, the practical question arises whether a given microorganism can be considered to be a probiotic or not.
Some strict criteria have been proposed. [11] in 1992, for example, proposed the following parameters to select a probiotic: total safety for the host, resistance to gastric acidity and pancreatic secretions, adhesion to epithelial cells, antimicrobial activity, inhibition of adhesion of pathogenic bacteria, evaluation of resistance to antibiotics, tolerance to food additives and stability in the food matrix.
The probiotics in use today have not been selected on the basis of all these criteria, but the most commonly used probiotics are the strains of lactic acid bacteria such as
The lactic acid bacteria are generally defined as a cluster of lactic acid-producing, low %G+C, non-spore-forming, Gram-positive rods and cocci that share many biochemical, physiological, and genetic properties. They are distinguished from other Gram positive bacteria that also produce lactic acid (e.g.,
Five sub-clusters are evident from this tree, including: (1) a
Seven of the twelve genera of lactic acid bacteria,
Importantly, some strains of
In the last decades consumer demands in the field of food production has changed considerably. Consumers more and more believe that foods contribute directly to their health [13, 14]. Today foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers [15, 16].
1Adapted from [17]; 2Adapted from [18]; 3Refers to the general properties of the genus; some exceptions may exist; 4Species of
Genus | Cell morphology | Fermentation route | Growth at | Growth in NaCl at | Growth at pH | Lactic acid isomer | |||
10ºC | 45ºC | 6.5% | 18% | 4.4 | 9.6 | ||||
rods | homo/hetero4 | ±5 | ± | ± | - | ± | - | D, L, DL6 | |
cocci | homo | + | - | - | - | ± | - | L | |
cocci | hetero | + | - | ± | - | ± | - | D | |
cocci | hetero | + | + | ± | - | ± | - | D | |
cocci (tetrads) | homo | ± | ± | ± | - | + | - | D, L, DL | |
cocci | homo | - | + | - | - | - | - | L | |
cocci (tetrads) | homo | + | - | + | + | - | + | L | |
cocci (tetrads) | homo | + | - | + | - | - | + | L | |
rods | hetero | + | - | - | - | - | - | L | |
cocci | homo | + | + | + | - | + | + | L | |
cocci | homo | + | - | - | - | ± | - | L | |
coccoid | hetero | + | - | ± | - | ± | - | D, L, DL |
In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role. The increasing demand on such foods can be explained by the increasing cost of healthcare, the steady increase in life expectancy, and the desire of older people for improved quality of their later years [19, 15, 20].
The term ‘‘functional food’’ itself was first used in Japan, in the 1980s, for food products fortified with special constituents that possess advantageous physiological effects [21, 22]. Functional foods may improve the general conditions of the body (e.g. pre- and probiotics), decrease the risk of some diseases (e.g. cholesterol-lowering products), and could even be used for curing some illnesses.
The European Commission’s Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe (FuFoSE), coordinated by International Life Science Institute (ILSI) Europe defined functional food as follows: ‘‘a food product can only be considered functional if together with the basic nutritional impact it has beneficial effects on one or more functions of the human organism thus either improving the general and physical conditions or/and decreasing the risk of the evolution of diseases. The amount of intake and form of the functional food should be as it is normally expected for dietary purposes. Therefore, it could not be in the form of pill or capsule just as normal food form’’ [23].
European legislation however, does not consider functional foods as specific food categories, but rather a concept [22, 24]. Therefore, the rules to be applied are numerous and depend on the nature of the foodstuff. Functional foods have been developed in virtually all food categories. From a product point of view, the functional property can be included in numerous different ways as it can be seen in table 2.
Type of functional food | Definition | Example |
Fortified product | A food fortified with additional nutrients | Fruit juices fortified with vitamin C |
Enriched products | A food with added new nutrients or components not normally found in a particular food | Margarine with plant sterol ester, probiotics, prebiotics |
Altered products | A food from which a deleterious component has been removed, reduced or replaced with another substance with beneficial effects | Fibers as fat releasers in meat or ice cream products |
Enhanced commodities | A food in which one of the components has been naturally enhanced through special growing conditions, new feed composition, genetic manipulation, or otherwise | Eggs with increased omega-3 content achieved by altered chicken feed |
It should be emphasized however, that this is just one of the possible classifications. According to alternative classification, some functional products are (1) ‘‘add good to your life’’, e.g. improve the regular stomach and colon functions (pre- and probiotics) or ‘‘improve children’s life’’ by supporting their learning capability and behaviour. It is difficult, however to find good biomarkers for cognitive, behavioural and psychological, functions. Other group (2) of functional food is designed for reducing an existing health risk problem such as high cholesterol or high blood pressure. A third group (3) consists of those products, which ‘‘makes your life easier’’ (e.g. lactose-free, gluten-free products) [27].
These products have been mainly launched in the dairy-, confectionery-, soft-drinks-, bakery- and baby-food market [16, 20, 26].
Since Metchnikoff’s era, a number of health benefits have been contributed to products containing probiotic organisms. While some of these benefits have been well documented and established, others have shown a promising potential in animal models, with human studies required to substantiate these claims. More importantly, health benefits imparted by probiotic bacteria are very strain specific; therefore, there is no universal strain that would provide all proposed benefits, not even strains of the same species. Moreover, not all the strains of the same species are effective against defined health conditions. Some of these strain specific health effects are presented in figure 1.
Probiotic beneficial effects on human health [
Foods that affect specific functions or systems in the human body, providing health benefits beyond energy and nutrients—functional foods—have experienced rapid market growth in recent years. This growth is fueled by technological innovations, development of new products, and the increasing number of health-conscious consumers interested in products that improve life quality. Since the global market of functional foods is increasing annually, food product development is a key research priority and a challenge for both the industry and science sectors. Probiotics show considerable promise for the expansion of the dairy industry, especially in such specific sectors as yogurts, cheeses, beverages, ice creams, and other desserts. This book chapter presents an overview of functional foods and strategies for their development, with particular attention to probiotic dairy products.
The most common probiotic dairy products worldwide are various types of yogurt, other fermented dairy product, various lactic acid bacteria drinks and mixture of probiotic (fermented) milks and fruit juice. Probiotic cheese, both fresh and ripened, have also been launched recently. In table 3 are listed some dairy functional food products that have been developed recently in Faculty of Food Science and Engineering.
Fermented milks and beverages make up an important contribution to the human diet in many countries because fermentation is an inexpensive technology, which preserves the food, improves its nutritional value and enhances its sensory properties.
Type of dairy functional food products | Description/Name |
Fermented dairy products | Drink yogurts with La-5 and carrot juice/ BIOCOV |
Yogurt with La-5 and biomass of | |
Yogurt with BB 12 and biomass of | |
Yogurt with ABY 3/ABT 5 and medicinal plant extracts/ AFINOLACT | |
Yogurt with ABY 3/ABT 5 and medicinal plant extracts/ CATINOLACT | |
Yogurt with ABY 3/ABT 5 and medicinal plant extracts/ ROSALACT | |
Cheeses | Dessert based on fresh cheese and some fruit pulp |
Appetizer – type fresh cheese | |
Probiotic Telemea cheese |
[30, 31] in 2011, proposed the realization of a probiotic dairy drink with added carrot juice. This probiotic product was obtained using goat milk (fat = 3.63%, proteins = 3.05%, lactose = 4.55%, dry matter = 12.05% and density = 1.030 g mL-1) which has been pasteurized at a temperature of 72ºC, for 20 minutes, a probiotic culture type Nutrish containing
The addition of carrot juice (at a percentage of 10%) had a positive effect on physical – chemical and microbiological parameters of fermented dairy drink. Combining goat milk with carrot juice can get some food with potential therapeutic role.
As a result of the lactose fermentation, the titratable acidity increased fast during the incubation period. At the end of the storage period (after 5 days), the highest value of titratable acidity was 61 ºT. The pH of the obtained new product decreased during incubation period, and will stabilize during storage period, pH = 5.1 after 5 days of storage. The evolution of the number of microorganisms was analyzed for each sample during incubation and storage period. It was observed that the fermented dairy drink with added carrot juice product had been preserving its functional properties during storage (over 108 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria).
The products were analyzed in terms of fluid flow thus establishing their rheological behavior. The literature shows that the rheological properties of fermented dairy products depend on the development of lactic bacteria as a consequence of metabolic changes leading physicochemical substrate in milk.
In figure 2 is presented the variation of shearing stress (τ, Pa) according to the shearing rate (
For all samples, it was noted that for low values of shear rate, tangential shear stress variation depending on shear rate was increasing (regression coefficient R2 values varies from 0.962 and 0.995).
The shearing stress variation according to the shearing rate
To obtain yoghurt with
The inoculation of milk for obtaining these fermented dairy products is with a probiotic culture containing
After inoculation follows the distribution and packaging and incubation was made at 42°C for 6 hours in the thermostats set at the optimal temperature for the development of these bacteria. Meanwhile yoghurt gel gets a specific consistency. Cooling and storage of obtained yoghurts is performed at 6 °C for 15 days. In this storage period, coagulum is more compact, the flavor and taste become more pleasant. As a result of the lactose fermentation, the titratable acidity increased. This is slightly higher for the samples with La 5 from those with BB12.
All products with Spirulina platensis biomass have titratable acidity higher than control sample (1.1 times higher for samples with BB 12 and 1.2 times higher for samples with La 5).
The evolution of pH is correlated with lactose fermentation intensity and increased with titratable acidity, but in the same time it is influenced by the buffer substances that are found in
The addition of
Viable counts variation during storage period
At the end of the storage period (after 15th days) the number of probiotic lactic bacteria for both, control samples and samples with
Perhaps no other fermented food starts with such a simple raw material and ends up with products having such an incredible diversity of color, flavor, texture, and appearance as does cheese. It is even more remarkable that milk, pale in color and bland in flavor, can be transformed into literally hundreds of different types of flavorful, colorful cheeses by manipulating just a few critical steps.
Just what happened to cause the milk to become transformed into a product with such a decidedly different appearance, texture, and flavor? To answer that question, it is first necessary to compare the composition of the starting material, milk, to that of the product, the finished cheese (figure 4).
In an attempt to diversify the range of probiotic dairy products, there has been made a series of research on the introduction of probiotic bacteria in cheese. According to [33], cheese is an interesting way of supplying probiotic bacteria due to the chemical composition of the raw milk that encourages their growth, metabolism and viability and also due to their relatively low acidity compared to other food products. The most of research has been focused on fresh cheese, but there are published some results on probiotic brined or ripened cheese, too.
Partition of milk into cheese and whey (adapted from [
Fresh cheese, mixt coagulated, is the most suitable cheese to carry probiotic bacteria, due to the high composition of nutrients, low acidity and low salt content. In 2009, [34] used probiotic fresh cheese and peach pulp in order to obtain a dessert, according to figure 5. Probiotic bacteria,
The research of the above mentioned authors continued, in the attempt to obtain a similar product using goat milk [35]. The amount of nutrients increased, comparing to the previous product (proteins: 12.4...12.5%; fat: 10.1...12.2% and minerals: 2.1...2.4%) but the rheological behaviour was not affected. Although there was expected a reserved attitude of the consumer because of the unpleasant flavour of goat milk, this was not observed.
In 2010 a new probiotic product based on fresh cheese was obtained, by mixing fresh cheese with caraway, cream and salt. The probiotic bacteria (
Technological flowchart for manufacturing the new product – Dessert based on fresh cheese and peach pulp
Evolution of bacteria during storage period
[36] and [37] studied the viability of probiotic bacteria
Stage | ||||
Inoculated milk | 2.71 | 2.50 | 2.90 | 8 |
Milk, 10 minutes after renneting | 2.68 | 3.21 | 4 | 12 |
Coagulum, before pressing | 2.60 | 7.49 | 9.40 | 24.9 |
Pressed coagulum | 2.40 | 7.29 | 9.50 | 24.3 |
Salted coagulum | 2.20 | 7.20 | 9.60 | 22.1 |
Cheese ripened for 5 days | 1.84 | 6.90 | 8.90 | 15 |
Cheese ripened for 10 days | 1.75 | 6.36 | 8.40 | 14.2 |
Cheese ripened for 15 days | 1.65 | 4.67 | 7.30 | 13.4 |
Cheese ripened for 20 days | 1.57 | 4.21 | 6.70 | 12.6 |
Cheese ripened for 25 days | 1.48 | 3.48 | 5.30 | 11.3 |
Cheese ripened for 30 days | 1.41 | 2.90 | 4.20 | 9.1 |
Cheese ripened for 35 days | 0.99 | 2.31 | 3.90 | 7.2 |
Cheese ripened for 40 days | 0.60 | 2.21 | 3.50 | 6 |
There are registered many other studies about probiotic cheese and methods of manufacturing probiotic cheese. Most of them introduce probiotic bacteria in the milk maturation stage, but there are reports about introducing them after pressing [39] or immobilized on fruit pieces [40].
By sensorial analysis of several combinations milk-medicinal plants, as well as by physical and chemical analysis, there were selected the following medicinal plants: bilberry, sea-buckthorn, rosehip, liquorice, plants rich in active principles considered important for their pharmacological profile.
The research presented in this subchapter was realised on 14 variants of probiotic products (encoded according to table 5), manufactured from cow milk and medicinal plant extracts (bilberry, seabuckthorn, rosehip and liquorice), fermented by two types of probiotic cultures: ABY 3 (
Crt. No. | Product | Code | Culture | Description |
Control | M – 3 | ABY 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture | |
Afinolact | A – 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% bilberry extract | ||
LD+A – 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% bilberry extract + 6% liquorice extract | |||
Cătinolact | C – 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% seabuckthorn extract | ||
LD+C – 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% seabuckthorn extract + 6% liquorice extract | |||
Rosalact | Mă– 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% rosehip extract | ||
LD+Mă – 3 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% rosehip extract + 6% liquorice extract | |||
Control | M – 5 | ABT 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture | |
Afinolact | A – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% bilberry extract | ||
LD+A – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% bilberry extract + 6% liquorice extract | |||
Cătinolact | C – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% seabuckthorn extract | ||
LD+C – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% seabuckthorn extract + 6% liquorice extract | |||
Rosalact | Mă – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% rosehip extract | ||
LD+Mă – 5 | Milk + 0.02% DVS culture + 6% rosehip extract + 6% liquorice extract |
The addition of aqueous medicinal plants extract positively influenced the number of viable probiotic microorganisms. At the end of storage period the number of probiotic lactic bacteria is high for both control samples and samples with medicinal plants, meaning that the products maintain their functional character [31, 41-46].
For the obtain products there was demonstrated the cytoprotective character, by studing the total antioxidant capacity, the total content of polyphenols, the superoxiddismutasic (SOD) activity, the minerals content, the ascorbic acid and anthocyaninis.
The results of the study reveal that probiotic dairy products with added medicinal plants contain a high level of total polyphenols and a high total antioxidant capacity. All these products are an excellent source of minerals with high biodisponibility in human diet. The addition of medicinal plants extract improved the SOD activity.
Medicinal plants are extremely valuable biological currants. The valorification of this potential represents a never-ending source of raw materials for pharmaceutics and food industry. World Health Organisation has recently announced that 75-80% of world’s population is treated with natural remedies.
The plants do not cure all the diseases but they might be extremely helpful in rational treating of some diseases and are not to dangerous. The plants have favourable effect to human body and unfavourable effect to some pathogen agents due to certain substances from their composition. In every plant species there must be known that substance or substances which assure them the therapeutic effect (the active principles).
In order to test the chemical composition of studied plants (bilberry, sea-buckthorn, rosehip and liquorice) there were determined by chemical analysis: ascorbic acid (for seabuckthorn and rosehip), glycyrrhizic acid (for liquorice) and anthocyaninis (for bilberry). The concentrations of the active principles in medicinal plants samples are reported in table 6.
The values were expressed in mean ± standard errors of regression and values in parenthesis indicate minimum and maximum level recorded.Medicinal plants Active principles | Bilberry ( | Sea-buckthorn ( | Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) | Rosehip ( |
Anthocyanins expressed as cyanidin-3-glucoside chloride | 0.38 ± 0.06* (0.32÷0.47) | - | - | - |
Ascorbic acid | - | 0.8 ± 0.09* (0.66÷0.89) | - | 1.24 ± 0.06* (1.18÷1.32) |
Glycyrrhizic acid | - | - | 5.03 ± 0.32* (4.6÷5.32) | - |
Regarding the active principles content there was demonstrated that all the analysed medicinal plants respect the values presented in European Pharmacopee, V edition: minimum 0.3% cyanidin–3–glucozide chloride in bilberry, the analysed probes having a maximum content of 0.47%. The ascorbic acid in seabuckthorn must be minimum in 0.5% and in rosehip minimum 1%. The analysed samples registered values of 0.66÷0.98% for seabuckthorn and 1,18% for rosehip. The glycyrrhizic acid, the main active principle in liquorice, must be minimum 4% (according to European Pharmacopee) and the determined values varied between 4.6 and 5.38% [31, 41-46].
To have a probiotic effect, the strains of probiotic bacteria must be present in the product enough number. It is generally considered that the daily dose of probiotic strains must be between 1 108 and 1 109 cells. A portion of 100 g, the probiotic product should contain between 106 and 107 cfu mL-1 product. The addition of aqueous medicinal plant extracts has positively influenced the number of viable probiotic microorganisms due to the presence of fermentable sugars and some growth factors (mineral salts, non-protein nitrogen). At the end of incubation period (after 5 hours), for the samples with medicinal plant extracts the lowest number of microorganisms has established for the samples: Mă–3 (7.8·108 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria) or A–5 and C–5 (1.8·109 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria) instead the higher number of probiotic bacteria was registered for LD+Mă–3 (4.5·109 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria) and LD+Mă–5 (5.4·109 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria).
After 8th days of storage period (table 7) the higher number of viable microorganisms was found in the sample with ABT 5 culture (LD+A–5: 2.6·108 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria), and lowest number of probiotic bacteria cells was recorded for sample with ABY 3 culture (C–3: 0.9·108 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria). The storage in refrigerated conditions causes a reduction of the number of probiotic bacteria up to 4.37 times in the products obtained with ABY 3 culture and 3.62 times for those with ABT 5.
Microbiological characteristics | ||||||
Sample code | cfu·mL-1 product | Sample code | cfu·mL-1 product | |||
M – 3 | 3·107 | M – 5 | 8·107 | |||
A – 3 | 1·108 | A – 5 | 1.4·108 | |||
LD+A – 3 | 1.8·108 | LD+A – 5 | 2.6·108 | |||
C – 3 | 9·107 | C – 5 | 1.1·108 | |||
LD+C – 3 | 1.9·108 | LD+C – 5 | 1.8·108 | |||
Mă – 3 | 1.2·108 | Mă – 5 | 1.3·108 | |||
LD+Mă – 3 | 2.2·108 | LD+Mă – 5 | 2.1·108 |
At the end of storage period, the number of probiotic lactic acid bacteria for both control samples and for samples with medicinal plant extracts is still high (1·107÷1·108 cfu mL-1 probiotic bacteria), which shows that the products has been preserving its functional properties during storage period. Both cultures can be used in the production of probiotic products [31, 41-46].
Besides the cytoprotective effect conferred by the presence of probiotic bacteria, research has shown that products with added medicinal plants have a increased cytoprotective nature and because the content of biologically active compounds. Experimental results showed that the probiotic fermented dairy product with added medicinal plant extracts have a high content of total polyphenols with beneficial effects on human health, which help to prevent various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes [47, 48] and consequently a higher total antioxidant capacity.
The higher amount of total polyphenols (table 8) was determined for samples: LD+Mă–3 (280.78 μg mL-1) or LD+Mă–5 (285.56 μg mL-1).
Total polyphenols expressed as catechin, μg·mL-1 | |||||
Sample code | ABY 3 | Sample code | ABT 5 | ||
M – 3 | 62.086 | M – 5 | 82.086 | ||
A – 3 | 99.91 | A – 5 | 106 | ||
LD+A – 3 | 152.95 | LD+A – 5 | 158.6 | ||
C – 3 | 72.086 | C – 5 | 87.73 | ||
LD+C – 3 | 135.56 | LD+C – 5 | 147.3 | ||
Mă – 3 | 262.95 | Mă – 5 | 239.47 | ||
LD+Mă – 3 | 280.78 | LD+Mă – 5 | 285.56 |
Compared with control samples (not containing medicinal plant extracts) total antioxidant capacity (Table 9) increased by 3.25-9.94 times in products made with ABY 3 culture and 2.1-8.3 times the ABT 5 products.
TEAC, mM·L-1 | |||
Sample code | ABY 3 | Sample code | ABT 5 |
M – 3 | 0.16 | M – 5 | 0.2 |
A – 3 | 0.57 | A – 5 | 0.43 |
LD+A – 3 | 0.70 | LD+A – 5 | 0.73 |
C – 3 | 0.52 | C – 5 | 0.48 |
LD+C – 3 | 0.81 | LD+C – 5 | 0.62 |
Mă – 3 | 1.19 | Mă – 5 | 1.27 |
LD+Mă – 3 | 1.59 | LD+Mă – 5 | 1.66 |
For products manufactured with ABY 3 culture and those with ABT 5 was observed that the total antioxidant capacity and total polyphenols content is higher for mixtures with liquorice extract, from the rest of the samples tested, except for samples Mă–3 şi Mă–5.
In addition to being an excellent source of protein, probiotic dairy products based on milk and medicinal plant extracts are a good source of minerals, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc. The minerals in these products are from raw milk, and medicinal plant extracts. Because the extracts of bilberry, sea-buckthorn, rosehip and liquorice have different mineral content, the products made have a different content in some microelements.
Distribution of broad in probiotic dairy products based on milk and medicinal plant extracts depends on the content of plant extracts and reactions/associations that occur during the technological process. The results of measurements are presented in Tables 10 and 11.
Crt. No. | Sample name | Microelements content, mg/100g product | |||||||||
Ca | Mg | Na | K | Mn | Fe | Zn | Cu | Pb | Cd | ||
1. | M – 3 | 130 | 6 | 36 | 130 | - | 0.1 | 0.4 | ND | ND | ND |
2. | A – 3 | 135 | 7 | 39 | 115 | 0.1 | 0.15 | 0.45 | ND | ND | ND |
3. | C – 3 | 135 | 7.5 | 37.5 | 125 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
4. | Mă – 3 | 137.5 | 9 | 41 | 135 | 0.1 | 0.27 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
5. | LD+A – 3 | 140 | 7.8 | 47.5 | 135 | 0.1 | 0.21 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
6. | LD+C – 3 | 141 | 7.8 | 40 | 140 | 0.1 | 0.25 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
7. | LD+Mă - 3 | 139.5 | 9.3 | 46 | 150 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
Crt. No. | Sample name | Microelements content, mg/100g product | |||||||||
Ca | Mg | Na | K | Mn | Fe | Zn | Cu | Pb | Cd | ||
1. | M – 5 | 130 | 6 | 36 | 130 | - | 0.1 | 0.4 | ND | ND | ND |
2. | A – 5 | 135 | 7 | 34.5 | 110 | 0.1 | 0.14 | 0.45 | ND | ND | ND |
3. | C – 5 | 140 | 7.8 | 32.5 | 115 | 0.1 | 0.21 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
4. | Mă – 5 | 140 | 8 | 35 | 120 | 0.1 | 0.25 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
5. | LD+A – 5 | 150 | 7.5 | 39.5 | 140 | 0.1 | 0.17 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
6. | LD+C – 5 | 145 | 8 | 38 | 135 | 0.1 | 0.23 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
7. | LD+Mă–5 | 147 | 9 | 41 | 140 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | ND | ND | ND |
Mineral concentration of fermented dairy products with ABY 5 culture
Minerals in fermented dairy products based on milk and medicinal plant extract fulfill in human body the following functions:
Are composed of hard tissue: Ca and Mg contribute in a major portion at the formation of the skeleton and teeth. Ca is also one of the most sensitive elements that regulate cellular functions. Is the regulator of enzymes involved in carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, is also involved in important physiological processes such as muscle contraction, blood coagulation, apoptosis and necrosis;
Are components of soft tissue: Fe and K in the form of organic compounds contribute to muscles, organs and blood. Fe are component of hemoglobin involved in oxygen transport, the of myoglobin, the body\'s oxygen tank. Fe is considered a major potential prooxidant metals from the human body;
Are regulators of biological functions: as solubilized salts in body fluids contribute to sensitivity of nervous stimulus, maintain muscle elasticity, adjustment of pH digestive fluids and other secretions, maintaining of osmotic pressure.
Fermented dairy product based on milk and medicinal plant extracts had a higher superoxiddismutase activity. The relationship between the iron and SOD activity is presented in figures 7 and 8.
The relationship between SOD activity and iron content of products obtained with ABY 3 culture
For all samples of fermented dairy products with medicinal plant extracts is an increase in SOD activity compared with the control sample. Measured activity is total SOD-like activity (which contributes enzyme as such and superoxiddismutase-like activity of polyphenols and iron or zinc). SOD activity ranged from 11.142 to 12.857 IU mL-1 product; it was maximum for the sample LD+Mă–3. Samples obtained with ABY 3 culture had a higher SOD activity than samples with ABT 5.
To obtain the probiotic dairy products with medicinal plant extracts was used standardized cow milk to 1.5% fat. The technological process for production of fermented dairy products with medicinal plant extracts is presented in figure 8. The pasteurization of milk is achieved by maintaining standardized milk at 95 °C for 5 minutes. After pasteurization, milk is cooled to a temperature of 42 °C. Milk inoculation for these probiotic dairy products was made with two Probio-Tec probiotic cultures type: ABY 3 respectively ABT 5, at this time were added and aqueous extracts of medicinal plants (bilberries, sea-buckthorn, rosehip and liquorice) that have a number of characteristics presented in table 12.
The relationship between SOD activity and iron content of products obtained with ABY 5 culture
Sample Characteristics | Bilberries extract | Sea-buckthorn extract | Rosehip extract | Liquorice extract |
Dry matter, g/100g | 4.84 | 4.84 | 5.29 | 4 |
Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, g/100g | 0.74 | 0.83 | 0.67 | 0.81 |
Total carbohydrate, g/100g | 4.69 | 0.2 | 7.19 | 7.29 |
Total proteins, g/100g | 0.21 | 0.41 | 0.62 | 2.15 |
Calcium, mg/100g product | 13.2 | 4.4 | 34.5 | 30 |
Magnesium, mg/100g product | 15.4 | 4.4 | 13.8 | 60 |
Sodium, mg/100g product | 6.6 | 4.4 | 8.05 | 9 |
Potassium, mg/100g product | 132 | 110 | 300 | 230 |
Manganese, mg/100g product | 2.2 | 2.2 | 1.38 | 0.4 |
Iron, mg/100g product | 1.1 | 2.2 | 0.46 | 0.6 |
Zinc, mg/100g product | 0.66 | 0.44 | 0.69 | 0.6 |
Copper, mg/100g product | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.23 | 0.6 |
Lead, mg/100g product | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Cadmium, mg/100g product | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic Acid, g/100g | 1.47 | 1.69 | 1.63 | 0.54 |
Cyanidin-3-glucoside chloride, g/100g | 0.55 | - | - | - |
Ascorbic acid, g/100g | - | 0.26 | 0.18 | - |
Glycyrrhizic acid, g/100g | - | - | - | 1.96 |
Characteristics of concentrated medicinal plant extracts
After inoculation follows the distribution and packaging and incubation was made at 42°C for 6 hours in the thermostats set at the optimal temperature for the development of these bacteria. Meanwhile yoghurt gel gets a specific consistency. Cooling and storage of obtained yoghurts is performed at 6 °C for 8 days. In this storage period, coagulum is more compact, the flavor and taste become more pleasant.
Technological flowchart for manufacturing the new product – Probiotic yoghurt with added medicinal plant extracts
The characteristics of fermented dairy products studied, in terms of chemical properties are:
Total dry matter have values between 12.05% and 12.5% (lowest for products that contain liquorice extract), exceeding the minimum specified in Romanian standard for fermented dairy products (12%);
The fat content of the samples vary between 0.6% and 1.3% lowest in products with liquorice compared with other, because smaller proportions of milk of these products;
Lactic fermentation is faster for the samples with added plant extracts because of monosaccharides content (glucose, fructose, arabinose, xylose) and oligosaccharides (sucrose, raffinose, maltose, xiloglucan) from medicinal plants, which are fermented faster than lactose;
Titratable acidity at the end of incubation period is between 67ºT and 78ºT, with higher values for products liquorice extracts. After 8th days of storage period, the titratable acidity is between 84ºT and 97ºT;
The pH of products after incubation period varies between 5.035 and 5.287. After 8th days of storage it reaches values of 4.225-4.553, lowest value was obtained for the products with ABT 5 culture;
ABT 5 probiotic culture which contains
The established technological flowchart leads to obtaining some appropriate products in terms of physical-chemical characterization.
The researchers team of the Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, with many researchers in the scientific world, were concerned to investigate the possibility of obtaining probiotic products based on milk. Use milk as a vehicle for creating probiotic product was a constant concern of the staff of the Faculty of Food Science and Engineering in recent years. Probiotic character and functional role of probiotic products was obtained by adding fruit and vegetable juices, medicinal plant extracts, Spirulina platensis biomass, etc. We plan to continue research in this direction by investigating other products that may stimulate growth of probiotic bacteria.
Authors are grateful to the S.C. Hofigal Export – Import S.A. Bucharest for the material support of this work (medicinal plants, biomass of Spirulina platensis).
Photodetectors (PDs) are the optoelectronic devices which convert incident optical signals into electrical outputs through the phenomenon of light-matter interaction, which can be processed by the conventional read-out electronics. PDs form the basis of many vital components present in numerous electronic and optoelectronic devices as they find applications in a broad range of fields such as in photovoltaics [1, 2], military and defense technology [3], optical communication [4], remote sensing [3], biomedical imaging [5], environmental and ozone layer monitoring [4], and so on. Therefore, highly efficient photodetection has become very crucial for the industrial and scientific communities. With advancements in the matured technology of three-dimensional (3D) semiconductors [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] such as gallium nitride (GaN), zinc oxide (ZnO), indium gallium nitride (InGaN), indium nitride (InN), gallium oxide (Ga2O3), gallium arsenide (GaAs), silicon (Si), aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN), germanium (Ge), mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe), gallium antimonide (GaSb), and so forth, high-performance PDs sensitive to wavelengths in the entire ultraviolet (UV)-far infrared (FIR) have been successfully fabricated. However, further advances in these PDs are hindered by the certain drawbacks encountered due to the intrinsic limitations in 3D semiconductors such as lower charge carrier mobilities, low light absorption properties, presence of dangling bonds at the interface, high fabrication costs involved, and so forth [18]. Thus, it is crucial to explore alternate materials, which can overcome the above-mentioned drawbacks for the development of multifunctional PDs.
The successful delamination of graphene in the revolutionary work by Geim and Novoselov in 2004 [19] ignited a plethora of research, in the field of two-dimensional (2D) layered materials and their heterostructures [20, 21, 22]. In the recent years, the amount of research focused on these layered materials has increased multifold. A layered material is nothing but an ultrathin phase of a material, scaled down to the level of atomic thickness, and is characterized by weak inter-layer van der Waals (vdW) forces and a strong intra-layer covalent interaction [23]. This makes these ultrathin materials possess electronic and optoelectronic properties such as band gap, mobility, etc., that are thickness-dependent [24], and thus, their novel chemical and physical characteristics pave a way towards the unexplored areas, both in the fields of fundamental research as well as engineering applications. In spite of possessing unparalleled electronic and optoelectronic properties such as high carrier mobility, dangling bonds-free surface, large current carrying capacities, excellent mechanical properties, the zero band gap or the gapless electronic structure of graphene [25] limits its use in realization of practical applications-based PDs, which demand switching behavior or in other words, a definite on/off state. This has led to the exploration of graphene alternatives with a substantial band gap, and researchers and scientists across the world have resurrected a class of conventional 2D materials known as the transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), characterized by low-fabrication cost, chemical stability, earth-abundance and environment-friendly properties. Some of the well-studied TMDCs are molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), molybdenum ditelluride (MoTe2), tungsten diselenide (WSe2), and so on [26, 27, 28]. As of now, semiconductors of the TMDC family have enabled tremendous accomplishments in the field of photodetection, such as from monofunctional to multifunctional PDs, from homogeneous to hybrid 2D semiconductors-based PDs, and from rigid to flexible electronic devices [29, 30, 31].
Regardless of the efforts of the researchers and scientists, some common challenges are still being faced related to fabrication and the performance of these TMDCs-based devices [18]. The challenges include growth of high-quality crystals, controlling the morphology and the thickness, scaling up the growth for industrial scale production, optimizing the device architectures, and so forth. To address these challenges, pulsed laser deposition (PLD) has emerged as a perfect tool for the synthesis of TMDCs. With the use of PLD, the actualization of high quality and wafer scale synthesis of TMDCs has become possible [32]. Eminently, PDs based on the PLD-synthesized TMDCs have exhibited competitive device performance parameters when compared with the commercial PDs, and thus, offer great opportunities towards the next generation photonics. In the subsequent section, we will give an introduction about TMDCs and their properties. Afterwards, the fundamentals of PLD will be discussed in detail, followed by the recent advancements in the PLD-grown TMDCs for photodetection application. Finally, we will conclude by highlighting the unresolved problems and suggest future perspectives in this evolving field of optoelectronics.
TMDCs are denoted by the general formula of MX2 where M and X represent a transition metal (Mo, Nb, W, Hf, Ti, and so on), and a chalcogen (S, Te, and Se), respectively. In the periodic table, groups IV-X belong to the transition metals and they contain different number of d-electrons. Thus, the difference in the valance d-electrons of different transition metals gives rise to the different electronic properties such as metallic, semiconducting, and superconducting [33]. TMDCs exist in a layered form at the atomic level, containing one or few monolayers. Figure 1(a) shows a schematic depicting the layered structure of MoS2.
(a) Schematic showing a monolayer of a TMDC, where the atoms of transition metal are bonded through covalent bonds with the chalcogen atoms. These individual monolayers are stacked and held together by vdW forces to form the bulk structures. (b) Crystal structures of layered MoS2 with different stacking sequences as shown to form the two most common phases: trigonal prismatic (2H) and octahedral (1T). Figure is adapted from Ref. [
A TMDC can exist in various structural phases which are a result of the different co-ordinations of the transition metal atom. The most common structural phases in which the TMDCs crystallize are the trigonal prismatic (2H) and the octahedral (1T) phase. These crystal phases can also be seen in the terms of different stacking sequences of the atoms (as a representative result, Figure 1(b) shows crystal structure of MoS2). The three atomic planes i.e. chalcogen– metal–chalcogen form the individual layers of TMDCs. The 2H phase corresponds to an ABA stacking, whereas, the 1T phase is characterized by an ABC stacking order. For most of the bulk TMDCs (MoS2, MoSe2, MoTe2, WS2, WSe2, etc.), the 2H phase is thermodynamically more stable than the metastable 1T phase. Tungsten ditelluride (WTe2) shows an exception where the most stable phase is the orthorhombic (1Td phase) at room temperature [33].
The assortment of chemical compositions as well as the different crystal structures of TMDCs results in varying band structure characters, which in turn lead to a wide range of electronic properties. In the thermodynamically most stable 2H phase, MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, and WSe2 show semiconducting behavior [33]. These semiconducting properties accentuated these TMDCs as potential 2D materials for next generation electronic devices. As a representative result, the basic characteristics of the band structure of MoS2 has been shown in Figure 1(c). The transformation of the band structure as calculated from density functional theory (DFT) for 2H-MoS2 upon increasing its thickness from monolayer form to the bulk has been shown in Figure 1(c). The positions of the conduction and valence band edges change with increasing the number of layers of MoS2, and the direct band gap in the monolayer form changes into an indirect band gap in the bulk material [33]. The calculated value of the band gap of the monolayer 2H-MoS2 is ~1.89 eV [35]. The experimentally observed value for the electronic band gap of 2H-MoS2 in its monolayer form is 2.15 eV [36]. Notably, the conduction band minimum and the valence band maximum are situated at the two inequivalent high-symmetry points, which represent the corners of the hexagonal Brillouin zone [33]. This attribute is common between monolayer 2H phase MoS2 (and the other group VI single-layer 2H phase TMDCs) and graphene and allows the observation of potential valleytronics applications.
Through the persistent efforts over the last decade, researchers have developed several techniques to produce ultrathin TMDCs. In principle, these techniques can be broadly classified into two categories. The first one is to produce TMDCs by thinning bulk crystals, which is called as a top-down technique. Different types of exfoliations (mechanical, chemical, etc.) fall under this category. Since different layers of 2D materials are held together by vdW interactions, therefore, the interlayer bonding is weak. Thus, under any external perturbations, bulk 2D materials are readily processed into their few-layered forms. The second category is to produce TMDCs through a bottom-up approach, where constituent atoms and molecules are assembled together to form continuous layers. These mainly include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), magnetron sputtering, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and PLD.
As mentioned above, researchers have developed several methods to fabricate TMDCs. In spite of the substantial progress, none of the above techniques can meet the comprehensive demands for industrial-scale production, as in the terms of process simplicity, good scalability, excellent homogeneity and continuity, high quality of the products, high compositional and thickness control, low cost for mass production and higher safety. The techniques such as exfoliation, CVD and ALD suffer from a huge drawback that the growth process occurs in absence of high vacuum, which generally leads to unclean interfaces, and therefore, one has to compromise with the device performance. Moreover, exfoliation and CVD are further associated with low product yield as the films formed are non-continuous and in the range of several microns. Sputtering and MBE are much more sophisticated in terms of the interface quality due to the involvement of ultrahigh vacuum, however, sputtering is characterized by poor surface quality of the films whereas MBE poses drawbacks such as bulky and expensive setups, time-consuming growths, and limitations in terms of substrates. Such limitations further hinder the utilization of these growth methods for industrial scale fabrication of devices. Thus, research and development towards a potentially competent approach which can address the above issues is greatly required.
PLD is a synthesis technique where a high-power pulsed laser beam is focused on a target, which results in the vaporization of the material in the form of a plasma plume and this material gets deposited on a substrate in the form of a thin film. A typical illustration of a PLD process is shown in Figure 2. Compared with the conventional methods discussed above, PLD exhibits the following advantages:
PLD is the most versatile growth method where a focused and high-energy pulsed laser ionizes almost all types of materials, because of the generation of instantaneous and localized high temperatures up to tens of thousands of OC on the target’s surface. Therefore, majority of the materials can be ablated to form a plasma, which carries out the deposition. In addition, PLD exhibits an excellent compatibility with different substrates which provides numerous routes for the construction of heterojunctions-based devices.
PLD is highly scalable, because the plasma plume can be readily positioned and directed just by adjusting the external optical path of the laser beam. Consequently, PLD is very much suitable for the growth of wafer-scale and uniform TMDCs for practical industrial production. Serna
The substrate temperature required for the PLD growth of TMDCs is relatively low when compared with techniques like CVD and sputtering because the species (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) ablated by the focused pulsed laser possess a very high energy, and therefore, can freely migrate on the substrate’s surface. Therefore, direct growth of TMDCs on substrates that are intolerable towards high temperature can be achieved with PLD. For instance, Singh
PLD is a clean, highly efficient, safe, and highly controlled deposition technique where the product is highly continuous and uniform. Due to the ultrahigh vacuum growth conditions, the products of PLD are clean and contamination-free. Furthermore, Siegel
Schematic view of a typical PLD process. Adapted from Ref. [
In the past few years, TMDCs have elicited tremendous research interest, owing to their novel properties in the 2D form, which has triggered a spark in the growth of TMDCs using PLD [18]. In this part of the chapter, a few reports describing the chronological developments in the area of PLD grown TMDCs have been briefly discussed. One of the earliest works on PLD deposited MoS2 was reported by Zabinski
PLD falls under the category of physical vapor deposition and is a method used to synthesize materials (generally thin films) in an ultrahigh vacuum environment. The development in the field of laser-assisted film growth can be traced back to 1960, after the successful technical realization of the first laser by Maiman [52]. Following on from there, from just being a growth method for fundamental laboratory research, PLD has moved on to become a technique employed in industries. A typical PLD system mainly consists of a laser (usually an excimer laser), an optical path system consisting of apertures, lenses and reflectors, and a stainless-steel growth chamber equipped with gas paths, vacuum pumps, vacuum gauges, and a heating source [37]. The basic principle behind a PLD process is that a high-intensity pulsed laser interacts with the target or the source material (called ablation) and produces a plasma plume of the target material [37]. The formation of plasma involves a sequence of complex phenomena such as collision, localized heating and subsequent ionization of atoms and molecules. Afterwards, the plasma plume expands, travels downstream, condenses on the substrates and finally crystallizes into the desired materials [37]. Figure 3 shows the PLD setup located in Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
PLD setup in Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
The major advantage of a PLD system is that the laser can be operated from outside the vacuum chamber. Thus, just by changing the optical paths of the laser beam, a single laser source can be used for multiple deposition systems. All the other components such as the target carousel, substrate holder, heater, vacuum gauges, and so on are mounted in the vacuum chamber. A set of optical components such as apertures and mirrors are used to focus the pulsed laser beam over the target surface. Therefore, a variety of materials (semiconductors, metals and insulators) can be grown by PLD just by optimizing the growth parameters and by incorporation of different gases during the process in a controlled manner. With this, the exact stoichiometry of the target material can be copied down onto the substrates, which is one of the major benefits of PLD over other deposition techniques. Some of the important parameters associated with PLD have been described below.
In most of the cases, melting of a material depends on the rate of thermal conduction via lattice, which can be well described by the Fick’s laws of diffusion. If the heated volume of the material is smaller than or equivalent to the thickness of ablated layer per laser pulse, then congruent melting will take place. Hence, PLD offers the advantage of congruent melting and vaporization. The amount of heated volume depends on the time of the laser-target interaction, i.e. the pulse duration. For a pulse duration of ~10 ps, heat diffusion will not play a role in the melting and vaporization of the material, whereas, above ~20 ps, conventional heat diffusion dependent ablation occurs [57]. Therefore, the use of a pulsed laser with a pulse duration of a few ns is more likely to provide congruent ablation. This allows the PLD process to preserve the anion-cation stoichiometry of the target material during the mass transfer of the material from the target onto the substrate.
In general, the PLD-grown TMDCs-based PDs exhibit device performance that is comparable with the PDs based on traditional bulk semiconductors. Additionally, PLD is also beneficial for scalable production up to the wafer-scale. Therefore, growth of these TMDCs through PLD for applications in photodetection shows a tremendous potential to translate the fundamental laboratory research to realization of industrial and practical applications.
MoS2 is probably the most studied material among various TMDCs and was probably the first member to be fabricated by PLD. One of the earliest investigations on the photodetection studies of MoS2-based PDs was done by Alkis
(a) MoS2 thin film deposited on flexible kapton substrate and (b) temporal response of the device in zero-bias mode. Figures have been reproduced with permission from Ref. [
The progress in the PLD growth of TMDCs has been quite significant, however, the crystal quality normally remains inferior when compared to the bulk natural crystals. This opens a window to further improve the device quality as well as the performance of PLD-fabricated PDs. One such work has been reported recently, where Wang
Spectral range of a PD is equally important when compared with the other figures of merit and altering the effective wavelength range of TMDC-based PDs is extremely important for specific applications. It has been shown that by introducing defect states in the forbidden gap of a semiconductor, the detection range can be dramatically extended, and sub-band gap detection can be accomplished. Xie
Recently, Jiao
(a) Schematic of the interdigital patterned gold electrodes to form a metal-semiconductor-metal type contact, and (b) the wavelength dependence of responsivity (300 to 900 nm) for the device. Figures have been reproduced with permission from Ref. [
The above discussed PLD-grown TMDC-based PDs are based on the metal-semiconductor-metal type device configuration, and suffer from relatively lower photoresponsivity, low on/off ratios, narrowband detection and slower detection speed. Hence, strategies are being developed to overcome these limitations. PDs having transparent electrodes such as indium tin oxide (ITO) and graphene, instead of the conventional metal contacts and PDs based on heterojunctions of two or more materials have many advantages such as low value of dark current, higher on/off current ratios, broadband detection range, and higher responsivities due to favorable band alignments.
One such work was carried out in 2016, when Zheng
Using a similar approach of integration of ITO electrodes on the device, Kumar
Till now, all the above reported devices require some external bias for obtaining significant photodetection. Over the years, PDs which consume no external power have attracted a lot of attention because in the current scenario of energy crisis, a lot of research has been focused on energy producing and energy storage devices [70, 71, 72, 73, 74]. Such self-powered PDs depend on the interfacial built-in potential which enhances the effective separation of photogenerated carriers. This built-in electric potential also suppresses the dark current, which is another benefit for such PDs. Therefore, these self-powered devices have a great prospect for the next-generation PDs.
In 2015, Yao
(a) Transient behavior of the Bi/Si and Bi/WS2/Si PDs under zero bias. (b) Corresponding single on-off cycle. Schematic of the energy band diagrams of the (c) Bi/Si and (d) Bi/WS2/Si heterointerfaces. Figures have been reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Recently, Singh
(a) Spectral response of the MoS2/AlN/Si-based PD. (b) Schematic of the deep defect states-modulated carrier transport in MoS2/AlN/Si-based device. Figures have been reproduced with permission from Ref. [
The past few years have undoubtedly witnessed tremendous advances in the PLD growth of TMDCs and their applications in the field of photodetection. In this chapter, the basic properties of TMDCs and the common growth techniques employed for their fabrication have been reviewed briefly, followed by a detailed and elaborated discussion about PLD and the important parameters associated with it. Finally, a progressive investigation about the PDs based on TMDCs fabricated through PLD has been discussed. These extensive achievements in the field of photodetection have unquestionably established PLD as one of the most competitive and reliable methods for fabricating industrial-scale and high-quality TMDCs. PLD, therefore, certainly has a lot of potential to contribute in the development of the next-generation TMDCs-based PDs in the future.
Based on the analysis of the previous reports in this area, an outlook regarding the future of PLD-synthesized TMDCs and the related follow-up research work has been summarized below.
The research on the PLD-fabricated TMDCs-based PDs is still in its nascent stage and therefore, there is still a room for improvement in the crystal-quality of the PLD-grown thin films, by selecting appropriate substrates and by further tuning and optimizing the various unexplored growth parameters, such as annealing temperature and time, cooling ramp rate, geometry of the laser spot, surface morphology of the source targets, laser frequency, and so on [18].
Apart from a few reports, most of the research regarding PLD growth of TMDCs for photodetection application is based on the use of a single photosensitive material. Therefore, promising results are expected on the exploration of the heterojunctions of these layered materials with established bulk semiconductors like III-nitrides, which have shown great results in this field. Moreover, TMDCs can serve as excellent substrates for high quality and epitaxial growth of III-nitrides, which would lead to better device performance.
The use of transparent 2D semiconductors such as graphene or graphene derivatives and semi-metallic phase of TMDCs, can be used in place of the conventional metal electrodes, as they maximize the area of light absorption along with having outstanding electronic properties.
Till date, researchers and scientists across the world have mostly exploited heterojunctions of TMDCs in their thin film forms. Heterointerfaces based on one dimensional (1D) nanostructures may provide new routes for the development of high-performance devices. The nanowire-based heterostructures of the TMDCs with growth along these nanowires or a core-shell structure will enable a much higher surface to volume ratio and therefore, a larger active interface. This will lead to enhancement in the photoresponse and superior optoelectronic performance.
As a concluding statement, PLD has been proven to be a promising synthesis technique for TMDCs for applications in photodetection, and these PDs have shown outstanding performance that can compete with those of the commercially available PDs. The fabrication through PLD is cost-effective and scalable, and hence, PLD is a perfect tool for fabrication of practical devices for optoelectronic applications at an industrial scale production.
D.K.S. is thankful to Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India, New Delhi for providing senior research fellowship. S.B.K. acknowledges INSA senior scientist fellowship.
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Ovarian cancers are heterogenous cancers where each subtype possesses a varied morphology and biologic behavior. Accumulating evidence has identified each of these subtypes characterized with specific pathways activated in each along with specific gene alterations. For example, high-grade serous ovarian cancer is characterized by universal TP53 mutation, mucinous ovarian cancer with KRAS mutation and clear cell or endometrioid ovarian cancers with ARID1A mutations. With the current focus of molecular-targeted therapies for cancer, such druggable markers serve as excellent targets for precision therapy and combination therapy. This chapter, provides an overview of the critical molecular pathways activated in the ovarian cancer subtypes with its druggable targets studied in ovarian cancer. We also highlight the implications of miRNAs in chemoresistance and sensitivity in the regulation of ovarian cancer.",book:{id:"10342",slug:"ovarian-cancer-updates-in-tumour-biology-and-therapeutics",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - Updates in Tumour Biology and Therapeutics"},signatures:"Febina Ravindran and Bibha Choudhary",authors:[{id:"334121",title:"Prof.",name:"Bibha",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",slug:"bibha-choudhary",fullName:"Bibha Choudhary"},{id:"335007",title:"Dr.",name:"Febina",middleName:null,surname:"Ravindran",slug:"febina-ravindran",fullName:"Febina Ravindran"}]},{id:"42501",title:"Implication of Clear Cell and Mucinous Histology",slug:"implication-of-clear-cell-and-mucinous-histology",totalDownloads:2362,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3449",slug:"ovarian-cancer-a-clinical-and-translational-update",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - A Clinical and Translational Update"},signatures:"Jun Naniwa, Hiroaki Itamochi and Junzo Kigawa",authors:[{id:"158925",title:"Prof.",name:"Junzo",middleName:null,surname:"Kigawa",slug:"junzo-kigawa",fullName:"Junzo Kigawa"}]},{id:"74781",title:"The Anti-Cancer Effects of Anti-Parasite Drug Ivermectin in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"the-anti-cancer-effects-of-anti-parasite-drug-ivermectin-in-ovarian-cancer",totalDownloads:900,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Ivermectin is an old, common, and classic anti-parasite drug, which has been found to have a broad-spectrum anti-cancer effect on multiple human cancers. This chapter will focus on the anti-cancer effects of ivermectin on ovarian cancer. First, ivermectin was found to suppress cell proliferation and growth, block cell cycle progression, and promote cell apoptosis in ovarian cancer. Second, drug pathway network, qRT-PCR, and immunoaffinity blot analyses found that ivermectin acts through molecular networks to target the key molecules in energy metabolism pathways, including PFKP in glycolysis, IDH2 and IDH3B in Kreb’s cycle, ND2, ND5, CYTB, and UQCRH in oxidative phosphorylation, and MCT1 and MCT4 in lactate shuttle, to inhibit ovarian cancer growth. Third, the integrative analysis of TCGA transcriptomics and mitochondrial proteomics in ovarian cancer revealed that 16 survival-related lncRNAs were mediated by ivermectin, SILAC quantitative proteomics analysis revealed that ivermectin extensively inhibited the expressions of RNA-binding protein EIF4A3 and 116 EIF4A3-interacted genes including those key molecules in energy metabolism pathways, and also those lncRNAs regulated EIF4A3-mRNA axes. Thus, ivermectin mediated lncRNA-EIF4A3-mRNA axes in ovarian cancer to exert its anticancer capability. Further, lasso regression identified the prognostic model of ivermectin-related three-lncRNA signature (ZNRF3-AS1, SOS1-IT1, and LINC00565), which is significantly associated with overall survival and clinicopathologic characteristics in ovarian cancer patients. These ivermectin-related molecular pattern alterations benefit for prognostic assessment and personalized drug therapy toward 3P medicine practice in ovarian cancer.",book:{id:"10342",slug:"ovarian-cancer-updates-in-tumour-biology-and-therapeutics",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - Updates in Tumour Biology and Therapeutics"},signatures:"Xianquan Zhan and Na Li",authors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"},{id:"438269",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"43345",title:"Surgical Treatment of Ovarian Cancer",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-ovarian-cancer",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3449",slug:"ovarian-cancer-a-clinical-and-translational-update",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - A Clinical and Translational Update"},signatures:"Lucas Minig, M. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). 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He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"19",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Science",keywords:"Animal Science, Animal Biology, Wildlife Species, Domesticated Animals",scope:"The Animal Science topic welcomes research on captive and wildlife species, including domesticated animals. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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