Classification by Rosenblum
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7747",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Isotopes Applications in Earth Sciences",title:"Isotopes Applications in Earth Sciences",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Applications of stable and radioactive isotopes are supporting sustainable development goals. They are used to study different ecological, biological, chemical and geological systems and understand their dynamics and interactions. Environmental applications of these isotopes include tracing pollutant migration, assessing and predicting climatic changes and planning for water management. This book highlights recent isotope applications in studying the hydrosphere and lithosphere compartments of the Earth. These applications include the use of natural and anthropogenic isotopes to understand the natural processes in these compartments. Chapters focus on soil distribution and sedimentation, dating tectono-metamorphic events, assessing brine origin, planning for water management and the effect of variation of environmental conditions on the biological and isotopic changes in coral skeletons.",isbn:"978-1-78985-828-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-827-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-015-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77560",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"isotopes-applications-in-earth-sciences",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a529383ebff555e89d4e3d39c7cf20f2",bookSignature:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7747.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3054,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 13th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 20th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92718/images/system/92718.jpeg",biography:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman is Professor of Chemical Nuclear Engineering at the Radioactive Waste Management Department, Hot Laboratories and Waste Management Center, Atomic Energy Authority of Egypt. She has a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from Alexandria University, Egypt. She has contributed to the publication of more than thirty peer-reviewed scientific papers, twenty-five book chapters and ten books. Dr. Rahman has contributed in teaching and supervising postgraduate research in chemistry, physics, petrochemicals and environmental–chemical engineering. She serves as a verified reviewer for several journals and is managing editor for two International Journals. Dr Rahman is an honored scientist of Academy of Scientific Research and Technology and a Publons top reviewer (2016–2019).",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"104",title:"Geology and Geophysics",slug:"geology-and-geophysics"}],chapters:[{id:"68727",title:"Isoscape Analysis for Elucidating Relationships between Soil Redistribution and Soil Carbon Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88952",slug:"isoscape-analysis-for-elucidating-relationships-between-soil-redistribution-and-soil-carbon-dynamics",totalDownloads:553,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Isotopic tracers are useful for assessing linkages between soil movement and soil carbon dynamics in landscapes. Analyses of isotopes and comparison of isoscape (isotopic landscape) with observational data have been employed to investigate spatial distributions of isotopes, to test efficiencies of isotopic models, and to examine soil redistribution patterns and C dynamics. This chapter reviewed the application of natural (7Be, 210Pb) and anthropogenic fallout radionuclides (137Cs, 239,240Pu), and C isotopes (12,13,14C) in understanding mechanisms of soil redistribution and sedimentation. The chapter was organized to cover the formation, sources, and transport of these isotopes; how they are distributed and related to soil redistribution on C dynamics; and importance of their distribution (isoscapes) on investigating soil properties. We also provided a case study to demonstrate the feasibility of applying isotopes and isoscape modeling for understanding soil property variability in response to anthropogenic disturbance in a low-relief cropland field. Results demonstrated advantages of using 137Cs and C isotopic signature (δ13C) to trace soil movements and C dynamics. Topography-based 137Cs and C isoscape models were developed using light detection and ranging data (LiDAR) derived topographic metrics. The models successfully simulated the spatial patterns of 137Cs inventory and δ13C over an agricultural landscape and can benefit soil sedimentation and C dynamic studies in areas with limited observations.",signatures:"Xia Li, Gregory McCarty and Sangchul Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68727",authors:[{id:"55106",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",surname:"McCarty",slug:"gregory-mccarty",fullName:"Gregory McCarty"},{id:"303240",title:"Dr.",name:"Xia",surname:"Li",slug:"xia-li",fullName:"Xia Li"},{id:"303242",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangchul",surname:"Lee",slug:"sangchul-lee",fullName:"Sangchul Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"68379",title:"Metamorphic Zircons Applied for Dating East African Tectono-Metamorphic Event in Central Mozambique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88514",slug:"metamorphic-zircons-applied-for-dating-east-african-tectono-metamorphic-event-in-central-mozambique",totalDownloads:575,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The term East African is now used to describe the tectonic, magmatic, and metamorphic activity of Neoproterozoic to earliest Paleozoic age. Metamorphic zircon is the most suitable geochronometer for the determination of both protolithic and metamorphic ages due to its high closure temperature. The study area comprises the Mungari and Macossa-Chimoio nappes (Central Mozambique) tectonically juxtaposed to the Archaean Zimbabwe Craton. We use the metamorphic zircon morphology, Th/U ratios, and U-Pb ages to evaluate the Tectono-Metamorphic Event in central Mozambique. Morphologically, the zircon grains are sub-euhedral to euhedral, prismatic, with dark to gray cores, and narrow dark rims. The cores exhibit homogenous domains and oscillatory zoning. On the other hand, the U-Pb zircon data define Th/U ratios of 0.26–0.66 and 0.06–0.11. Finally, the U-Pb zircon analyses define upper intercept age of 1094 ± 36 Ma and lower intercept age of 498 ± 30 Ma. The zircon grains of the Macossa-Chimoio nappe was metamorphically re-homogenized or recrystallized by East African tectono-metamorphic event from relicts of Mesoproterozoic protolith domains. Thrusting and folding are the main East African reworking mechanisms that generated the metamorphic re-homogenization or recrystallization of the Mesoproterozoic magmatic rocks in the Macossa-Chimoio nappe of Central Mozambique.",signatures:"Vicente Albino Manjate",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68379",authors:[{id:"298604",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Manjate",slug:"vicente-manjate",fullName:"Vicente Manjate"}],corrections:null},{id:"68540",title:"Isotopic Application in High Saline Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88532",slug:"isotopic-application-in-high-saline-conditions",totalDownloads:705,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Evaporite minerals record the hydrogeochemical conditions in which they precipitated. And therefore they can be used to reconstruct the paleoclimate and paleoenvironments. Evaporite minerals are also major sources of industrial minerals including gypsum, halite, borates, lithium concentrates, and others. Because of their scientific significance and economic importance, evaporite minerals and their isotopic hydrochemical processes linked to their formation have been the focus of many geologists and paleoclimatologists. This chapter will discuss the application of isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, strontium, and boron in saline conditions. This will include the following: the δ18O and δD of hydrated water of gypsum and their paleoclimate since 2.2 Ma in the Qaidam Basin, NE Tibetan Plateau; the δ18O and δD of the interlayer water of clay minerals in salar lacustrine sediments; and the 87Sr/86Sr, δ34S, and δ11B of halite from evaporite deposits in Khorat Plateau, Laos, and Yunnan and their application in the origins of brine.",signatures:"Minghui Li, Xiaomin Fang, Jiao Li, Maodu Yan, Shurui Sun and Liping Zhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68540",authors:[{id:"299475",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Minghui",surname:"Li",slug:"minghui-li",fullName:"Minghui Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"70601",title:"Mapping the Stable Isotopes to Understand the Geo-Structural Control of Groundwater Recharge and Flow Mechanisms (Case Study From the Northeastern Basin of the West Bank)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90449",slug:"mapping-the-stable-isotopes-to-understand-the-geo-structural-control-of-groundwater-recharge-and-flo",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Conventional stable isotopic technique was used to differentiate between the potential recharge sources and mixing and flow mechanisms in the Northeastern basin of the West Bank. The isotopic signatures from deep wells show two main fingerprints with respect to recharge sources and mechanisms. These are wells located in the upper part of the Faria fault system and along the Rujeib Moncline which are fed by triggered water in-line the fault system in the south and deep wells surrounded by the Anabta anticline to the west which are fed by the exposed Jerusalem-Hebron formations. This suggests a mixing process with freshwater sources that mainly flow to the system from southern mountains. The isotopic signatures from the shallow well in Marj Sanoor wells and Nassariyeh in the upper Faria well suggest a kind of partial recharge from the Marj Sanoor Lake leaking to the upper Faria Graben area and participating in the recharge process of these wells. The whole finding out of this project might be used for tuning and revision of the groundwater model that has been built by the Palestinian Water Authority.",signatures:"Saed Khayat, Amer Marei and Zaher Barghouthi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70601",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70601",authors:[{id:"300685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Saed",surname:"Khayat",slug:"saed-khayat",fullName:"Saed Khayat"},{id:"309542",title:"Prof.",name:"Amer",surname:"Marei",slug:"amer-marei",fullName:"Amer Marei"}],corrections:null},{id:"69340",title:"Could Coral Skeleton Oxygen Isotopic Fractionation be Controlled by Biology?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89146",slug:"could-coral-skeleton-oxygen-isotopic-fractionation-be-controlled-by-biology-",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During 1970s, coral skeleton oxygen isotope composition (δ18O) was regarded as the isotopic thermometer following thermodynamic rules. Recently, coral aragonite oxygen isotopic fractionation could appear to be controlled by biology, its rate being accelerated by an enzyme (carbonic anhydrase or CA). Such a new concept results of an original approach involving coral culture in controlled conditions. Environmental factors, temperature and also light have been tested on macrosize scale samples (some mg), and δ18O revealed vital effects, anomalies compared with chemical and isotopic equilibrium, related to metabolic activity. δ18O analyses at microsize scale (some μm), using ion microprobe, could display the mechanism of crystallisation, δ18O fractionation responding to biological kinetic effects. The understanding of coral aragonite δ18O is the absolute prerequisite to develop the first model of a coral proxy.",signatures:"Anne Juillet-Leclerc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69340",authors:[{id:"301531",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Leclerc",slug:"anne-leclerc",fullName:"Anne Leclerc"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1397",title:"Radioactive Waste",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"679841bbda6b01db01df56cd28cf1666",slug:"radioactive-waste",bookSignature:"Rehab Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. 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He pursued his MSc degree in Microwave from the Faculty of Science in 2003 and his PhD degree in Wave Propagation from the Institute for Mathematical Research, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia in 2006. His main personal research interest includes the theory, simulation, and instrumentation of electromagnetic wave propagation at microwave frequencies focusing on the development of microwave passive devices and sensors for medical and agricultural applications. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45265",title:"Spinal Arteriovenous Fistulas and Arteriovenous Malformations – Complicated Vasculature and Surgical Imaging",doi:"10.5772/56367",slug:"spinal-arteriovenous-fistulas-and-arteriovenous-malformations-complicated-vasculature-and-surgical-i",body:'Spinal arteriovenous shunts (AV shunts; including spinal AV fistulas and AV malformations) are heterogeneous entities that can render devastating neurological sequelae by hemorrhage (hematomyelia, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and subdural/epidural hematoma), venous congestion, mass effect, and vascular steal [1-5]. These lesions have been challenging entities to treat because of their complicated vasculature and the high-vulnerability of the spinal cord.
In the absence of accumulated knowledge of the pathophysiology of each entity, early classifications were based on the anatomical characteristics, which could be confusing [6-10]. With evolution of imaging technology such as various MR imaging, CT angiography and selective spinal angiography, ability to examine the angioarchitecture of these lesions has improved significantly. In addition, intraoperative diagnostic modalities have been developed that aid in open microsurgery before, during, and after the resection of these lesions. Increased knowledge of the angioarchitecture and pathophysiology of spinal AV shunts has led to the development of a multidisciplinary approach to these lesions.
This article, after the description of spinal vessel anatomy and some practical classification schemes, follows the recent advancement of spinal vascular imagings and intraoperative diagnostic tools for open microsurgery, which are indispensable for the effective treatment of spinal complex vascular lesions.
To understand the pathophysiology of spinal AV shunts, a profound knowledge of spinal vessel anatomy is indispensable.
Blood supply to a metamere that consists of vertebral body, paraspinal muscles, dura, nerve root and spinal cord is derived from segmental arteries, that are present in the fetus for each metameres (the 31 spinal segments). The segmental arteries potentially supply all the tissues on one side of a given metamere. Each metamere is centered at the level of the intervertebral disc, and each vertebra is therefore supplied by two consecutive segmental arteries on each side which build sufficient transverse and longitudinal anastomoses. These extra- and intraspinal anastomoses provide excellent collateral circulation, and protect the spinal cord against ischemia. The segmental arteries course along the vertebral body posteriorly, supplying blood to the vertebral body through perforating arteries. While the muscular branches run further posteriorly to the segmental muscles, the spinal branches enter the spinal canal through the intervertebral foramen and divide into the following three branches: the anterior and posterior branches which supply blood to the bony structure, and the radicular artery which supply blood to the dura and the nerve tissue at every segmental level [11].
Lasjanias
Whereas each radicular artery supplies blood to the spinal cord in the embryo, the number of radicular arteries supplying the spinal cord decreases following a transformation and fusion in the postnatal life [13]. At certain segmental levels, the radicular artery has a persistent supply to the spinal cord that reaches either the anterior surface via the ventral nerve root or the posterolateral surface via the dorsal nerve root. Between two to 14, (on average, 6), radiculomedullary arteries persist as the result of this ontogenic reduction in feeding arteries. The radiculopial arteries are also reduced to fewer than 11 and 16 arteries.
The anterior spinal artery, with a diameter of 0.2–1.0 mm, traverses along the anterior median sulcus and typically originates from the intracranial portion of the vertebral arteries. The posterior spinal arteries, with a diameter of 0.1–0.4 mm, originate from the preatlantal part of the vertebral artery or from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA). These arteries course from the cervical spine to the conus medullaris but are not capable of feeding the entire spinal cord. They are reinforced at various segmental levels by the radiculomedullary/radiculopial arteries [12]. The blood flow derived from these segmental arteries may be both caudocranial and craniocaudal. The most well-known radiculomedullary artery is the artery of Adamkiewicz (arteria radicularis magna), which arises close to the thoracolumbar enlargement. On the entire surface of the cord, both anterior/posterior spinal arteries anastomose via an extensive pial network (vasacorona). At the level of the conus medullaris, the posterior spinal arteries are connected to the anterior spinal artery through the anastomotic semicircles [11].
The intrinsic arteries of the spinal cord can be divided into two perforating systems–the sulcal (central, sulco-commissural) arteries originate from the anterior spinal artery, and the perforating rami arise from the vasacorona. Sulcal arteries, with a diameter of 0.1–0.25mm, are centrifugal and supply the largest part of the gray matter. They penetrate into the parenchyma through the anterior median fissure, course to one side of the cord and branch mainly within the gray matter. These arteries can anastomose via the transmedullary arteries with the deep perforating arteries from the vasacorona. Numerous perforating rami, with a diameter of up to 0.05 mm, penetrate the white matter, forming a centripetal system [11].
The venous drainage from the spinal cord comprises the small superficial pial veins that open into the superficial longitudinal veins. On the surface of the cord, blood accumulates in essentially two longitudinal veins–the anterior and posterior spinal veins. The anterior spinal vein is located under the anterior spinal artery in the subpial space. The posterior spinal vein, located in the subarachnoid space perimedullarily, takes a course independent of the posterior spinal arteries. The perimedullary venous system is more variable in course, size, and localization than the arterial system. Intraparenchymal transmedullary venous anastomoses may be present; these midline anastomoses, 0.3–0.7mm in diameter, connect the anterior and posterior spinal veins while receiving no tributaries from the intrinsic spinal cord veins [14].
The perimedullary venous collectors drain into the epidural venous plexus through the radicular veins. The transition from the perimedullary vein to the radicular vein forms a hairpin course, similar to the arterial configuration. Drainage of blood from the spinal cord is directed to the epidural plexus without retrograde flow. Though there is no valve structure in the spinal venous plexus, the nature of this reflux-impending mechanism is a matter of dispute. Some histological studies showed that the anatomical features act as an antireflux device–a substantial narrowing and bending of the vessels at its transdural course [14, 15]. These characteristics result either from the close proximity of a nerve root or from the presence of a bulge of dural collagenous fibers with a glomus-like appearance, which were supposed to act an antireflux mechanism physiologically.
The epidural venous plexus extends as a continuous system from the sacrum to the skull base and is located within the fatty and fibrous tissues of the epidural space. This valveless system is connected with the azygos/hemiazygos venous systems in the thoracolumbar region, and with the vertebral and deep cervical veins in the cervical region.
Arteries of the spinal cord. ASA: anterior spinal artery, PSA: posterior spinal artery, RMA: radiculomedullary artery, RPA: radiculopial artery, RA: radicular artery, SA: sulcal artery, VC: vasacorna, PR: perforating ramus, EDA: epidural anastomosis.
Many different classifications have been proposed for spinal AV shunts in terms of their location, vascular structure, and pathophysiology [16-23].
Rosenblum
Type I: Dural AV fistula | \n\t\t|
Type II: Glomus-type intradural AV malformation | \n\t\t|
Type III: Juvenile-type intradural AV malformation | \n\t\t|
Type IV: Intradural AV fistula | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | a : simple extramedullary fistulas fed by a single arterial branch | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | b : intermediate-sized fistulas with multiple, dilated arterial feeders | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | c : giant multipediculated fistulas | \n\t\t
Classification by Rosenblum
Spetzler
AV fistulas | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Extradural | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Intradural | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Ventral (small shunt, medium shunt, large shunt) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Dorsal (single feeder, multiple feeders) | \n\t\t
AV malformations | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Extradural-intradural | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Intradural | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Intramedullary | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Compact | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Diffuse | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Conus medullaris | \n\t\t
Neoplastic vascular lesions | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Hemangioblastoma | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Cavernous malformation | \n\t\t
Spinal aneurysms | \n\t\t
Classification by Spetzler
Rodesch
Genetic hereditary lesions : macrofistulae and hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia | \n\t\t
Genetic nonhereditary lesions : all of which were multiple lesions with metameric or myelomeric associations | \n\t\t
Single lesions : which could represent incomplete presentations of one of the above groups | \n\t\t
Classification of Rodesch
Similar to pathology of the brain, spinal AV shunts can be differentiated into dural AV fistulas and spinal cord pial (intraparenchymal) AV malformations, depending on the shunt location and its related angioarchitecture [16, 24].
Spinal dural AV fistulas are fed by the radicular arteries and/or the surrounding vertebral branches, whereas spinal cord pial AV malformations are, similar to their cerebral counterparts, fed by the perimedullary and/or intrinsic arteries of the spinal cord. Spinal cord pial AV malformations may be either of the fistulous type, consisting of a direct connection between artery and vein, or of the nidus type, with an intervening network of vessels. Fistulas are further subdivided into micro- and macrofistulas. Nidi are further subdivided into glomus and juvenile types. Generally, dural AV fistulas are considered an acquired pathology, whereas pial AV malformations are presumed to be inborn vascular lesions.
The term “angioarchitecture” not only describes the morphology of the lesion at a given time, but also places the lesion in a temporal sequence. Most spinal AV shunts induce changes over time; marked venous ectasias may develop, and additional arterial feeders may be recruited. Venous thrombosis may induce spontaneous regression of the lesions. The type of shunt may remain fixed, but some fistulas may approach the nidus-type of malformation with time as a result of extensive pial reflux or intense intrinsic network congestion. The type of shunt implies the clinical presentation, treatment, and prognosis [20].
Spinal dural AV fistulas account for 70% of all spinal AV shunts. Men are affected approximately five times more often than women. The disease usually becomes symptomatic in the elderly population. Most fistulas are located in the thoracolumbar region. Multiple fistulae in the same patient are exceedingly rare [25, 26].
Recently, both cranial and spinal dural AV fistulas have been categorized into ventral, dorsal, and lateral groups on the basis of the embryologic development of the venous drainage [27].
The ventral group consists of dural AV fistulas into those veins that normally drain the structures developed from the notochord (i.e., the vertebral body at the spinal level). These veins are known as the basivertebral venous plexus, which subsequently drains into the anterior internal vertebral venous plexus, located in the ventral epidural space of the spinal canal, which joins the basilar venous plexus and cavernous sinus. They may become symptomatic as a result of compression of the spinal cord or nerve roots by the enlarged epidural venous pouches. Because of the antireflux mechanism, these shunts do not induce the venous congestion of the spinal cord. There have been only a few case reports describing associated perimedullary reflux as a cause of congestive myelopathy. A hypothesis about a possible defect in the valve-like mechanism that normally impedes retrograde flow from the epidural plexus to perimedullary veins has been suggest to explain this finding.
The dorsal group of dural AV fistulas is related to veins that normally drain the spinous process and lamina at the spinal level. Although they are related to the major dural venous sinuses (superior sagittal sinus, torcular herophili, and transverse sinuses) at the cranial level, the corresponding veins at the spinal level are poorly developed and consist of a pair of longitudinal channels (i.e., the posterior internal venous plexus). Patients with dural AV fistulas within this space typically present with spontaneous epidural hematomas. These symptomatic lesions are extremely rare.
The most common “classic” type of spinal dural AV fistulas is categorized as the lateral group. This type represents >90% of all spinal dural AV fistulas that develop in the lateral epidural space at the junction of the veins that connect the spinal cord drainage to the epidural venous system. The fistula is located at the dura mater close to the spinal nerve root, where a radicular artery enters a radicular vein. Obstruction of its adjacent venous outlet, as a result of thrombosis or fibrosis related to aging, will lead to reflux into the perimedullary veins. Increase in spinal venous pressure diminishes the arteriovenous pressure gradient that leads to decreased drainage of normal spinal veins and venous congestion with intramedullary edema. This in turn leads to chronic hypoxia and progressive myelopathy. As a result, patients within this group present with aggressive clinical symptoms and at an older age. A strong male predominance is also observed, which is similar to that seen in the cranially located lateral AV fistulas, such as in the foramen magnum (medulla bridging vein) and tentorial (petrosal bridging vein) locations.
Symptoms of congestive myelopathy are unspecific. Usually, the deficits progress gradually; however, acute disease onset and progressive development interrupted by intermediate remissions is also possible. Mass effects and hemorrhagic changes are rare as presenting symptoms. Without therapy, the prognosis of this disease is grim, because it results in irreversible motor weakness, sensory disturbance, and bladder-bowel dysfunction [25, 26].
There are two options in the treatment of spinal dural AV fistulas; surgical occlusion of the intradural reflux vein, and endovascular therapy employing embolic material into the fistula. Surgery is a relatively simple and safe intervention, resulting in long-term shunt occlusion in 98% of cases [28]. In endovascular therapy, the embolic glue material must pass the fistula and occlude the proximal segment of the draining vein to prevent subsequent intradural collateral filling of the fistula. The success rates of endovascular therapy have been reported to vary between 25% and 75% [29-31]. Following complete occlusion of the fistula, the progression of the disease may cease; however, only two-third of all patients show regression of their motor weakness and only one-third show an improvement in sensory disturbances. Impotence and sphincter disturbances are seldom reversible [26].
Approximately 20%–30% of all spinal AV shunts are spinal cord pial AV malformations [16, 24, 32]. Similar to brain AV malformations, they are fed by arteries of the spinal cord and drained by spinal cord veins. These high-flow shunts might be intra- and/or perimedullary in location and can be differentiated into fistulous, glomus, and juvenile types, according to their shunt type and hemodynamic flow pattern. Fistulous and glomus types are often present within different compartments of the same AVM.
Fistulous AV malformations (“perimedullary AV fistulas”) are direct AV shunts located superficially on the spinal cord and can possess intramedullary compartments. The shunt may be supplied by the anterior or posterior spinal artery, while the draining veins are the superficial perimedullary veins. This type can be subdivided into three types depending on the size of the feeding vessel, the volume of the shunt, and the drainage pattern [21]. Type I fistulas are small AV malformations; neither the feeding artery nor the draining vein is dilated, and the shunt volume is low. Type II fistulas are medium-sized AV malformations fed by one or two dilated arteries, whereas type III fistulas harbor multiple massively dilated arterial feeders and have a large shunt volume.
Glomus AV malformations have a nidus closely resembling that of a brain AV malformation and usually having an intramedullary location. The superficial nidus compartments may also reach the subarachnoid space. Because of the many anastomoses between the anterior and posterior arterial feeding systems of the spine, this type is typically fed by multiple arteries derived from both the anterior and the posterior systems. Drainage is into dilated vessels of the spinal cord.
Juvenile AV malformations are typically large with both fistulous and glomus compartments not only involving the spinal cord but also neighboring tissues such as the dura, vertebral body, and paravertebral muscle.
Venous congestion, hemorrhage, space-occupying effects and vascular steal have been attributed to the pathogenesis of spinal cord AV malformations. If the AV malformation does not present initially with an acute hemorrhage, symptoms are unspecific. The glomus type tends to become symptomatic in younger children and adolescents, whereas the fistulous type becomes symptomatic in young adults [16, 31].
The first attempt at treatment of spinal cord pial AV malformations tends to be an endovascular procedure, with the exception of most of type I fistulous AV malformations. Direct microsurgery should be conducted in type I fistulous malformations because the small caliber of the feeding artery prohibits placement of a catheter close to the fistula. Type II and III fistulous malformations have dilated feeding vessels enabling superselective catheterization close to the fistula and subsequent obliteration. In the glomus type, glue or particles can be employed to obliterate the nidus. In the juvenile type, only those parts of the malformation should be treated that are most likely to account for the symptoms [22-24].
When spinal lesions are suspected, MRI should constitute the first diagnostic modality.
In spinal dural AV fistulas, MRI demonstrates the combination of intramedullary signal alterations and perimedullary dilated vessels [25]. On T2-weighted images, the cord shows centromedullary hyperintensity over multiple segments. On T1-weighted images, the swollen cord is slightly hypointense and enlarged. Following contrast administration, diffuse intramedullary enhancement may be seen as a sign of chronic venous congestion with a breakdown of the blood–spinal cord barrier. In the further course of the disease, the spinal cord will be atrophic. The dilated and tortuous perimedullary vessels are mainly on the dorsal part of the cord and can be seen on the T2- weighted images as flow void signals. If they are small, however, they might be seen only after contrast enhancement. The coiled or serpentine vascular structures may be well delineated on heavily T2-weighted sequences. Shunts may occur anywhere from the level of the foramen magnum to the sacrum, and localization of these lesions may be difficult and challenging, especially in cases in which the edematous change of the cord occurs at a considerable distant from the shunt.
The typical appearance of spinal cord pial AV malformations is a conglomerate of dilated vessels with peri- and intramedullary locations that appear on T2-weighted images as flow void signals [32, 33]. Depending on their flow velocity and direction, these abnormal vessels are delineated as mixed hyper/hypointense tubular structures on T1-weighted images. Contrast enhancement may vary. Venous congestive edema may be present as an intramedullary hyperintensity on T2-weighted images with concomitant swelling of the cord. The image might become even more complicated if hematomyelia and subarachnoid hemorrhage are present; that might demonstrate varying signal intensities depending on the time course. MRI can identify the location of the nidus in relation to the spinal cord and dura. Especially in the small perimedullary fistulous type (type I), contrast media must be given to detect subtle venous dilatations.
Spinal contrast-enhanced dynamic MRA has contributed to shunt localization in some cases [34-37]. The technique of first-pass gadolinium-enhanced MRA can demonstrate early venous filling, which indicates the level of the shunt. Multidetector-row helical CT angiography with intravenous contrast injection (IV-CTA) can provide spinal vessel images showing the surrounding bony structure [38, 39]. These images allow a wide survey of possible shunts, but the spatial and temporal resolution is inadequate for planning the treatment strategy. Furthermore, cine review of the entire spine is not possible because of the limitations of acquisition time and the limited field of view (FOV).
Sagittal sections of T2-weight MRI. Left: spinal dural AV fistula. Right: spinal cord AV malformation.
Less-invasive spinal vascular imagings. Left: Spinal contrast-enhanced dynamic MRA of fistulous-type spinal cord AV malformation (type III). Right: Multidetector-row helical CT angiography with intravenous contrast injection (IV-CTA) of fistulous-type spinal cord AV malformation (type II).
Although MRI, MRA and IV-CTA have the distinct advantage of less-invasive examination of the spinal cord and surrounding structures, their findings do not provide any hemodynamic information. Until date, selective spinal digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is the standard (and indispensable) for diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up examination of spinal vascular lesions [24, 37]. However, spinal DSA is an invasive procedure. Complete spinal DSA includes all vessels that may feed the spinal cord, i.e., all intercostal and lumbar arteries, the cervical feeders including both vertebral arteries, the thyrocervical trunk, the deep cervical artery, and the internal iliac arteries. Selective angiography of all segmental arteries can often be time-consuming, require multiple catheterizations, involve long radiation exposure times, and use large volumes of contrast agents. Furthermore, multiple catheterizations of small segmental arteries can lead to vessel injury and thromboembolism [40, 41].
Anatomical localization of the shunts is not only imperative for definitive therapy but can also complement spinal DSA, possibly leading to reduction in the number of selective catheterizations and fewer procedural complications. The radicular and spinal arteries are small vessels with a diameter of 0.5–1.5 mm and are surrounded by osseous structures. This anatomic feature decrease the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) in IV-CTA [42]. Although robust contrast enhancement is necessary for detection of small vessels, IV-CTA has limitations with respect to elevating vessel enhancement, because the contrast material is diluted in pulmonary circulation [43]. To delineate such minute vessels, a method that increases the bolus characteristic of contrast medium is preferable. To enhance the spatial resolution of spinal CTA, we tried multiphase intra-arterial (intra-aortic) contrast injection CT angiography (IA-CTA) in advance of spinal DSA. We found that IA-CTA could track the normal/abnormal spinal arteries to the aorta in detail. Multiphase dynamic imaging can discriminate the arterial component from the draining veins, which improves the precision of diagnosis.
A 4 (or 5) Fr Pigtail Catheter was advanced to the proximal portion of the descending aorta for thoracolumbar lesions or the proximal portion of the ascending aorta for cervicothoracic lesions. Patients were then transferred to the CT room, and 80 mL of iodinated contrast material (Iopamiron 300 mg I/ml; Nihon Schering K.K., Osaka, Japan) was injected via the catheter at a rate of 4 mL/s. The CT scan started 5 seconds after starting the injection and was consecutively repeated to obtain early- and late-phase images. Two datasets were reconstructed from the two consecutive scans. Image datasets were transferred to a workstation. An oblique coronal multiplanar reconstruction fitting the curvature of the spine was obtained. Exactly the same MPR sections were obtained from the second phase to distinguish the feeding arteries from the draining veins, which were in close proximity. Curved planar reformation (CPR) and three-dimensional volume rendering were applied to display an overview of the lesions. Detection of the arterial feeders confirmed the presence of a connecting vessel ascending from the intervertebral foramen to the lesions, and the absence of further enhancement in the second phase compared with the first phase. Continuity was confirmed by paging oblique coronal MPR or axial images. Spinal DSA with selective catheterization was subsequently performed with reference to the findings of IA-CTA.
IA-CTA (arterial phase) demonstrating the radicular arteries and the artery of Adamkiewicz clearly.
Spinal dural AV fistula with a feeder originated from the left T11 intercostal artery. A: serial axial sections of IA-CTA. B: serial coronal sections of IA-CTA.
Serial coronal sections of IA-CTA demonstrating fistulous-type spinal cord AV malformation (type II), fed by rt. T9 and lt. T8 intercostal arteries.
Glomus-type spinal cord AV pial malformation. Serial axial sections of IA-CTA showing the location of the intramedullary nidus and perimedullary varix. Coronal sections indicating 2 arterial feeders originated from the left T8 and T12 intercostal arteries, which was confirmed by spinal DSA.
The goal of treatment for spinal AV shunts is the extirpation of shunt vessels without compromising the spinal cord circulation. In spinal cord pial AV malformations in particular, however, this is not feasible because of the complexity of the vasculature. For direct surgery of spinal cord AV shunts, various intraoperative diagnostic modalities have been used to assess the hemodynamics and to identify the shunting vessels, such as intraoperative spinal DSA, Doppler ultrasonography and videoangiography using indigo carmine and indocyanine green [44-50]. Intraoperative spinal DSA is a standard tool for demonstrating shunting flow and confirming extirpation [49]. However, its resolution is not adequate to assess the precise anatomy of the vasculature. Intra-arterial injection of indigo carmine via a catheter introduced for the spinal DSA has the advantage of visibility with conventional light optics; however, when compared with ICG fluorescence, the development and washout of the blue dye is less clear, and the time resolution and utility in discerning arterial or venous components is significantly limited [45]. Recent advances in microscope-integrated videoangiography using ICG have made it possible to visualize blood flow and hemodynamic changes in real time. A technique using intravenous injection of ICG has been used for cerebrovascular surgery, however, it is limited to detect the flow direction and velocity and to repeat the examination frequently [46-48]. To enhance the temporal and spatial resolution of this technique in spinal vascular surgery, we introduced intraarterial injection ICG videoangiography with selective catheterization [50].
After induction of general anesthesia, a 5-Fr long metallic introducer vessel sheath was inserted into the femoral artery in the operating room. After surgical exposure of the lesions, an angiographic catheter was placed into the proximal portion of the feeding artery for intraoperative DSA and ICG injection. When ICG solution (0.06 mg in 5 ml saline) was injected through the catheter, the feeders and then the drainers were illuminated with fluorescence and became clearly distinguishable using a fluorescence surgical microscope. Temporary occlusion applied close to the shunts led to immediate disappearance of the shunt flow. In addition to fluorescence angiography, Doppler ultrasonography and intraoperative DSA were used to confirm extirpation of the AV shunts. Selective IA-ICG videoangiography also showed the patency of the normal anterior/posterior spinal artery, which could not be visualized by intraoperative DSA.
Intraoperative views of spinal cord AV malformation at the conus medullaris. Left: Indigo carmine videoangiography and serial photographs of IA-ICG videoangiography illuminating the feeders, shunts, and drainers in order. Right: IA-ICG videoangiography demonstrating the intraoperative flow alteration clearly.
ICG videoangiography by intravenous bolus injection is performed with 10–25 mg ICG dissolved in saline. Once ICG is injected intravenously, the dye is diluted in the systemic circulation and carried to the tributary of observation via arterial flow. The background fluorescence remains for several minutes until the systemic concentration of ICG was decreased through hepatic excretion, which disturbed the detection of alterations in vessel flow. By using intra-arterial selective catheterization to the vicinity of the pathology, a much smaller dose of ICG can visualize the vessels without any background. Flow dynamics such as direction, velocity and alteration after temporary occlusion were well visualized. The resulting quick washout allows differentiation of the phase of the filling, thus identifying the feeder, the drainer, and the shunts in between. The small dose allows repetition of the examinations. The temporal resolution is far superior to that obtained by the intravenous injection technique. With test occlusion applied to one surface vessel to the other, and by observing alterations in the filling pattern in a real time, it becomes possible to identify the feeders and the drainers and thereby localize the embedded shunts. These are the great advantages of the intra-arterial injection over intravenous administration. The feasibility of multiple repeated injections helps in obtaining precise flow-dynamic information. When faced with complex spinal cord AV malformations, such repeated real-time information is indispensable for the localization and obliteration of the hidden shunts.
Despite the considerable advances that have been made in imaging and endovascular technology, spinal AV shunts continue to pose significant therapeutic challenges. Endovascular therapy and direct surgery with effective intraoperative diagnostic aids have a complementary role in the management, and understanding of the pathophysiology of these shunts and information about the detailed vasculature of the lesions is indispensable for achieving optimal results.
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of essential nutrients, or impaired nutrient utilization. Malnutrition can be divided into two types: undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition manifests in four broad forms: stunting/chronic malnutrition, wasting/acute malnutrition, acute and/or chronic malnutrition/underweight, micronutrient deficiencies. Overnutrition consists of overweight and obesity [1, 2].
Wasting is defined as low weight for height. Wasting can be classified as severe acute malnutrition and moderate acute malnutrition. Severe acute malnutrition consists of kwashiorkor, marasmus and marasmic kwashiorkor. Wasting often shows current and severe weight loss, though it can also continue for a long time. It commonly happens when a person has not had food of adequate quality and quantity, and/or they have had frequent or prolonged illnesses. Wasting in children is related with a higher risk of mortality. Stunting is defined as low height for age. Stunting is the result of chronic undernutrition. It is related with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, illness, and feeding problems. It is the result of chronic or recurrent undernutrition, usually associated with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness, and/or inappropriate feeding and care in early life. Stunting precludes children from attainment of their physical and mental potential. Underweight is defined as low weight for age. A child who is underweight may be stunted, wasted, or both. Micronutrient deficiencies are a lack of vitamins and minerals that are essential for body functions such as producing enzymes, hormones, and other substances needed for growth and development [2].
Malnutrition can be caused by various factors. Unavailability of enough food, having difficulty in eating or absorbing nutrient can cause malnutrition [3]. Health conditions such as vomiting, loss of appetite, mental health disorders, and some medicines can also cause malnutrition [4].
The causes of malnutrition can be grouped into immediate-level cause, underlying-level causes, and basic-level causes [5, 6]. Undernutrition can be particularly caused by consuming inadequate energy, vitamins, and minerals while overnutrition is caused by overconsuming energy and micronutrients [7]. The causes of malnutrition vary from place to place and from time to time. Availing updated information on causes of malnutrition is important to propose appropriate strategies that focus on prevention of malnutrition. The objective of this chapter is providing the best available and updated information on causes of malnutrition. The chapter described the causes of malnutrition by using different conceptual frameworks. The chapter also identified specific causes of malnutrition for common malnutrition types.
There is no single cause of malnutrition. Causes of malnutrition may range from individual, families, district, country, regions, and global level. The causes of malnutrition can be understood from UNICEF’s conceptual framework and from conceptual framework developed for dry lands of Africa. Malnutrition causes can classified as immediate, underlying, and basic (Figures 1 and 2).
UNICEF’s conceptual framework for the cause of malnutrition. Source: Sablah [
Acute malnutrition in African dry land: a new conceptual framework for cause of malnutrition. Source: Young [
A new conceptual frame work developed for dry lands of Africa identified the basic/system, underlying, and immediate causes of acute malnutrition. The new framework deals with acute malnutrition in African dry land [6]. The new conceptual framework focuses on the importance of climate and environment in dry lands in influencing livelihood systems. The conceptual framework also recognizes the deadly and often transformative impact of conflict and climate shocks on systems and institutions, livelihood resilience and adaptation, and the underlying causes of malnutrition. In reducing vulnerability and building resilience, the role of social and political systems, including governance, and within these systems, formal and informal institutions, is given renewed emphasis [6]. The manifestation of the new conceptual frame work is acute malnutrition. This is because severe acute malnutrition is a public health problem throughout the developing countries, mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
The immediate-level causes of malnutrition include inadequate dietary intake and diseases. On an immediate level, malnutrition results from an imbalance between the required amount of nutrients by the body and the actual amount of nutrients introduced or absorbed by the body. Inadequate dietary intake and diseases are caused by food insecurity, inadequate care for women and children, insufficient health services, and unsanitary environments [5]. Reduced dietary intake, reduced absorption of macro- and/ or micronutrients, increased losses or altered requirements, and increased energy expenditure (in specific disease processes) can be a cause for immediate malnutrition [8].
Dementia can cause a person to neglect their health and forget to eat. This in turn causes immediate malnutrition. Ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease can also be a reason for malnutrition. People who have difficulty in eating due to painful teeth or lesions of mouth, dysphagia are also at risk of malnutrition. Loss of appetite that may be caused by cancers, tumors, mental illness, liver or kidney disease, chronic infections can also be included in immediate causes of malnutrition [9]. Diseases such as measles, diarrhea, AIDS, respiratory infection, malaria, renal failure, and intestinal worms can breakdown the nutritional status [10].
Anorexia, traditional behaviors, reduction of intestinal absorption, metabolic damage, disorder metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates, reduction of vitamins, iron, zinc, and copper can weaken the ability to fight infection and cause malnutrition. A large number of studies have illustrated a bidirectional interaction of malnutrition and infection (Figure 3) [11].
The factors that weaken the body’s ability to fight infection and cause malnutrition. Source: Farhadi and Ovchinnikov [
Health and nutrition are closely related in a “malnutrition-infection cycle” in which diseases contribute to malnutrition, and malnutrition makes an individual more vulnerable to disease. Malnutrition is the result of insufficient dietary intake, disease, or both. Disease contributes through loss of appetite, malabsorption of nutrients, and loss of nutrients through diarrhea or vomiting. If the body’s metabolism is altered, greater the risk is of malnutrition (Figure 3).
In some circumstances, such as enterocutaneous fistulae or burns, patients may have excessive and/or specific nutrient losses; their nutritional requirements are usually very different from normal metabolism [8].
The pharmacological and pharmaceutical properties of drugs can affect the intake, digestion, absorption, storage, metabolism, and elimination of nutrients, causing imbalance in the amount of nutrients required in the body [12].
Household (HH) food insecurity, poor social and care environment and poor access to health care, and unhealthy environment are included in underlying causes of malnutrition. The underlying issues are caused by conflict, inadequate education, poverty, gender inequality, inadequate infrastructure, and other basic issues [5].
HH food insecurity or the lack of food is a main factor that causes under nutrition. HH food insecurity is a problem specifically for displaced people [13]. Food insecurity happens when people are frequently concerned about accessing adequate amount of safe, affordable, and nutritious foods. Lack of income to meet the expenses of safe food can cause food insecurity [14].
Poor infant feeding behaviors, poor home care for ill children, and poor health-seeking behaviors are included in poor social and care environment [13, 15]. The social and care environment within the HH and local community also can directly influence malnutrition.
Infant and young child feeding practice is vital component of good nutrition and health. Appropriate childcare, which includes infant and young child feeding practices, is an essential element of good nutrition and health. Cultural factors and resources such as income, time and knowledge also influence caring practices as well as attitudes to modern health services, water supplies, and sanitation [13, 16].
Access to affordable health service, availability of safe water, adequate sanitation, and good housing condition are prerequisites for adequate nutrition [13, 15, 17]. Study conducted in different countries showed that poverty is the most important factor of malnutrition. In an area where poverty is prevalent, children do not obtain balanced diet [13].
The causes of malnutrition identified in UNCIEF conceptual framework on causes of malnutrition included potential resources and resources and control (human, economic, and organizational resources). However, a new conceptual framework developed by Young [6] to address acute malnutrition in Africa’s dry lands encompasses: environment and seasonability, system, formal and informal institutions, and livelihood system. In this conceptual framework, system, formal and informal institutions included governance and political economy, food and health system, gender, cultural and social norms. Livelihood system comprises livelihood resources, strategies, and goals [6].
In basic causes, there are three essential parts of resources: human resource (people, knowledge, skill, and time), economic resource (assets, lands, income, and others), and organizational resources (formal and informal institutions, extended families, and child care organizations) [18].
The formal national institutions that make up the system of governance are centrally essential. It includes civic, political, and economic institutions. Informal institutions include markets, traditional institutions, and wider social customs and rules. These informal social systems determine power relations and resource distribution between different social groups in society, which in turn determine disaster risk and risk of malnutrition [6].
The basic causes of malnutrition are poverty, lack of information, political and economic insecurity, war, lack of resources at all levels, unequal status of women, and/or natural disasters [15].
Malnutrition in children is caused when the demand of nutrient and calories is deficient. Increased demand for nutrients and calories that may be deficient in a normal diet.
Preterm babies have more chance of becoming malnourished than other babies. Preterm babies are at a higher risk of malnutrition as are infants at the time of weaning. Congenital heart disease, childhood cancers, cystic fibrosis, and other long-term diseases are the major risk factors for malnutrition. Neglected children, orphans, and those living in care homes are prone to malnutrition [9]. Some children may become malnourished because of an eating disorder or a behavioral or psychological condition that means they avoid or refuse food.
The conceptual framework developed by UNCIEF and the new conceptual frame developed for dry lands of Africa focus on the causes of undernutrition. However, currently double burden of malnutrition became an international agenda. Therefore, dealing with causes of overnutrition is mandatory.
Energy overnutrition is common in developed countries. Sometimes, people with this type of overnutrition may also experience micronutrient undernutrition if their foods are high in calories but low in micronutrients.
There are many causes of overnutrition. Overnutrition is caused by consuming too much energy than a person needs every day. Consuming too much energy will causes weight gain over time unless a person increases physical activity. It does not matter if those extra calories come from macronutrients (fat, carbohydrates, or protein) because the body takes whatever it does not need and stores it as fat. Overnutrition is associated also with eating too much food and hence having an excessive intake of many nutrients rather than of a single one.
Consuming energy above 1587 Cal/day, protein above 41–57 g/day, and fat above 19–32 g/day increases overweight/obesity both in men and women [19].
Per-capita per day consumption of milk/milk products, fats, and oils (including meat and meat products), sugars and jiggery (including condiments, biscuits,
Micronutrient overnutrition occurs when a person consumes too much of any certain nutrients. It’s possible to get too much of most vitamins or minerals, but usually this happens when you take mega doses of dietary supplements [20]. Micronutrient overnutrition can cause acute poisoning, such as taking too many iron pills at once [21]. Micronutrient overnutrition often results from the use of self-prescribed over-the-counter vitamin and mineral supplements. For example, it can also be chronic, taking large doses of vitamin B6 over several weeks or months [22].
The study also displayed that eating habit while watching television and not having close friend, educational status, sweet food preference, fat consumption more than 3 days per week, eating habit while reading and vigorous-intensity sports were associated with overnutrition [23].
The specific causes of malnutrition are different for different types of malnutrition. In Table 1, the common types of malnutrition, diseases, and their specific causes are described (Table 1).
Types of malnutrition | Caused by deficiency of | Diseases and abnormal conditions caused by malnutrition |
---|---|---|
Protein energy malnutrition | Protein | Kwashiorkor |
Protein | Marasmus | |
Micronutrient deficiency | Iodine | Goiter |
Vitamin A | Bitot’s spots, Night blindness | |
Iron deficiency | Anemia | |
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) | Beriberi | |
Niacin (Vitamin B3) | Pellagra | |
Folic Acid (Vitamin B9) | Several birth defects. | |
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) | Scurvy | |
Vitamin D | Rickets, Muscle diseases, osteoporosis | |
Vitamin E | Hemolytic anemia in premature infants and children | |
Vitamin K | Abnormal blood clotting, | |
Calcium | Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, | |
Zinc | Growth retardation | |
Selenium | Keshan’s disease | |
Overnutrition | Caused by consumption of over-energy and micronutrients | Cardiovascular disease. Cancer. Type II diabetes |
Common malnutrition and their causes.
Malnutrition is not getting enough energy or getting too much of nutrients. There are two forms of malnutrition: undernutrition and overnutrition. Malnutrition can be caused by various factors. The causes of malnutrition can be classified as immediate, underlying, and basic causes. Insufficient dietary intake and diseases can cause immediate malnutrition. HH food insecurity, inadequate social and care environment and insufficient health service, and unhealthy environment are classified in underlying causes of malnutrition. Basic-level causes of malnutrition include: potential resource and resource control, environmental factors, reasonability, system, institutions, and livelihood system.
Energy, vitamin, and mineral deficiency causes undernutrition. Overnutrition is caused by overconsumption of energy and micronutrients. Hence, there is double burden of malnutrition around world, great emphasis should be given for undernutrition and overnutrition. The causes of overnutrition are not clearly indicated in several studies. Therefore, studies that focus on cause of overnutrition should be done by including both developed and undeveloped countries.
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Chun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2549",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5d70a346ca433c501e5968f54286740",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",middleName:null,surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:21,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:19350,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:95,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:21305,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"2282",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"49054",doi:"10.5772/60952",title:"Anion Exchange Resins as Effective Sorbents for Removal of Acid, Reactive, and Direct Dyes from Textile Wastewaters",slug:"anion-exchange-resins-as-effective-sorbents-for-removal-of-acid-reactive-and-direct-dyes-from-textil",totalDownloads:3184,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"Coloured wastewaters are a consequence of batch processes in both dye-manufacturing and dye-consuming industries. Dyes are widely used in a number of industries, such as textile and leather dyeing, food, cosmetics, paper printing, gasoline, with the textile industry as the largest consumer. Dyeing as a fundamental operation during textile fibre processing causes the production of more or less coloured wastewaters, depending on the degree of fixation of dyes on substrates, which varies with the nature of substances, desired intensity of coloration, and application method. Dye bearing effluents are considered to be a very complex and inconsistent mixture of many pollutants ranging from dyes, dressing substances, alkalis, oils, detergents, salts of organic and inorganic acids to heavy metals.Thus after dyeing wastewaters are characterized not only by intensive and difficult for removal colour but also by high pH, suspended and dissolved solids, chemical and biochemical oxygen demands. Ion exchange is a very versatile and effective tool for treatment of aqueous hazardous wastes including dyes. The role of ion exchange in dye effluents treatment is to reduce the magnitude of hazardous load by converting them into a form in which they can be reused, leaving behind less toxic substances in their places or to facilitate ultimate disposal by reducing the hydraulic flow of the stream bearing toxic substances. Another significant feature of the ion exchange process is that it has the ability to separate as well as to concentrate pollutants. Taking into account high capacity and selectivity of ion exchange resins for different dyes, they seem to be proper materials for dyes sorption from textile effluents. The aim of the paper is to study the removal of the acid, reactive and direct textile dyes such as C.I. Acid Orange 7, C.I. Reactive Black 5 and C.I. Direct Blue 71 on the commercially available anion exchangers (Lewatit MonoPlus MP 62, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 64, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 500, Lewatit MonoPlus M 500, Amberlite IRA 67, Amberlite IRA 478RF, Amberlite IRA 458 and Amberlite IRA 958) differing not only in basicity of the functional groups but also in composition and structure of the matrix. Comparison of the sorption parameters obtained by the batch method taking into account influence of phase contact time, dyes initial concentration and solution pH were discussed in detail. Desorption conditions depending on the dyes sorption mechanism were also presented. Influence of the auxiliaries typically present in textile effluents such as inorganic electrolytes and different surfactants on the amounts of dyes retained by the anion exchangers was presented. The adsorption behaviour of the polyacrylic Amberlite IRA 958 demonstrates that it can be a promising adsorbent for the textile wastewater treatment. The results obtained with raw textile wastewaters purification confirmed this statement.",book:{id:"4599",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",title:"Ion Exchange",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange - Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz and Zbigniew Hubicki",authors:[{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"},{id:"173310",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Wawrzkiewicz",slug:"monika-wawrzkiewicz",fullName:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz"}]},{id:"52110",doi:"10.5772/64935",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3485,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]},{id:"25422",doi:"10.5772/28293",title:"Electrochemical Polymerization of Aniline",slug:"electrochemical-polymerization-of-aniline",totalDownloads:11460,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"607",slug:"electropolymerization",title:"Electropolymerization",fullTitle:"Electropolymerization"},signatures:"Milica M. Gvozdenović, Branimir Z. Jugović, Jasmina S. Stevanović, Tomislav Lj. Trišović and Branimir N. Grgur",authors:[{id:"73400",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",middleName:null,surname:"Gvozdenović",slug:"milica-gvozdenovic",fullName:"Milica Gvozdenović"},{id:"78801",title:"Dr.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Jugović",slug:"branimir-jugovic",fullName:"Branimir Jugović"},{id:"78807",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Stevanović",slug:"jasmina-stevanovic",fullName:"Jasmina Stevanović"},{id:"120374",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",middleName:null,surname:"Trišović",slug:"tomislav-trisovic",fullName:"Tomislav Trišović"},{id:"120376",title:"Prof.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Grgur",slug:"branimir-grgur",fullName:"Branimir Grgur"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52110",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3487,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]},{id:"74147",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS): A Review Study of Basic Aspects of the Corrosion Mechanism Applied to Steels",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy-eis-a-review-study-of-basic-aspects-of-the-corrosion-mechanis",totalDownloads:2662,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"AC impedance measurements have been applied for over twenty years in electrochemistry and physics to investigate the electrical properties of conductive materials and their interfaces using an external electrical impulse (VOLTAGE, V or CURRENT, I) as driving force. Furthermore, its application has recently appeared to be destined in the Biotechnology field as an effective tool for rapid microbiologic diagnosis of living organism in situ. However, there is no doubt that the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is still one of the most useful techniques around the world for metal corrosion control and its monitoring. Corrosion has long been recognized as one of the most expensive stumbling blocks that concern many industries and government agencies, because it is a steel destructive phenomenon that occurs due to the chemical interaction with aqueous environments and takes place at the interface between metal and electrolyte producing an electrical charge transfer or ion diffusion process. Consequently, it is experimentally possible to determine through the EIS technique the mechanism and control that kinectics of corrosion reactions encounter. First, EIS data is collected through a potentiostat/galvanostat apparatus. After, it is fitted to a mathematical model (i.e. an equivalent electrical circuit, EEC) for its interpretation and analysis, fundamentally seeking a meaningful physical interpretation. Finally, this review reports some basic aspects of the corrosion mechanism applied to steels through the experimental EIS response using Nyquist or Bode plots. Examples are given for different applied electrochemical impedance cases in which steel is under study intentionally exposed to a corrosive aqueous solution by applying a sinusoidal potential at various test conditions.",book:{id:"10054",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Héctor Herrera Hernández, Adriana M. Ruiz Reynoso, Juan C. Trinidad González, Carlos O. González Morán, José G. Miranda Hernández, Araceli Mandujano Ruiz, Jorge Morales Hernández and Ricardo Orozco Cruz",authors:[{id:"114381",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Hernandez",slug:"jorge-morales-hernandez",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Hernandez"},{id:"215540",title:"Dr.",name:"Araceli",middleName:null,surname:"Mandujano Ruiz",slug:"araceli-mandujano-ruiz",fullName:"Araceli Mandujano Ruiz"},{id:"268773",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera Hernandez",slug:"hector-herrera-hernandez",fullName:"Hector Herrera Hernandez"},{id:"268774",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos O.",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Moran",slug:"carlos-o.-gonzalez-moran",fullName:"Carlos O. Gonzalez Moran"},{id:"314695",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz Reynoso",slug:"adriana-mercedes-ruiz-reynoso",fullName:"Adriana Mercedes Ruiz Reynoso"}]},{id:"62242",title:"Oxygen Reduction Reaction",slug:"oxygen-reduction-reaction",totalDownloads:4028,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"In this chapter, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which is one of the most important reactions in energy conversion systems such as fuel cells, including its reaction kinetics, is presented. Recent developments in electrocatalysts for ORR in fuel cells, including low and non-Pt electrocatalysts, metal oxides, transition metal macrocycles and chalgogenides, are discussed. Understanding of the interdependence of size, shape and activity of the electrocatalysts is evaluated. The recent development of ORR electrocatalysts with novel nanostructures is also reported. The mechanism catalysed by these electrocatalysts is presented. Finally, the perspectives of future trends for ORR are discussed.",book:{id:"6778",slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Lindiwe Khotseng",authors:[{id:"236596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindiwe Eudora",middleName:null,surname:"Khotseng",slug:"lindiwe-eudora-khotseng",fullName:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"}]},{id:"40709",title:"The Role of Ion Exchange Chromatography in Purification and Characterization of Molecules",slug:"the-role-of-ion-exchange-chromatography-in-purification-and-characterization-of-molecules",totalDownloads:12954,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Hidayat Ullah Khan",authors:[{id:"140538",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"hidayat-khan",fullName:"Hidayat Khan"}]},{id:"49055",title:"Ion Exchange Method for Removal and Separation of Noble Metal Ions",slug:"ion-exchange-method-for-removal-and-separation-of-noble-metal-ions",totalDownloads:3029,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Ion exchange has been widely applied in technology of chemical separation of noble metal ions. This is associated with dissemination of methods using various ion exchange resins which are indispensable in many fields of chemical industry. Due to small amounts of noble elements in nature and constant impoverishment of their natural raw materials, of particular importance are physicochemical methods of their recovery from the second sources e.g. worn out converters of exhausted gases, chemical catalysts, dental alloys, anodic sludges from cooper and nickiel electrorefining as well as waste waters and running off waters from refineries containing trace amount of noble metals. It should be stated that these waste materials are usually pyro- and hydrometallurgically processed. Recovery of noble metals, from such raw materials requires individual approach to each material and application of selective methods for their removal. Moreover, separation of noble metals, particularly platinum metals and gold from geological samples, industrial products, synthetic mixtures along with other elements is a problem of significant importance nowadays. In the paper the research on the applicability of different types of ion exchangers for the separation of noble metals will be presented. The effect of the different parameters on their separation will be also discussed. 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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",slug:"lynn-zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",slug:"samuel-ikwaras-okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82800",title:"Repurposing Drugs as Potential Therapeutics for the SARS-Cov-2 Viral Infection: Automatizing a Blind Molecular Docking High-throughput Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105792",signatures:"Aldo Herrera-Rodulfo, Mariana Andrade-Medina and Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp",slug:"repurposing-drugs-as-potential-therapeutics-for-the-sars-cov-2-viral-infection-automatizing-a-blind-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82582",title:"Protecting Bioelectric Signals from Electromagnetic Interference in a Wireless World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105951",signatures:"David Marcarian",slug:"protecting-bioelectric-signals-from-electromagnetic-interference-in-a-wireless-world",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82586",title:"Fundamentals of Molecular Docking and Comparative Analysis of Protein–Small-Molecule Docking Approaches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105815",signatures:"Maden Sefika Feyza, Sezer Selin and Acuner Saliha Ece",slug:"fundamentals-of-molecular-docking-and-comparative-analysis-of-protein-small-molecule-docking-approac",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. 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