\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5283",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The goal of this book is to present an overview of applications of molecular spectroscopy to investigations in organic and inorganic materials, foodstuffs, biosamples and biomedicine, and novel characterization and quantitation methods. This text is a compilation of selected research articles and reviews covering current efforts in various applications of molecular spectroscopy. Sections 1 and 2 deal, respectively, with spectroscopic studies of inorganic and organic materials. Section 3 provides applications of molecular spectroscopy to biosamples and biomedicine. Section 4 explores spectroscopic characterization and quantitation of foods and beverages. Lastly, Section 5 presents research on novel spectroscopic methodologies. Overall, this book should be a great source of scientific information for anyone involved in characterization, quantitation, and method development.",isbn:"978-953-51-2681-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2680-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5083-1",doi:"10.5772/61896",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",numberOfPages:440,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5d879e015ea226a3cf4633c0a187c830",bookSignature:"Mark T. Stauffer",publishedDate:"October 5th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5283.jpg",numberOfDownloads:42903,numberOfWosCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:118,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:243,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 2nd 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 21st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 19th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"97565",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Stauffer",slug:"mark-stauffer",fullName:"Mark Stauffer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/97565/images/4821_n.jpg",biography:"Mark T. Stauffer was born in 1957. He graduated in Chemistry from the University of Pittsburgh in 1979, worked in industry for 12 years, and returned to Pitt, receiving a PhD in Chemistry in 1998. He joined the chemistry faculty at Pitt-Greensburg in 2001, receiving tenure in 2007. Since 2001, he collaborated on projects in archaeology, foods, test kit evaluation, mine drainage, and data analysis. He and his coauthors presented over 100 papers and posters at technical conferences and published 13 papers in peer-reviewed journals. He presents a short course on analytical data treatment at the annual Pittcon analytical chemistry conference. He conveys his enthusiasm for research and teaching via mentoring undergraduate research and through his courses in analytical chemistry.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"488",title:"Spectroscopy",slug:"chemistry-biochemistry-spectroscopy"}],chapters:[{id:"52212",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Characterization of Silica-Based Materials",doi:"10.5772/64477",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-and-raman-characterization-of-silica-based-materials",totalDownloads:3500,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:37,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman are powerful techniques to evaluate silica and hybrid silica structure. It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52212",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}],corrections:null},{id:"51575",title:"Investigations of Phonons in Zinc Blende and Wurtzite by Raman Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/64194",slug:"investigations-of-phonons-in-zinc-blende-and-wurtzite-by-raman-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2058,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The importance of phonons and their interactions in bulk materials is well known to those working in the fields of solid‐state physics, solid‐state electronics, optoelectronics, heat transport, quantum electronic, and superconductivity. Phonons in nanostructures may act as a guide to research on dimensionally confined phonons and lead to phonon effects in nanostructures and phonon engineering. In this chapter, we introduce phonons in zinc blende and wurtzite nanocrystals. First, the basic structure of zinc blende and wurtzite is described. Then, phase transformation between zinc blende and wurtzite is presented. The linear chain model of a one‐dimensional diatomic crystal and macroscopic models are also discussed. Basic properties of phonons in wurtzite structure will be considered as well as Raman mode in zinc blende and wurtzite structure. Finally, phonons in ZnSe, Ge, SnS2, MoS2, and Cu2ZnSnS4 nanocrystals are discussed on the basis of the above theory.",signatures:"Lin Sun, Lingcong Shi and Chunrui Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51575",authors:[{id:"181895",title:"Prof.",name:"Chunrui",surname:"Wang",slug:"chunrui-wang",fullName:"Chunrui Wang"},{id:"183089",title:"Mr.",name:"Lin",surname:"Sun",slug:"lin-sun",fullName:"Lin Sun"},{id:"183090",title:"Mr.",name:"Lingcong",surname:"Shi",slug:"lingcong-shi",fullName:"Lingcong Shi"}],corrections:null},{id:"51682",title:"Structural Characterization of Lithium Niobate Nanoparticles Prepared by the Sol-Gel Process, Using X-Ray and Raman Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy",doi:"10.5772/64395",slug:"structural-characterization-of-lithium-niobate-nanoparticles-prepared-by-the-sol-gel-process-using-x",totalDownloads:2090,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The widespread use of lithium niobate (LN) in several technological applications, notably in optical and electrooptical systems, is a consequence of its remarkable piezoelectric, electrooptical, photoelastic, acousto-optic, and nonlinear optical coefficients. In this chapter, the structural and electrical characterization of LN nanosized particles synthesized by the Pechini route is discussed. Compared to solid-state reaction processes, wet chemistry processes can be advantageous alternatives for the synthesis of polycrystalline LN, because they require lower processing temperatures, and thus the loss of stoichiometry and formation of secondary phases can be minimized. The powders obtained by drying the gel (base powder) were heat-treated for 4 h at temperatures between 400 and 1000°C, according to the differential thermal analysis (DTA) results. It was found that the powders sintered at 450°C contain only the LN phase, while those heat-treated at 500°C already contain the secondary LiNb3O8 phase. The structural and electrical characterization of the samples sintered at 450°C, for different times, was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) in conjunction with Rietveld refinement, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and impedance spectroscopy in the temperature range between 200 and 360 K and in the frequency range between 100 Hz and 1 MHz and by measuring the ac and dc conductivities.",signatures:"Pedro R.S. Prezas and Manuel P.F. Graça",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51682",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51682",authors:[{id:"182217",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pedro",surname:"Prezas",slug:"pedro-prezas",fullName:"Pedro Prezas"}],corrections:null},{id:"51789",title:"Raman Spectroscopy, a Useful Tool to Study Nuclear Materials",doi:"10.5772/64436",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-a-useful-tool-to-study-nuclear-materials",totalDownloads:2185,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of the Raman technique is nowadays being widely spread in many scientific and industrial disciplines. The rise of this spectroscopy is due to the technology developed in some of its main components (the laser, charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors, gratings, filters, etc.), what reduces the cost of the equipment. Characterization by Raman spectroscopy has long and well-established tradition in fields such as condensed matter physics and chemistry. In nuclear sciences, by contrast, it is far from being extensively applied, even though this technique can be especially useful. It is a fact that only a scarce number of Raman laboratories dealing with nuclear materials exist, and therefore a limited database related to these materials. In such a context, this chapter is devoted to the practical use of Raman spectroscopy for nuclear materials characterization.",signatures:"Laura J. Bonales, Jone M. Elorrieta, Álvaro Lobato and Joaquin\nCobos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51789",authors:[{id:"182438",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Bonales",slug:"laura-bonales",fullName:"Laura Bonales"}],corrections:null},{id:"51739",title:"Infrared Spectra and Density Functional Theoretical Calculation of Transition Metal Oxide Reaction with Monochloromethane",doi:"10.5772/64437",slug:"infrared-spectra-and-density-functional-theoretical-calculation-of-transition-metal-oxide-reaction-w",totalDownloads:1608,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we presented a short review of past and present experimental and theoretical work on the reactions of the transition metal monoxide and dioxide molecules with monochloromethane in excess argon matrices. A series of infrared absorption spectra combining with density functional theoretical (DFT) calculation characterized that the transition metal monoxide molecules produced by laser-ablated higher oxides activated C─H and C─Cl bonds of CH3Cl to first form the weakly bound MO(CH3Cl) (M = Sc, Y, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Mn, Fe) complexes, which further photoisomerized to the more stable chlorine-transfer (Cl-transfer) CH3OMCl (M = Sc, Y), CH3M(O)Cl (M = Ti, Zr), CH3MOCl (M = Mn, Fe), and agostic hydrogen-transfer (H-transfer) CH2ClMOH (M = Sc, Y, Nb, Ta) products upon limited light excitation. Transition metal dioxides reaction with CH3Cl also formed MO2(CH3Cl) (M = Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta) complexes, which were further rearranged to the more stable Cl-transfer CH3OM(O)Cl (M = Ti, Zr) and agostic H-transfer CH2ClM(O)OH (M = Nb, Ta) molecules between the metal center atom and the chlorine atom upon ultraviolet light irradiation. Their different reactivity was interpreted according to the different valence electrons of metal center.",signatures:"Yanying Zhao, Xin Liu and Shuang Meng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51739",authors:[{id:"182488",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanying",surname:"Zhao",slug:"yanying-zhao",fullName:"Yanying Zhao"},{id:"187392",title:"BSc.",name:"Xin",surname:"Liu",slug:"xin-liu",fullName:"Xin Liu"},{id:"187393",title:"BSc.",name:"Shuang",surname:"Meng",slug:"shuang-meng",fullName:"Shuang Meng"}],corrections:null},{id:"50692",title:"Vibrational and Electronic Structure, Electron-Electron and Electron-Phonon Interactions in Organic Conductors Investigated by Optical Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/63242",slug:"vibrational-and-electronic-structure-electron-electron-and-electron-phonon-interactions-in-organic-c",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The physical properties of organic conductors formed by tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) derivatives have been discussed in this chapter. The results were obtained using spectroscopic methods including infrared (IR), Raman, and UV-Vis. The experimental data were supported by theoretical DFT and TD-DFT calculations. Special attention has been paid to the description of electronic and vibrational structures, electron-electron and electron-phonon interactions and determination of transport parameters.",signatures:"Andrzej Łapiński",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50692",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50692",authors:[{id:"181863",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Łapiński",slug:"andrzej-lapinski",fullName:"Andrzej Łapiński"}],corrections:null},{id:"52140",title:"Infrared and Raman Spectroscopic Characterization of Porphyrin and its Derivatives",doi:"10.5772/64582",slug:"infrared-and-raman-spectroscopic-characterization-of-porphyrin-and-its-derivatives",totalDownloads:2562,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Density functional theory (DFT) was employed to investigate protonation, deuteration, and substitution effects on the vibrational spectra of porphyrin molecules. The results of the calculations were compared with experimental data. The calculations show that meso‐substitutions produced a substantial shift in frequencies when the meso‐carbons within the parent porphine are involved in the vibrational motion of molecules, while protonation of the N atoms leads to a significant blue shift when the H atoms covalent bonded to the N atoms that are substantially involved in the vibrational motion. Deuteration of N atoms at the porphyrin core is found to result not only in a red shift in the frequencies of the corresponding peaks below 1600 cm-1, but also to generate new Raman bands of frequencies in the range of 2565–2595 cm-1, resulting from N‐D bond stretching. Also, the deuteration of O atoms within the sulfonato groups (‐SO3-) results in a new peak at near 2642 cm-1 due to O‐D bond stretching. Calculated IR spectra of the compounds studied here showed similar differences. Finally, we discuss solvent effects on the IR spectrum of TSPP.",signatures:"Metin Aydin and Daniel L. Akins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52140",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52140",authors:[{id:"27070",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"metin-aydin",fullName:"Metin Aydin"},{id:"51926",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Akins",slug:"daniel-akins",fullName:"Daniel Akins"}],corrections:null},{id:"52018",title:"Novel Pressure-Induced Molecular Transformations Probed by In Situ Vibrational Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/64617",slug:"novel-pressure-induced-molecular-transformations-probed-by-in-situ-vibrational-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pressure-induced structural change in molecular systems has demonstrated strong promises to access previously unexplored, novel structures and new properties in molecular materials with practical applications. The in situ structural characterization is of fundamental importance to understand the exotic structures and the possible transformation mechanisms. Among all the spectroscopic probes, vibrational spectroscopy that include Raman and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and microscopy allow for highly efficient, sensitive and qualitative characterization of pressure-induced new structures and transformation processes in situ. Supported by state-of-the-art, highly customized spectroscopic systems in-house and at synchrotron facilities, molecular structures and materials properties can be probed in a broad pressure-temperature range with very high spectral and spatial resolutions. Complementary to each other, Raman and IR spectroscopy provide valuable information in molecular structures, nature of bonding, lattice dynamics as well as intermolecular interactions. In this chapter, a comprehensive and critical review of examples of pressure-induced molecular transformations in a wide variety of molecules and materials probed by vibrational spectroscopy is provided. The purpose of this chapter is to give readers the most recent advances in high-pressure chemistry and materials research by demonstrating the power of vibrational spectroscopy as a highly effective in situ structural characterization tool.",signatures:"Yang Song",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52018",authors:[{id:"27204",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",surname:"Song",slug:"yang-song",fullName:"Yang Song"}],corrections:null},{id:"52288",title:"Conformational Analysis of Molecules: Combined Vibrational Spectroscopy and Density Functional Theory Study",doi:"10.5772/64452",slug:"conformational-analysis-of-molecules-combined-vibrational-spectroscopy-and-density-functional-theory",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrational spectroscopy can be broadly classified into Raman and infrared (IR). These two techniques are complementary to each other as the mechanisms behind these are different. Vibrational spectroscopy provides detail information about the structure of molecules. The advantage of this technique over X‐ray diffraction is that it can be used to probe molecules in solid, liquid or gas phase. This is especially helpful for studying biomolecules as those molecules can be probed in their physiological environment. Over the last few decades, quantum mechanical calculation has become important tool to assign bands from vibrational spectra. Combination of these two techniques has been used widely in the field of chemistry and biochemistry. In this chapter, we review some of the works that combine both of these techniques. A brief theoretical background is given for understanding the principle of these two techniques.",signatures:"Partha P. Kundu and Chandrabhas Narayana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52288",authors:[{id:"150767",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrabhas",surname:"Narayana",slug:"chandrabhas-narayana",fullName:"Chandrabhas Narayana"},{id:"183330",title:"Dr.",name:"Partha",surname:"Kundu",slug:"partha-kundu",fullName:"Partha Kundu"}],corrections:null},{id:"51755",title:"Geometric and Electronic Properties of Porphyrin and its Derivatives",doi:"10.5772/64583",slug:"geometric-and-electronic-properties-of-porphyrin-and-its-derivatives",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss protonation and substitution effects on the absorption spectra of porphyrin molecules based on density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations. The results of the calculations are compared with experimental data. The calculations show that protonation of core nitrogen atoms of porphyrin and meso-substituted porphyrins produces a substantial shift in Soret and Q-absorption bands, relative to their positions in corresponding nonprotonated and nonsubstituted chromophores. A relaxed potential energy surface (RPES) scan has been utilized to calculate ground and excited state potential energy surface (PES) curves as functions of the rotation of one of the meso-substituted sulfonatophenyl groups about dihedral angles θ (corresponding to Cα─Cm─Cϕ─C) ranging from 40 to 130°, using 10° increments. The ground state RPES curve indicates that when the molecule transitions from the lowest ground state to a local state, the calculated highest potential energy barrier at the dihedral angle of 90° is only 177 cm−1. This finding suggests that the meso-sulfonatophenyl substitution groups are able to rotate around Cm─Cϕ bond at room temperature because the thermal energy (kBT) at 298 K is 207.2 cm−1. Furthermore, the calculations show that the geometric structure of the porphyrin is strongly dependent on protonation and the nature of the meso-substituted functional groups.",signatures:"Metin Aydin and Daniel L. Akins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51755",authors:[{id:"27070",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"metin-aydin",fullName:"Metin Aydin"}],corrections:null},{id:"51767",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",doi:"10.5772/64581",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2981,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51767",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}],corrections:null},{id:"50766",title:"Using Fluorescence Spectroscopy to Diagnose Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/63534",slug:"using-fluorescence-spectroscopy-to-diagnose-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Optical spectroscopy methods have had considerable impact in the field of biomedical diagnostics, providing novel methods for the early or noninvasive diagnosis of various medical conditions. Among them, fluorescence spectroscopy has been the most widely explored mainly because fluorescence is highly sensitive to the biochemical makeup of tissues. It has been shown that tumors were easily detected on account of altered fluorescence properties with respect to fluorescence of ordinary tissue. Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers among women in the world and also it is one of the leading causes of deaths from cancer for the female population. However, when detected in early stage, it is one of the most treatable forms of cancer. Therefore, fluorescence technologies could be highly beneficial in early detection and timely treatment of cancer. This chapter presents main results and conclusions that have been reported on the use of fluorescence spectroscopy for the investigation of breast cancer. It also gives an overview on the instruments and methodology of measurements, on the main endogenous fluorophores present in tissues, on the tissue fluorescence, and on the statistical methods that aid interpretations of fluorescence spectra. Finally, examples of using various fluorescence techniques, such as excitation, emission and synchronous spectroscopy, excitation-emission matrices, and lifetimes, for the breast cancer diagnosis are presented.",signatures:"Tatjana Dramićanin and Miroslav Dramićanin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50766",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50766",authors:[{id:"183261",title:"Prof.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Dramicanin",slug:"miroslav-dramicanin",fullName:"Miroslav Dramicanin"},{id:"183280",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Dramicanin",slug:"tatjana-dramicanin",fullName:"Tatjana Dramicanin"}],corrections:null},{id:"52309",title:"Applications of 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Clinical Microbiology",doi:"10.5772/64450",slug:"applications-of-1h-nuclear-magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy-in-clinical-microbiology",totalDownloads:3163,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) is a spectroscopic technique usually used for structural determination of molecules. In recent years, this technique has been employed for easy and quick recognition of microorganisms, in antimicrobial susceptibility tests and even for the diagnosis of different infectious conditions. Though 1H NMR shows great potential for expanded applications in microbiological studies, to date applications of proton NMR to microbiological research are not totally standardized. In this chapter, we summarize the state of knowledge about 1H NMR and its current and potential applications in this field.",signatures:"Lara García‐Álvarez, Jesús H. Busto, Jesús M. Peregrina, Alberto\nAvenoza and José Antonio Oteo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52309",authors:[{id:"64887",title:"Dr.",name:"José A.",surname:"Oteo",slug:"jose-a.-oteo",fullName:"José A. Oteo"},{id:"186761",title:"BSc.",name:"Lara",surname:"García-Álvarez",slug:"lara-garcia-alvarez",fullName:"Lara García-Álvarez"},{id:"186762",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús H.",surname:"Busto",slug:"jesus-h.-busto",fullName:"Jesús H. Busto"},{id:"186763",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús M.",surname:"Peregrina",slug:"jesus-m.-peregrina",fullName:"Jesús M. Peregrina"},{id:"186764",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto A",surname:"Avenoza",slug:"alberto-a-avenoza",fullName:"Alberto A Avenoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"52007",title:"Improving Food Safety by Using One- and Two-Photon- Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy for the Detection of Mycotoxins",doi:"10.5772/64782",slug:"improving-food-safety-by-using-one-and-two-photon-induced-fluorescence-spectroscopy-for-the-detectio",totalDownloads:2234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presence of mycotoxins in food products is a major worldwide problem. Nowadays, mycotoxins can only be detected by the use of sample-based chemical analyses. Therefore, we demonstrate the use of one- and two-photon-induced fluorescence spectroscopy for the non-destructive detection of mycotoxins in unprocessed food products. We first explain our optical set-up, which is able to measure the localized one- and two-photon-induced fluorescence spectra. Following, as a case study, the detection of aflatoxin in maize kernels is discussed. We present our research methodology, from the characterization of the fluorescence of pure aflatoxin, to the study of the one- and two- photon-induced fluorescence spectra of maize kernels and the development of an optical detection criterion. During both one- and two-photon-induced fluorescence processes, the fluorescence of the aflatoxin influences the intrinsic fluorescence of the maize. Based on the fluorescence spectrum between 400 and 550 nm, a detection criterion to sense the contaminated kernels is defined. Furthermore, we successfully monitored the localized contamination level on the kernel’s surface, showing both contaminated kernels with a high contamination in a limited surface area (a few square millimetres) and kernels with a low contamination spread over a large surface area (up to 20 mm2). Finally, the extensibility of our research methodology to other fluorescent mycotoxins is discussed.",signatures:"Lien Smeesters, Wendy Meulebroeck and Hugo Thienpont",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52007",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52007",authors:[{id:"182428",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lien",surname:"Smeesters",slug:"lien-smeesters",fullName:"Lien Smeesters"},{id:"183268",title:"Prof.",name:"Wendy",surname:"Meulebroeck",slug:"wendy-meulebroeck",fullName:"Wendy Meulebroeck"},{id:"183270",title:"Prof.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Thienpont",slug:"hugo-thienpont",fullName:"Hugo Thienpont"}],corrections:null},{id:"51985",title:"Microprobing Structural Architecture Using Mid-Infrared Vibrational Molecular Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/64927",slug:"microprobing-structural-architecture-using-mid-infrared-vibrational-molecular-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The biofunctions of biopolymers are closely related to their microstructures in the complex plant-based tissue in biological systems. In this chapter, molecular spectroscopy is introduced as an approach to microprobe the structural architecture of plant-based seed tissues. Some recent progresses are made using molecular spectroscopy techniques. The working principles of the techniques, along with the methods of molecular spectral analyses and applications in feed architecture research are described.",signatures:"Yuguang Ying and Peiqiang Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51985",authors:[{id:"12680",title:"Prof.",name:"Peiqiang",surname:"Yu",slug:"peiqiang-yu",fullName:"Peiqiang Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"51194",title:"Fluorescence Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Spirit Drinks",doi:"10.5772/64002",slug:"fluorescence-spectroscopy-for-the-analysis-of-spirit-drinks",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There are many prescribed methods for the analysis of important components and parameters of spirit drinks. Nevertheless, there is a continuous search for new rapid and simple alternative methods that can be used together with recommended methods. The aim of the chapter is to make a review about themes such as quantification of individual components in the spirit drinks, classification of spirit drinks, and determination of adulterants. The chapter shows that fluorescence spectroscopy has a significant potential for being used in spirit drink research because many alcoholic beverage products contain intrinsic fluorophores. Fluorescence spectroscopy allows the determination of some compounds at concentration as low as 0.1–1 μg/L often without sample preparation, there is no use of chemicals and the time of analysis can be very short. The combination of fluorescence data with chemometric tools is a promising approach for the classification of spirit drinks and for the detection of spirit drink adulteration.",signatures:"Jana Sádecká, Veronika Uríčková and Michaela Jakubíková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51194",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51194",authors:[{id:"183253",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jana",surname:"Sádecká",slug:"jana-sadecka",fullName:"Jana Sádecká"},{id:"183378",title:"Dr.",name:"Michaela",surname:"Jakubíková",slug:"michaela-jakubikova",fullName:"Michaela Jakubíková"},{id:"183379",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronika",surname:"Uríčková",slug:"veronika-urickova",fullName:"Veronika Uríčková"}],corrections:null},{id:"50963",title:"Laser Spectroscopy in Hollow‐Core Fibers: Principles and Applications",doi:"10.5772/63536",slug:"laser-spectroscopy-in-hollow-core-fibers-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of hollow‐core photonic crystal fiber (HC‐PCF) technology over the past decade has opened up a vast array of possibilities for new applications. When the hollow core is filled with gas, the HC‐PCF is ideal for molecular spectroscopy applications that require long path length interaction. When light is coupled into the HC‐PCF, the overlap between light and the molecules inside the hollow core is excellent all along the length of the fiber, which can be hundreds of meters long. Coiling the fiber up provides a compact, low‐weight gas cell at the same time featuring a high level of interaction between laser light coupled through the fiber and the molecules inside.",signatures:"Philip G. Westergaard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50963",authors:[{id:"183048",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",surname:"Westergaard",slug:"philip-westergaard",fullName:"Philip Westergaard"}],corrections:null},{id:"51493",title:"Enhanced Molecular Spectroscopy via Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance",doi:"10.5772/64380",slug:"enhanced-molecular-spectroscopy-via-localized-surface-plasmon-resonance",totalDownloads:2435,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Numerous novel spectroscopy techniques have been developed to perform detection and characterization at molecular level. Nevertheless, the resolution of spectroscopy remains to be the bottleneck, and local electric field is involved to solve this issue. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) occurred at the surface of noble metal nanoparticles is a major source of enhanced local electric field which provide notable enhancement factor of spectroscopy applying fluorescence and the Raman scattering. In this chapter, we will firstly present the physics of localized surface plasmon resonance to gain a basic understanding. Several current techniques to prepare a wide variety of nanoparticles and localized surface plasmon resonance detector are subsequently introduced. We further illustrate two examples taking advantage of experiments and modeling to elaborate the effect of localized surface plasmon resonance on spectroscopy under different circumstances. The combination of experimental and theoretical approaches elucidates the influence of each factor and promotes the design of localized surface plasmon resonance detector used in spectroscopy.",signatures:"Lu Sun, Ping Chen and Lie Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51493",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51493",authors:[{id:"55520",title:"Prof.",name:"Ping",surname:"Chen",slug:"ping-chen",fullName:"Ping Chen"},{id:"61965",title:"Prof.",name:"Lie",surname:"Lin",slug:"lie-lin",fullName:"Lie Lin"},{id:"183365",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",surname:"Sun",slug:"lu-sun",fullName:"Lu Sun"}],corrections:null},{id:"51969",title:"Using Raman Spectroscopy for Characterization of Aqueous Media and Quantification of Species in Aqueous Solution",doi:"10.5772/64550",slug:"using-raman-spectroscopy-for-characterization-of-aqueous-media-and-quantification-of-species-in-aque",totalDownloads:3165,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the use of Raman spectroscopy (RS) for studies of aqueous solutions is shown. This technique is mainly used for the characterization of solid samples, but presents numerous features permitting its use for the analysis of aqueous media. Indeed, it possesses all the advantages of optical methods (versatility, rapidity, contact-less non-destructive measurement, etc.), but also offers possibilities for in situ measurements. The Raman spectrum will be influenced by several parameters such as the solution concentration or its temperature-phase. Thus, the analysis of a set of aqueous solutions of different concentrations in a certain temperature range can permit the identification of the specific effect of salt and temperature. A proper analysis based on the follow-up of the specific peak areas or intensities can permit the determination of the salt concentration or the phase transition of the studied solution. The analysis can be focused on the salt direct effect on the spectrum, analysis of the salt signature itself, or on its indirect effect on the water signature. The method for the characterization of aqueous solutions of some salts is presented: elaboration of calibration curves and concentration determination. As an application example, a special attention is devoted to aqueous solutions that are used in the winter maintenance domain (solution of acetates, formates, or chlorides), which are very relevant examples of aqueous solution behavior. A specific analysis set to determine the solution solid-liquid phase transitions is presented as well as the thus-constructed phase diagram.",signatures:"Ivana Durickovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51969",authors:[{id:"183018",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Durickovic",slug:"ivana-durickovic",fullName:"Ivana Durickovic"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6379",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",subtitle:"A Sampling of Current Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2accb70a1680c9d57a55484a1852a10",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",bookSignature:"Mark T. 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\r\n\tThe evaluation of the seismic hazard of a particular site represents the principal input data needed to develop the seismic code regulations and to perform structural building design worldwide. Being the actual trend of automatization of structural designs using various available software, it is imperative that structural engineers also study the estimation of earthquake ground motions and the associated risk of their designs, and seismologists envision in their research interests the structural analysis of buildings as well. Merging these technical fields would result in a new educational curriculum that would fulfill the actual research trends and demand practices. This book will address the recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of seismic hazard and risk evaluation based on the following topics: Tectonics, seismicity evaluation, ground motion prediction equations GMPEs, seismic hazard probabilistic methods, and site effects evaluation, including but not limited to inversion analysis on strong motion data and geophysical prospecting; development of structural fragility curves and seismic risk estimation.
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Dr. Salazar is a member of the Seismological Society of America (SSA) and Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"236461",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Salazar",slug:"walter-salazar",fullName:"Walter Salazar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236461/images/system/236461.jpg",biography:"Dr. Walter Salazar is a structural civil engineer who obtained a doctoral degree in Engineering Seismology from the Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan, in 2004. Dr. Salazar has been active in site-effects and seismic hazard research, producing several peer-reviewed maps for El Salvador, Jamaica, and the Eastern Caribbean. He has published sixty articles in peer-reviewed journals, books, and international conferences. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64619",title:"Dyeing Chemicals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81438",slug:"dyeing-chemicals",body:'The textile dyeing industry is constantly increasing because of the growing consumption of fabrics and garments; moreover, till the next decade, a billion consumers will be added to the global market [1]. The processing of such a large volume of fabrics and garments is conducted through dyes and chemicals. A variety of factors can influence the quality of dyeing and its complex mechanisms in batch reproduction. The degree of levelness and reproducibility of dyeing depends on not only the dyes and chemicals used but also the control of temperatures and pH conditions in the dye bath [2]. To achieve any progress in such studies, it is necessary to control the parameters in order to determine their effect on the dyeing system. To study the performance of dyeing in an aqueous dye bath system, it is essential to alter the dye concentration while maintaining, and all other conditions constant so that the changes in the chemical structure of the solvent and the nature of the dye species can be analyzed [3].
Natural and synthetic dyes play an important role in the process of dyeing textile fabrics and garments. Different classes of dyes are used for coloring different textile materials with the aid of auxiliaries, which facilitate the homogenization of the mixtures [4]. The method of determining the equilibrium constant of the dye–auxiliary complex can be constructed.
The association between the dye and the auxiliary agent may proceed as far as the colloidal particles are dispersed in dyes. Apart from this, there exists an equilibrium between the dyes and the textile auxiliaries, which have been added to the dye bath [5]. The auxiliaries exist in a state of association equilibrium [6]. A new era of dyeing chemical research began in 1930 when soap was replaced by synthetic surfactants [7]. Since many researchers have described the use of various textile auxiliaries in dyeing [8]. Thermodynamic studies of dyeing make useful contributions to the general theories of intermolecular forces while diffusion processes are also influenced by the dye concentration, temperature, nature of dyeing auxiliaries, and polymer structure [9]. A major challenge for textile wet processors is addressing the increasing cost and demand associated with the use of different auxiliaries in industrialized countries. However, in recent years, there has been significant demonstration of a lack of knowledge about the usage of dyeing chemicals. In this study, the potential for dyeing auxiliaries was explained.
This chapter demonstrates the characteristics of different auxiliary agents, which tend to form colloidal flocculation and dye–auxiliary complexes with dyes. A chelating agent is used to remove the hardness of water by bonding with calcium and magnesium ions and other heavy metal ions in hard water, by forming a stable complex compound that does not decompose over a prolonged processing period [10]. Dispersing agents, pH, and temperatures affect the changes in shade and fastness of disperse dyes [2, 11]. A greater degree of levelness is linked with greater retarding effect, which means a longer dyeing time [4]. In the presence of electrolytes, dyeing of cotton fabric with anionic dyes is to suppress negative charge at the fiber surface and to promote increased dye exhaustion [12]. If the dye bath pH is adjusted prior to the dyeing process, it may affect the absorption of dye on the fiber [13]. Synthetic surfactants have been extensively studied by many researchers [14]. After World War II, fabric softeners emerged through the introduction of the synthetic surfactant [15].
The word “chelate” is obtained from the Greek word “chel,” which means crab’s claw. Chemically, a chelate is an organic compound that can form a ring structure by bonding with metal ions. Chelating agents are mostly used in dye baths, as they remove the hardness of water by bonding with heavy metal ion. Chelating agents form a stable complex compound that does not decompose over a prolonged processing period [10]. The coordination of water with metal ions enhances the acidity of the dye solution, which is dependent on the physical and chemical characteristics of the metal ions [16]. Inorganic chelating agents are also used as detergent by suspending and dispersing agents. They require less than the stoichiometric quantity predicted to keep ions in solution (threshold effect). They will dissociate to sodium phosphate in water over time losing their ability to chelate, especially in hot water. Polyphosphates are derivatives of phosphoric acid and are made by reacting phosphorous pentoxide with phosphoric acid. Important polyphosphates are tetra sodium pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7), sodium phosphate (Na5P3O10), and sodium hexametaphosphate (Na6P6O18) [17] (Figure 1).
Formation of sodium polyphosphates.
Organophosphonic acids also act as chelating agents and aid detergency by dispersing and suspending soil. They are more stable than inorganic polyphosphates in hot water and exhibit threshold effect (Figure 2).
Organophosphonic acids.
Amino carboxylic acids form very stable complexes, when reacting with metal ions. They react stoichiometrically and can be formed quantitatively to determine calcium and magnesium by titration. Disodium-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) are categorized in these groups [17] (Figure 3).
Disodium-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acids and nitrilotriacetic acid.
Several hydroxyl groups containing organic compounds precipitate bi- and trivalent metal cations in alkaline medium and also acts as effective sequestering agents; however, they are not effective for calcium and magnesium. Some of the well-known products in this category are glycolic acid, gluconic acid, and citric acid (Figure 4).
Hydroxy acids sequestering agents.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid also prevents or removes scales by forming water-soluble complex compounds, which vigorously react with metal ions [18]. Gluconic acid is obtained from fruit, honey, and wine. In an aqueous solution at neutral pH, gluconic acid forms gluconate ion, which is used in cleaning products in which it dissolves mineral deposits through the formation of ligand with metal compounds [19]. Citric acid also strongly interacts with active metal components. This interaction helps metal dispersion and decreases the specific surface area and pore volume of the metal components. The addition of citric acid increases the amount of metal ion adsorption. Increasing the adsorption depends on the formation of more complex structures (Figure 5).
Coordination of metal ions with different chelating agents.
Glycolic acid exhibits better chelation power in all metal ions because of the lower molecular weight, which helps to remove all metal ions. Glycolic acid, which is a naturally occurring organic agent, exhibits more penetration of metal ions. Natural chelates are biodegradable and non-toxic to the environment. Under natural conditions, EDTA is converted into ethylenediaminetriacetic acid, and then forms a ring structure with other metals, creating persistent organic pollutants [20]. Kabir and Koh [21] have demonstrated that glycolic acid provides effective chelation efficiency for a moderate acid donor. Consequently, glycolic acid exhibited a higher percentage of dyebath exhaustions and better dye ability than other organic chelating agents.
Disperse dyes are nonionic chemicals that are barely soluble in water and often crystallize with varying particle size [22]. These characteristics are inadequate for dispersing dyes of water and cause unleveled dyeing. To achieve the required particle size and distribution, the disperse dye is milled, usually in the presence of a dispersing agent [23]. Generally, the dispersing agents are anionic, e.g., ligninsulfonates, or polycondensates of arylsulfonic acids with formaldehyde, which facilitate milling. Dispersing agents have shown a dual function role: breaking down aggregated dye particles and dispersing dyes in the dye liquor. Dispersing agents consists of high-molecular weight or polymeric compounds in which polar or ionizing groups alternate with nonpolar groups along the chain. The backbone of a dispersing agent is nonpolar, while the polar or ionizing groups are located in the side chains. Johnson [24] demonstrated that the adsorption of dispersing agent is oriented parallel to the surface, so that the nonpolar groups adjoin to the surface and the polar groups turn outward.
The application of disperse dyes on polyester fabric mainly occurs via the inclusion of dispersing agents. The hydrophobic tails of the dispersing-agent molecules are oriented toward the center of the dye micelle, which facilitates micellar solubilization of the disperse dye molecules, thereby conferring higher dye solubility. The disperse dyeing mechanism has been categorized in four stages: (i) dissolution of dye in water by the formation of the dye micelle with dispersing agents; (ii) transference of dye molecules from the solution to the surface of the fiber; (iii) replenishment of dyebath by the dissolution of solid material from the dispersion; and (iv) diffusion of dye into the fiber (Figure 6).
Sodium dinaphthylmethane sulfonate and sodium lignosulfonate.
Murray and Mortimer [25] mentioned sodium dinaphthylmethane sulfonate and lignosulfonates as agents used for disperse dyes. A combination of dispersing agents and water-soluble polymers, for example, poly (vinyl alcohol), sodium polyacrylate, and the maleic anhydride-styrene copolymer, in admixture with anionic surfactants, would be useful in processing the pigments. Wolf and Bauer [26] suggested the use of dissolved disperse dyes in dimethylformamide and formed dispersions by pouring these solutions into aqueous solutions of the dispersing agents. Dispersing agents formed the dispersion by varying particle size of disperse dyes (Figure 7).
Mechanism for dyeing of polyester with disperse dye and dispersing agents.
Heimanns [27] explained that a high-concentration of dispersing agent acts as a barrier to diffusion and reduces the dye yield in thermo-fixation. For better color yield, liquid brands of disperse dyes contain a smaller amount of dispersing agent. To ensure stability, the amount of dispersing agents must be maintained in the dye bath [8].
To achieve uniform dyeing on fabric, it is essential to add a suitable leveling agent in the dye baths. However, it is quite difficult to explain the functions and actions of leveling agents. Werner [4] explained that the effects of textile auxiliaries, such as leveling agents, would appear at first sight to contradict the very nature of physical methods.
Figure 8 shows that equilibrium in dyebath-fiber systems is caused by a large number of processes that play an important part in producing good dyeing. Leveling agents enhance the force in a state of association equilibrium in the dye bath. Werner [4] investigated that the formation of dyes and leveling agents represents bonding similar to what occurs in the dyeing of fibers. The effects of leveling agents are: (i) leveling agents tend to decrease the absorption of dyes by forming a dye-auxiliary complex with free dyes maintaining equilibrium; (ii) leveling agents act as retarding agents; and (iii) dye migration proceeds slowly, leads better leading to improved leveling of dye on the fiber. A cationic polyethoxylated amine can perform strong leveling action. The greater cationic character a strong complex formation, pronounced retardation of dyeing, and higher risk of precipitation (Figure 9).
Equilibrium in dyebath-fiber systems containing leveling agents.
Different leveling agents.
The polyethoxylated chain is longer (n > 50), and the dye auxiliary complex is dispersed by the cationic leveling agents. Amphoteric leveling agents have both anionic and cationic groups, so its activation depends on the dye bath pH [20].
During dyeing in the dyebath, electrolyte serves as three important roles—driving dye into textiles causing, maximum exhaustion of dye molecules through the presence of salt, and fixing dyestuff to the cellulose material [28]. The dyeing mechanism of reactive dye can be classified into two phases, exhaustion and fixation. The process is lengthy because considerable time is spent on the controlled heating of the dyebath and the portion-wise addition of salt and alkali to avoid unleveled dyeing and maximize the exhaustion and fixation [20]. A colorless crystalline solid NaCl composed of inorganic compound of sodium and chloride, a salt in which ionic bonds hold the two components together in the familiar water-soluble white crystals, has a key role in the textile dyeing process in maintaining the electrolytic balance in the textile dyeing process. Glauber’s salt is the common name for sodium sulfate dehydrates Na2SO4. 10H2O; it occurs as white or colorless monoclinic crystals, which are most commonly used in the dyeing industry [29]. Vacuum salt is manufactured by recrystallization of purified brine solution. In the vacuum crystallization process, raw salt is dissolved in water to make a saturated solution and clarify the impurities from the bottom. A vacuum is generated by using a suitable vacuum pump [30]. When cotton/bast fibers are immersed in water, its surface due to the hydroxyl ions also becomes anionic; hence, the dye particles and the cellulosic fiber tend to repel each other. So, the level of substantivity is reduced. The addition of salt creates an electrical positive double layer, which hides the negative electrostatic charge (Donnan Potential) of the cellulose surface. This allows the dye to approach the fiber, allowing better interaction of Van der Waals forces as well; this improves the substantivity. Neale et al. [31] proposed the existence of the Donnan equilibrium. The idea of the Donnan equilibrium was employed for the modern electrochemical theories of the dyeing of cellulose from aqueous solutions of direct dyes [32].
NaCl enhances the diffusion of dye and its adsorption onto fiber. Bicarbonate and carbonate increase the dye bath pH and perform dye fixation through the formation of covalent bonds. “Bolaform” electrolytes contain anionic and cationic organic groups, which are separated by large distances. The word ‘bola’ means a long cord with heavy balls. The alkyl chains whose lengths are sufficiently long act as electrolyte to become surface-active compounds. Hamada et al. [33] extensively studied various physical properties of bolaform electrolytes or amphiphilies. The bolaform electrolytes or amphiphilies contain a single positive or negative site (Figure 10).
Bolaform electrolyte.
Dyebath pH is adjusted prior to the dyeing process; otherwise, it may affect various factors, such as the absorption of dye into the fiber, by increasing or reducing alkalinity [34]. The pH controlling agents play three important roles: (a) maintain a high degree of acidity; (b) control the pH within narrow tolerances; and (c) slide the pH in acidic conditions [35]. The pH controlling agents are usually based on two chemicals, a weak acid and its salt, with a stronger base such as acetic acid, sodium acetate, or phosphoric acid-sodium phosphate. When the dyeing temperature increases, pH control agents release more acidic compounds. Ammonium sulfate decomposes gradually, proucing ammonia and sulfuric acid, which is a strong acid that subsequently lowers the pH when ammonia escapes, at boiling temperatures. However, enclosed or partially enclosed machine, such as a winch, it is not very efficient because ammonia is prevented from escaping into the dye bath (Figure 11).
Dissociation of ammonium salt.
Organic esters are also used as an alternative method for obtaining a pH that slides in the direction of acidity under the conditions of processing. In 1953, Brotherton Co. Ltd. introduced the Estrocon process, which is based on the addition of diethyl tartrate or ethyl lactate for dyeing wool with acid milling dyes and chrome dyes by the single-bath method [36] (Figure 12).
Action of ethyl lactate as pH sliding agents.
Almost 35 years ago, Sandoz introduced the Sandacid V process, in which γ-butyrolactone undergoes hydrolysis to produce butyric acid [37] (Figure 13).
Dissociation of γ-butyrolactone.
Koh et al. [37] found that hydrolysable organic esters achieved a relatively wider range of pH sliding than ammonium sulfate or sodium di hydrogen phosphate, which can produce good exhaustion with satisfactory dyeing in the closed dyeing process.
Surfactant molecules should have surface active properties with the chemical structure of a hydrophilic (water loving) and hydrophobic (having little attraction for organic molecules) balance [38] (Figure 14).
Schematic of a surfactant molecule.
These molecules get preferentially oriented at the interface between air and water, which lowers the surface tension of water substantially when dissolved in the concentration range of 0.1–10 g/l. The driving force for the activation of surface active agents is the formation of micelles, in which the lyophobic tails are associated with themselves, and the hydrophilic heads are surrounded by water molecules. Surfactants are classified into different ways such as use, ionic charge, and chemical structure. According to the ionic structure, surfactants can be classified into four categories: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and nonionic [39]. Anionic surfactants are surfactants that are ionized into anions and cations but the anion is the dominating ion in the solution. Examples are alkyl benzene sulfonate and sodium lauryl sulfate (Figure 15).
Structure of anionic surfactants.
An ionic surface active agent that produces cation as the dominating ion when dissolved in water is called a cationic surfactant. For example, dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and distearyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (Figure 16).
Structure of cationic surfactants.
Nonionic surfactants that does not show any ionic behavior when dissolved in water are called nonionic surfactants. Examples are Lanolin ethoxylate and glycerol monostearate (Figure 17).
Structure of nonionic surfactants.
Surfactants that ionize and produce large segments (these segments are called Zwitter ions) carrying both anionic and cationic ions when dissolved in water are called amphoteric surfactants. Lauryl dimethyl betaine and cocamidopropyl betaine are the most commonly used (Figure 18).
Structure of amphoteric surfactants.
Surfactants are widely used as wetting agents, emulsifiers, detergent, lubricants, or dispersing agents [40].
The dyeing process can lead to the formation of macro and micro foams during circulation of dyes and auxiliaries in the dye bath. A macro foam is displayed with large bubbles, which are visible on the surface of the system and produce cosmetic imperfections [41]. A typical list of anti-foaming agents is as follows: 2-ethyl hexanol (EH), tributyl phosphate (TBP), poly (dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS) amides, mineral oil, fatty acids, and their derivatives [42] (Figure 19).
Anti-foaming agents.
Silicone-based anti-foaming agents consist of small polar groups and hydrophobic polymer chain. The hydrophobic polymer chain is typically a permethylated siloxane. The PDMS chain gains its hydrophilic character by modification with poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly (propylene glycol) (PPG). PEG and PPG are water-soluble polymers that allow materials to retain good water swellability [43]. A decrease in foaming occurs with an increase in the hydrophilicity of the co-polymers. When the hydrophilicity of the copolymers increased, the micro foams were removed more effectively. Kekevi et al. [43] demonstrate that the uniqueness of these anti-foaming agents is caused by two properties—flexibility, which enhances the acquired conformations that result in efficient packing at various interfaces and lower cohesive energy, which is derived from the cross-sectional area of the siloxane at the interface (Figure 20).
Silicone-based anti-foaming agents.
Beginning of the nineteenth century, sodium dithionate (Na2S2O4) was introduced as a reducing agent for the vat dyeing process [8]. Effective sodium dithionate, also called hydrose, provides an effective reduction in indigo dyes [44]. The amount of Na2S2O4 used in the reduction of indigo dyeing, formed a large amount of by products and sulfite (SO32−) and sulfate (SO42−) ions- (Figure 21).
Oxidation-reduction of indigo.
Stripping methods, mostly used in textile finishing, can remove dye from colored fabric. The process is named as ‘back stripping’ or ‘destructive stripping’. The depth of shade is changed by back stripping; on the other hand, dyes are chemically altered by destructive stripping. Fono and Montclair [45] showed that dyes containing azo groups that can be chemically reduced to an almost colorless amine by using chemical reducing agents. The mechanism of reductive stripping depends on the structure of dyes and fibers and the chemical nature of reducing agents. Chavan [46] explained that different chemical combinations of reducing agents and stripping assistants, which are being used to strip the dye from fabric (Figure 22).
Stripping process of azo dyes.
Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate (CH3NaO3S) (Rongalite C) and Rongalite FD are also used as reducing agents in the dyeing industry (Figure 23).
Rongalite FD salts.
As sodium dithionate is highly toxic, many researchers [47] have investigated to replacing it with ecological reducing agents such as glucose, fructose, inverted sugar, and molasses (Figure 24).
Ecological reducing agents.
Many studies have been devoted to catalysts that accelerate the reduction of vat dyes when added to certain reducing agents. BASF-marketed a catalyst, bis-(dimethylglyoximato-diamminocobaltinitrite) for use as a reducing agent.
A softener is a chemical used to make the touch of fabric more pleasing. Softened fabrics are fluffier and have better drape ability. In addition to esthetics, softeners improve abrasion resistance, improve tearing strength, and reduce needle cutting when the garments are sewn. Softeners are divided into three major chemical categories: anionic, cationic, and nonionic. Anionic softeners have a negative charge on the molecule, which comes from the carboxylate group (▬COO▬), sulfate group (▬OSO3▬), or phosphate group (▬PO4−). Fatty alcohol sulfates are made by the reaction of a hydrophobe with sulfuric acid [17] (Figure 25).
Fatty alcohol sulfates formation.
Fewer sulfate groups result in better softeners. Lightly sulfonated oils are sometimes called self-emulsifying because they form turbid water solutions (Figure 26).
Formation of sulfated triglycerides.
Cationic softeners have a positive charge on the large part of the molecule. The amine becomes functionalized under a pH of 7. Quaternary ammonium salts are activated at all pH levels. The ionic interaction causes complete exhaustion from baths and orientation on the fiber surfaces, which cause good slipperiness and reduction in the static charge on the fabric surface. There are several cationic softeners that are usually used in the textile industry, such as fatty amines, fatty amino esters, fatty amino amides, and quaternary ammonium salts (Figure 27).
Synthesis of quaternary ammonium salts.
The nonionic softener has three subcategories: ethylene oxide derivatives, silicones, and hydrocarbon waxes based on paraffin or polyethylene. Polyethylene emulsions are hard, waxy films, which serve to reduce the coefficient of friction. Silicones are polysiloxane polymers. Silicon resembles carbon in which it is tetravalent and forms a covalent bond with other elements (Figure 28).
Reaction of dimethylpolysiloxane.
Crease is formed in cotton fiber because of the intermolecular hydrogen bonding of primary and secondary hydroxyl groups of the polymer chains. The amorphous regions of the hydrogen bonds can easily break down by folding. In the folding state, the broken hydrogen bonds stabilize. Different durable press finishes have been used for many years for use in cotton fabric. N-methylol compounds such as dihydroxyethylene urea react readily with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose chains [48] (Figure 29).
Cross-linking agents based on N-hydroxyethyl and N-alkoxymethyl compounds.
N-Hydroxyethyl acrylamide is also used as a cross-linking agent for cellulosic fibers (Figure 30).
Cross-linking agents based on reactive monomers.
Activated vinyl groups or divinyl sulfone and N, N-methylene-bis-acrylamide are also used cross-linking agents. Divinyl sulfone precursors are used for the cross-linking reaction with cellulose. Cross-linking reactions with epoxides such as epichlorohydrin are mostly used on cellulosic fibers. In addition, aziridine derivatives such as tetramethylene-bis-(N, N-ethylene urea) and trisaziridinyltriazine are effective cross-linking agents [49] (Figure 31).
Cross-linking agents based on aziridine derivatives.
Although considerable research has been conducted regarding dyeing auxiliaries, chemical and other related industries have faced many problems with respect to environmental issues and cost effectiveness for consumers. Although thermodynamic studies of dyeing can make useful contributions to the general theories of intermolecular forces, diffusion processes, and the influence of different parameters such as dye concentration, temperature, dyeing time, and polymer structure remain largely unexplained. When equilibrium studies are carried out and assessed in conjunction with the growing amount of information on the structure of dyeing chemicals and aqueous solutions, their relevance to the dyeing theory should not be underestimated. Due to the lack of chemical knowledge of dyers, quality dyeing is deteriorating with a significant effluent load. This study clearly shows that the different dyeing chemicals used in the dye houses also need investigation to determine the procedures in which the chemicals are used to dye natural and synthetic textiles. This may be a good first step in presenting different chemicals used in the coloration industry.
The worldwide nuclear power industry is currently dominated by light water reactor technology. However, U-235 fissile material resource utilization challenges are likely to drive the need for non-light water reactor technologies when one considers timelines extending beyond the next half century. Many alternative reactor technologies that are capable of addressing the resource constraints of light water reactors are currently being pursued.
It is frequently worthwhile to look to the past as a means of guiding the path for the future. The first demonstration nuclear power plant was influenced by the expectation that limited supplies of fissile material will necessitate breeding fissile material. The Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I) achieved initial power production operation on December 20, 1951 (see Figure 1) and produced the first significant amounts of electrical energy generated by nuclear fission. EBR-I was a sodium-potassium cooled fast neutron spectrum reactor capable of breeding more fissile material than it consumed. The reactor was part of a power plant design that included steam generation and a turbine/generator system.
Chalk message at EBR-I [
Following the success of EBR-I, the Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) was constructed near EBR-I on the high-altitude arid Snake River Plain of southeastern Idaho in the western United States. Like EBR-I, EBR-II was a complete power plant demonstration, and it also included an attached fuel cycle facility to reprocess spent fuel using a melt refining process (see Figure 2). The reactor was a sodium cooled fast reactor (SFR) capable of producing more fissile material than it consumed. EBR-II achieved initial criticality in 1964 and operated until 1994. The reactor produced 19 MWe and supported decades of sodium cooled fast reactor development activities. The success of EBR-II provides insight into the potential benefit of future widespread use of sodium cooled fast reactors as a means of addressing fissile material resource limitation issues. It should also be noted that numerous other sodium cooled fast reactors have been developed including, but not limited to, Fermi I and the Fast Flux Test Facility in the US, Phénix and Super Phénix in France, Joyo and Monju in Japan, BN-350 in Kazakhstan, BN-600 and BN-800 in Russia, as well as sodium cooled fast reactors in India and China.
Experimental breeder reactor II [
From an industry perspective, there is a resurgence of interest into sodium cooled fast reactors. Two commercial entities have proposed the use of sodium cooled fast reactors. The TerraPower company is pursuing a sodium cooled fast reactor coupled with a molten salt heat storage capability. The reactor is capable of producing 345 MWe as well as boosting the output to 500 MWe by using heat stored in molten salt. The reactor is called Natrium, which is Latin for sodium. In October 2020, the US Department of Energy awarded TerraPower funding to demonstrate the Natrium technology. TerraPower is targeting 2023 for submission of a construction permit from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The planned location for the reactor will be one of four prospective sites in the state of Wyoming in the western United States. Furthermore, the Oklo Power Company has a sodium cooled fast reactor design which produces 4 MWth and integrates significant inherent safety features into the design. Oklo Power submitted the first-ever combined construction and operation license application to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission in March 2020.
From a US Government perspective, the US Department of Energy is pursuing the Versatile Test Reactor (VTR). The VTR is a sodium cooled fast reactor that will operate at 300 MWth. The purpose of the VTR is to provide a very high neutron flux (4 x 1015 n/cm2 sec) which will be used to test fuels and components for a wide range of advanced reactor concepts. The VTR project received Critical Decision–1 approval in September of 2020, allowing the project to proceed to preliminary design.
With this information in mind, it is worthwhile to reflect on the design and performance EBR-II since it provides tremendous knowledge and potential direction for sodium cooled fast reactors moving forward.
EBR-II was a complete power plant along with an attached fuel cycle facility. The reactor containment was centered between the sodium boiler building and the turbine/generator building. The reactor was an SFR which acted as a breeding facility and test bed for liquid metal fast breeder reactors [3]. Along with this, EBR-II produced electricity as part of its overall demonstration. Being a fast neutron spectrum reactor, the neutron chain reaction was driven primarily by fast neutrons. Fast neutrons often invalidate many assumptions commonly assumed for light water reactors. The long neutron mean free path associated with a fast neutron spectrum is indicative that much of the core is coupled, meaning there are relatively few localized reactivity effects. This often helps prevent localized peaking. The long mean free path of neutrons also means that negative reactivity insertion due to control rods in a few sections of the core provides the necessary means to shut down the reactor.
EBR-II was a pool-type SFR, meaning the core, and all supporting structures, were contained in a double walled vessel comprised of 86,000 gallons of primary sodium [4]. Due to this design, leaks in any of the primary system piping would drain into the primary coolant. This would result in a loss of plant efficiency but would not leak primary sodium outside the vessel. This design is unlike loop type reactors (i.e. Fast Flux Test Facility, Monju, SuperPhenix), where a leak in the primary coolant had the potential to cause a sodium fire and release activated sodium and would likely cause prolonged outages for repairs.
From a reactor operating perspective, sodium couples four very important properties: 1) extremely high boiling point (870 C) at atmospheric pressure, 2) outstanding heat transfer properties owing to its metallic nature, 3) relatively high atomic weight compared to neutrons leading to limited neutron moderation, and 4) a low neutron absorption cross section along with a relatively short neutron activation half-life of 15 hrs. These properties allow sodium to be used as an outstanding fast reactor coolant. The most obvious drawback of using sodium metal as a reactor coolant is the fact that it reacts with water and evolves hydrogen in the reaction process. The sodium-water reaction can be violent especially when the evolved hydrogen combines with oxygen. The reaction between sodium and water follows two primary schemes forming sodium hydroxide and sodium oxide as shown in Eqs. (1) and (2). In both reactions, hydrogen is also produced which presents a flammability and explosion hazard. It is important to keep in mind that a leak of high temperature sodium to an air atmosphere will result in dense white smoke which makes leak identification simple.
The primary coolant arrangement for EBR-II can be seen in Figure 3. This highlights the major components associated with the primary coolant. Cold coolant (~370 C) was drawn in via two primary pumps, each of which supplied ~18,000 liters per minute of coolant and was split into a high-pressure and lower pressure inlet plenum at the bottom of the core. Of special note, the two primary coolant pumps were single-stage centrifugal mechanical pumps: a first of their kind for liquid metal coolant at the time. After flowing through the core, hot coolant (~480 C) then flowed into a shared upper plenum with a single outlet (shown as a “Z” in both figures). The hot coolant then entered the heat exchanger and was discharged back into the primary coolant pool. To filter out impurities, a cold-trap system continually filtered primary coolant by reducing the sodium temperature to reduce the solubility limits and precipitate out impurities. Above the sodium was ~12 in. of argon gas providing a protective inert cover for the sodium coolant.
Primary coolant system for EBR-II [
The secondary system extracted heat from the primary system which was then used to drive a Rankine cycle for power generation [4]. The sodium flow rate for the secondary system was 23,000 liters per minute, with an inlet temperature of 310 C and an outlet temperature of 460 C. Transferring heat from the radioactive primary sodium to non-radioactive secondary sodium provided a safety enhancement and the ability to place much of the secondary system in a separate sodium boiler building, which was physically separate from the main reactor building. This separation reduced the time required in containment and reduced the potential for radioactive impurities to cause exposure. The sodium boiler building design incorporated a sacrificial plastic wall located away from the reactor building. The sacrificial wall would fail in the event of a catastrophic sodium water reaction in the sodium boiler building thereby directing the reaction energy away from the reactor building.
For the Rankine cycle, superheated steam was generated at 450 C with a pressure of 9000 kPa: this powered an off-the-shelf 20 MW turbine generator. The ability to use off the shelf components, helped reduce cost in the secondary system (one of the primary objectives of EBR-II). The secondary system allowed for a steam by-pass to continually dump heat despite any electrical needs. The overall EBR-II heat transfer pathway is shown in Figure 4.
EBR-II heat transfer pathway [
In addition to the primary and secondary systems, an auxiliary pump was used to ensure a low-pressure flow rate was always present, despite normal power failure. The auxiliary pump was attached to a DC battery system, which would last long enough to allow the EBR-II system time to convert from forced cooling to natural circulation. To aid in the natural circulation, two shutdown coolers penetrated the primary coolant tank and allowed for heat removal directly to the atmosphere. The shutdown coolers contained sodium-potassium which extracted heat from the primary system and was exposed to an air-cooled heat exchanger.
The EBR-II core used 637 hexagonal subassemblies that made up the driver, inner blanket, and outer blanket regions. Figure 5 shows the top of the reactor core prior to the introduction of sodium coolant. The driver region was where a majority of the neutron flux was generated, which meant that a majority of the power was generated in this region. In terms of an equivalent cylinder, EBR-II had a diameter of ~20 in. and a height of ~14 in. Subassemblies were generally broken up into a few major categories: driver, blanket, control, reflector, and experiment [5].
EBR-II reactor Core [
Subassembly types shared many characteristics, the most notable being the outer dimensions which allowed for subassemblies to be moved throughout the core, depending on the specific needs. Each assembly was hexagonal in shape, and had an outside flat-to-flat distance of 5.82 cm with a flow duct wall thickness of 0.10 cm. All subassemblies also had an upper adapter (this allowed for subassemblies to be placed and removed from the core), and a lower adapter. The lower adapters had slightly different configurations to ensure subassemblies were placed in the correct location.
Driver fuel assemblies were comprised of, in general, a lower adapter, fuel pin grid, and upper preassembly. Coolant flowed from the inlet plenum into the lower adapter, through fuel pin grid (where heat was transferred to the coolant), and out the upper preassembly into the outlet plenum. Multiple driver fuel designs were used throughout the lifetime of EBR-II, and as such, a brief description of the MK-II fuel assembly design is given [5]. Since these were used throughout the life of the reactor. Comprised within the fuel pin grid were 91 fuel pins in a hexagonal lattice with a fuel pitch of 0.56 cm. Fuel pins are described further in a later section. Half-worth driver assemblies where nearly identical to driver fuel assemblies, however, half of the fuel pins were replaced with stainless steel pins; this reduced the reactivity of the fuel assembly. Half-worth driver assemblies were typically placed near the center of the core to dampen peaking effects.
Blanket assemblies were used throughout the life of EBR-II, where they were initially inserted around the core to breed plutonium. Blanket assemblies contained 19 fuel pins comprised of a fuel slug (outer diameter (OD) 1.1 cm), sodium bond (OD 1.16 cm), and a stainless-steel cladding (OD 1.25 cm). Blanket fuel pins were much larger than their driver counterparts due to the lower power density and a desire to increase the fuel to sodium ratio to promote breeding in the pins. Blanket fuel pins were 1.43 m long.
EBR-II, like many SFRs, used full assembly positions for the safety and control rods (denoted control assemblies from here on). Control assemblies had an inner hexagonal duct (flat-to-flat diameter of 4.90 cm) which contained a fuel region with 61 fuel pins which could be brought into the plane of the driver fuel to add reactivity to the core. Some control rods (designated high worth control rods) had a region comprised of seven B4C pins directly above the fuel, which acted as an additional poison to ensure the reactor could shut down and remain shut down.
Reflector assemblies did not contain a pin grid section, but instead contained stacks of stainless-steel hexagonal blocks. These blocks were used to reflect neutrons back into the core and were typically placed in the periphery.
Experimental assemblies were unique in both design and contents. These assemblies maintained the hexagonal duct but could contain fuel, material, monitor, etc. experiments. Experimental assemblies are described in greater detail in a subsequent section.
Fuel pins consisted of a metallic fuel slug (OD of 0.33 cm), sodium bond (OD 0.38 cm) and stainless-steel cladding (OD 0.44 cm). The total length of the fuel pin was 62.04 cm, where the fuel slug had a length of 34.29 cm. Above the fuel slug was a helium plenum to capture fission product gasses and was often tagged with trace amounts of xenon to allow for the determination of burst fuel pins. Each fuel pin was surrounded by a wire-wrap with a diameter of 0.125 cm and an axial pitch of 15.24 cm. The wire wrap was used to ensure fuel pins did not come in contact with each other and provided additional coolant mixing to encourage heat transfer. Throughout the lifetime of EBR-II, the fuel pins changed slightly in dimensions, however, the dimensions presented provide a reasonable representation of a typical fuel slug. Figure 6 shows an arrangement of driver fuel pins along with the wire-wrap.
Fuel pin arrangement [
The fuel slugs in Mk-II subassemblies comprised a uranium-fissium alloy (95 wt. % uranium 5 wt. % fissium), meaning that the fuel was metallic in nature, compared with the typical ceramic fuel (uranium-oxide) found in light water reactors. The uranium in the fuel was enriched to between 45 wt. % and 67 wt. % U-235, again in stark contrast to the typical 5 wt. % light water reactor fuel. Fissium was comprised of elements to simulate dominant mid-fuel cycle fission products. The short-highly-enriched fuel for EBR-II created a very short-flat core, which provided multiple inherent safety benefits, described in greater detail later.
One other noteworthy feature of the EBR-II design involved a fuel storage basket located within the primary tank. The fuel storage basket contains 75 indexed storage tubes in three concentric rings. Each tube could accommodate a single fuel assembly. The fuel storage basket was accessed essentially anytime by operators including when the reactor is operating at full power. The fuel storage basket provided great operational flexibility. During reactor operation, spent fuel assemblies stored in the basket could be removed one at a time and transferred out of the reactor facility and delivered to a hot cell facility for storage and disassembly. Fresh fuel and experimental assemblies could also be loaded into the basket during reactor operation. When the reactor was shut down, operators could then quickly move spent fuel assemblies from the core into the fuel storage basket and move fresh fuel from the basket into the core making the refueling outage time as short as possible. Since the driver region of the core contained roughly 100 assemblies, the 75-assembly fuel storage basket provided ample capacity for staging fresh fuel assemblies as well as holding spent fuel assemblies removed from the core. With the fuel storage basket located within the primary tank, the sodium coolant provides sufficient heat transfer capacity to ensure the spent fuel assemblies are adequately cooled prior to their removal.
Experiments were not placed in specific assembly locations in the core. This is unlike many light water test reactors which have specific ports or testing locations. Instead, experiments were often placed in the same hexagonal duct as a typical driver fuel assembly. This meant multiple experiments could be placed in the same assembly, experiments could be intermixed with fuel pins, or experiments could be placed in an assembly with dummy stainless-steel pins. The placement of an experiment in the core was largely determined by the conditions required for the experiments. If an experiment needed a large flux of high energy neutrons in a short period of time, it could be placed in the center of the core. On the other hand, if an experiment needed to experience a large neutron fluence over a long period of time, it could be placed in the periphery of the core. Overall, an experiment could likely be placed in any assembly position within the core, with the exception of the control/safety assemblies. To compensate for any loss of reactivity due to adding experimental assemblies, additional driver assemblies were placed in the periphery of the core.
EBR-II also examined multiple endurance type testing for both fuel and cladding [7]. In the 1970’s, a series of experiments examined running fuels to cladding breach (RTCB) and running fuel beyond cladding breach (RBCB). These experiments were used to help increase the burnup capabilities for fuels and determine neutron fluence limits for these fuels. To accomplish this, an additional cover-gas cleanup system (GGCS) was installed to help remove radioisotopes that leaked from the fuel and into the argon cover gas.
In April of 1961, before EBR-II was used as a power producing or breeding facility, it underwent a series of zero power experiments (designated as less than 1 kW of power) before the primary system was filled with sodium [8, 9, 10]. To perform the dry critical experiment, fuel and blanket assemblies that would be used for normal operations were loaded into the core in a similar configuration to when sodium would be added. For this, additional driver assemblies (~87 driver assemblies compared with ~56 driver assemblies for a sodium filled core) were required achieve criticality since the lack of sodium increased neutron leakage in the core. These experiments were able to take place while construction work was being performed elsewhere in the plant.
The basis of these experiments was twofold. The first was used to determine the performance of the system without sodium, which allowed them to subsequently identify sodium effects on system neutronics. The second gathered operational data to determine if modifications or improvements were required prior to adding sodium. To gather this information, four major experiments were conducted. The first was to determine the strength of the neutron source and the neutron detector responses to ensure an adequate relationship between the two. The second was an approach to critical to verify the ability to insert assemblies and determine the dry critical mass. The dry critical mass could then be compared with the wet critical mass to determine the total reactivity worth of the sodium. The third aspect examined the neutron flux distribution and fission distribution throughout the core and provided a power calibration. The final aspect that was examined was a series of reactivity measurements. This included seven measurements ranging from the total worth of the control rods, individual control rods, to the dry isothermal temperature coefficient of reactivity.
EBR-II was originally designed as a power-producing facility which would be able to produce more fuel (in the form of plutonium) than it consumed. To accomplish this, blanket subassemblies were placed around the periphery of the core, where neutrons which leaked out would be absorbed by U-238 to produce plutonium. In addition to creating a core design which was favorable for generating fuel, additional facilities were constructed on-site to allow for fuel/experiment examination and fuel reprocessing.
The fuel cycle facility (FCF) was built to allow for post-irradiation examination of experiments placed in the core [11]. FCF allowed for experiments to be removed from one subassembly and placed in a new subassembly for further irradiation if necessary. Along with this, FCF was used to reprocess spent EBR-II fuel using a crude melt refining technique rather than a complicated and large solvent extraction process. Melt refining involved melting the spent fuel elements and mechanically separating fission products and slag from the uranium. The uranium (or other actinides) was then used to fabricate additional fuel.
The last decade of operations for EBR-II was focused on the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept [12, 13]. This project encompassed nearly all aspects of life for a nuclear reactor. The IFR concept was meant to overcome many obstacles such as proliferation concerns, waste generation concerns, and reactor safety concerns. The IFR concept was meant to provide the United States (and the world) with a nuclear energy concept that could provide a nearly inexhaustible energy supply for the future. Unfortunately, in 1994, the IFR concept and indeed EBR-II was terminated, and the full realization of the IFR concept never came to pass.
One of the many advantages of fast reactor technology is the ability to “burn” to a greater extent than thermal reactor. The average burnup for a typical light water reactor is 45,000 MWD/MTHM. EBR-II demonstrated 20 atom % burnup which is the equivalent of 190,000 MWD/MTHM. These burnups are possible primarily because of the fast neutron spectrum present in the reactor. Along with the energy extracted from the fission of U-235, the fast spectrum transmutes the U-238 to higher order actinides. Those elements are subsequently fissioned, releasing energy rather than creating a problematic waste issue. The transmutation process does happen in thermal spectrum reactors, but to a far lesser extent. Given this, the extractable energy from fast reactors is fundamentally limited by the structural materials of the fuel and how long they can serve the engineering requirements under significant irradiation.
April 3rd 1986 is a date that is unknown to the general public and to large portions of the nuclear industry. The reason was that nothing newsworthy happened that day. The EBR-II functioned as designed without any damage, everyone working in the facility went home that day, and in general it was like any other day in southeast Idaho. Despite nothing being widely reported that day, one of the most significant achievements in nuclear reactor technology was demonstrated. The EBR-II was intentionally placed into an accident scenario that would have melted down any light water reactor. The accident scenario far exceeded that of Three Mile Island. The scenario was to operate the EBR-II at 100% power, disable the primary coolant pumps (for the first experiment) and the secondary cooling pumps (for the second experiment). Both experiments were conducted without SCRAM the reactor. To achieve the plant conditions listed above, EBR-II was modified to create the conditions but still remain in control in case unpredictable behavior occurred. An example of a modification was the cooling pumps. They were not directly disabled; the pump controllers were modified to simulate coast down function shapes, one of which simulated station blackout. Nominally the presented scenario would be a guaranteed melt-down for the typical US nuclear power plant. The EBR-II design, however, managed to achieve a temperature profile shown in Figure 7.
EBR-II driver temperature predicted and measured [
Figure 7 demonstrates that given a catastrophic failure of major safety mechanisms, including failure to SCRAM following the loss of primary reactor coolant pumps or secondary coolant pumps, the peak temperature remained well below the sodium coolant boiling temperature of 870 C. Additionally, the peak temperature only lasted tens of seconds before reducing to a temperature less than that of 100% power. The inherent properties of the reactor design drove the reactor response rather than any engineered active systems. In short, the large thermal mass of the primary coolant pool, the thermal expansion of the core upon heating and the properties of the metal fuel all worked together to cause the reactor to become subcritical before fuel damage occurred following termination of coolant pump operation even without reactor SCRAM. The current fleet of light water reactors subjected to a similar experiment would melt down without active cooling because the water coolant would eventually boil and the heat removal would be insufficient to prevent fuel melting.
Removal of the heat from the fuel elements and transporting that heat to the outside required several design layers. The first layer starts with the fuel elements, the metallic uranium, sodium bond, and stainless steel 316 cladding which provides an uninterrupted metallic conduction path from the uranium slugs to the sodium coolant. Sodium has one thousand times the heat conduction of water and in EBR-II’s design, allowed for the decay heat to be transported rapidly to the sodium pool. Figure 8 shows the uninterrupted metallic conduction path, the sodium is the green color.
Thermal conduction path [
The second layer was the large sodium pool that could absorb a significant amount of heat without changing temperature. Even without active cooling, the natural convection of the sodium over the fuel elements was enough to circulate cool sodium in from the pool and inject hot sodium back in the pool. Given the 337,000 liters of sodium in the pool, it would take many weeks for the pool to reach a temperature where the sodium would begin to boil.
The last layer was the natural convection heat exchanger that led pool sodium to a chimney that naturally exhausted to the outside. The heat exchanger functioned solely on the temperature differential of the pool to the outside and required no external power. The natural convection heat exchanged moderated the temperature in the pool to keep the sodium from boiling away.
In summary, the solution to a run-away heating event was to increase the thermal conduction from the fuel slugs to the outside to the point where the heat generated could not exceed the bandwidth of the heat removed to the outside.
The previous sections describe how EBR-II removed the decay heat from the fuel elements, mitigating a meltdown event. This mitigation only covered long term inherent safety, not short term. Short term transients also require mitigation due to their rapid onset. Large reactivity insertions can cause localized heating that cannot be conducted away fast enough leading to fuel melting. An example is, during fuel shuffle operations, an assembly falls into the pool. Mitigation of these events (aside from not causing them in the first place) requires a negative feedback mechanism to compensate for the reactivity change. In reactors, these are called negative reactivity coefficients. They are a result of the inherent physics of a reactor’s design and are nominally passive. For example, as a legal requirement in the US, light water reactors have a negative temperature coefficient. Meaning, the hotter the fuel, the less fission occurs, thus preventing a cascade event where heating creates more fission which creates more heating. For EBR-II several of these coefficients kept the reactor in a 100% negative feedback regime.
The first of these and most effective was the expansion of the sodium inside of the core region. The liquid sodium density reduced due to thermal expansion. Given that sodium has a moderating effect on fast neutrons, the decrease in moderation led to an overall negative reactivity feedback due to sodium temperature increases. This proved invaluable in the safety heat removal tests because as the temperature increased, there was a greater the reduction in fissions.
Second, EBR-II’s core construction allowed for thermal expansion in the core. As temperature increased the fuel assemblies were pushed away from each other. The core grid plate that locked the bottom of the assemblies would expand due to temperate having the effect of increasing the pitch. Fast reactors in general are very sensitive to geometry changes due to their high-power densities. Any expansion increases the leakage of neutrons due to the increase in effective surface area with the same neutron population.
These two negative reactivities constitute 99% of the reactivity coefficients. They kept the reactor from running away in a thermal transient allowing for thermal conduction to occur. The long-term conductive mechanisms of EBR-II then kept the reactor from melting down. With these passive mechanisms in place, the severe accident scenario described in the previous section could happen without any real consequences. It was due to the inherent safety mechanisms of EBR-II that made April 3rd 1986 just another day in southeast Idaho.
EBR-II was arguably the most significant, meaningful, and successful sodium cooled fast reactor power plant demonstration in the history of nuclear power. It must be emphatically stated that the success of EBR-II was the result of actual demonstration rather than simulation and modeling or claims of future success based on short-lived small past experiments. Over a 30-year operating lifetime, the reactor demonstrated all aspects necessary for using a sodium cooled fast reactor for power production. Numerous technological advancements were made using EBR-II. Foremost among the advancements were 1) the demonstration of a pool type primary coolant arrangement with all primary piping and pumps located within the pool, 2) the ability to conduct fuel handling activities in opaque molten sodium, 3) the ability to transfer fuel into and out of the primary sodium pool while the reactor was operating at full power, 4) the ability to safely operate a system where heat is transferred from molten sodium to water, 5) the development of metallic fuel, 6) the demonstration of tremendous fuel burnup, and 7) the demonstration of compact on-site fuel reprocessing. The most significant accomplishment of EBR-II was the demonstration of the inherent safety associated with the overall reactor design and material properties that allowed the reactor to survive the most severe accident scenarios, loss of flow without SCRAM and loss of heat sink without SCRAM, with no fuel damage.
It is hoped that the success of EBR-II will not only influence the design of future sodium cooled fast reactors, but that it will be identified as an example of the true feasibility of such designs. This chapter is dedicated to the memory of Len Koch who was present for the startup of EBR-I and served as one of the principal EBR-II designers.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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It is therefore important to incorporate TME and immune scoring in determinations of cancer prognosis and to make sure they become a routine part of the histopathological diagnostic and prognostic assessment of patients.",book:{id:"6297",slug:"histopathology-an-update",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - An Update"},signatures:"Kinan Drak Alsibai and Didier Meseure",authors:[{id:"215311",title:"Dr.",name:"Kinan",middleName:null,surname:"Drak Alsibai",slug:"kinan-drak-alsibai",fullName:"Kinan Drak Alsibai"},{id:"215546",title:"Dr.",name:"Didier",middleName:null,surname:"Meseure",slug:"didier-meseure",fullName:"Didier Meseure"}]},{id:"41353",doi:"10.5772/50659",title:"Morphology of the Intestinal Barrier in Different Physiological and Pathological Conditions",slug:"morphology-of-the-intestinal-barrier-in-different-physiological-and-pathological-conditions",totalDownloads:4232,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"2619",slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Jesmine Khan and Mohammed Nasimul Islam",authors:[{id:"140755",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesmine",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"jesmine-khan",fullName:"Jesmine Khan"},{id:"163192",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"mohammed-islam",fullName:"Mohammed Islam"}]},{id:"41359",doi:"10.5772/52376",title:"Nocardiosis: Clinical and Pathological Aspects",slug:"nocardiosis-clinical-and-pathological-aspects",totalDownloads:4744,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2619",slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Sharmila P. Patil, Nitin J. Nadkarni and Nidhi R. Sharma",authors:[{id:"139808",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharmila",middleName:null,surname:"Patil",slug:"sharmila-patil",fullName:"Sharmila Patil"},{id:"141615",title:"Dr.",name:"Nitin",middleName:null,surname:"Nadkarni",slug:"nitin-nadkarni",fullName:"Nitin Nadkarni"}]},{id:"18771",doi:"10.5772/20385",title:"Electron Microscopy of Liver Biopsies",slug:"electron-microscopy-of-liver-biopsies",totalDownloads:8256,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"287",slug:"liver-biopsy",title:"Liver Biopsy",fullTitle:"Liver Biopsy"},signatures:"Theodore C. Iancu and Irena Manov",authors:[{id:"38689",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Iancu",slug:"theodore-iancu",fullName:"Theodore Iancu"},{id:"38699",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Manov",slug:"irena-manov",fullName:"Irena Manov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59286",title:"Surgical Approaches to the Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"surgical-approaches-to-the-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:6956,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) acts as a sliding hinge between mandible and temporal bone. Disorders of temporomandibular joint are intolerable for the patients in severe cases. Furthermore, surgical treatment of temporomandibular joint problems is a challenge for surgeons in some cases. In that order, it is critical for the surgeon to choose the best surgical approach in treating the temporomandibular joint diseases. There are several surgical approaches in the management of temporomandibular joint problems including some pros and cons. So, in this chapter, we aim to present a comprehensive review of surgical approaches to the temporomandibular joint.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad and Maryam Sohrabi",authors:[{id:"172188",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeelinejad",slug:"mohammad-esmaeelinejad",fullName:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad"},{id:"240723",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Sohrabi",slug:"maryam-sohrabi",fullName:"Maryam Sohrabi"}]},{id:"41355",title:"Ossifying Fibromas of the Craniofacial Skeleton",slug:"ossifying-fibromas-of-the-craniofacial-skeleton",totalDownloads:4827,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2619",slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Bruno Carvalho, Manuel Pontes, Helena Garcia, Paulo Linhares and Rui Vaz",authors:[{id:"140061",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",slug:"bruno-carvalho",fullName:"Bruno Carvalho"},{id:"142266",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Pontes",slug:"manuel-pontes",fullName:"Manuel Pontes"},{id:"142267",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Linhares",slug:"paulo-linhares",fullName:"Paulo Linhares"},{id:"142268",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz",slug:"rui-vaz",fullName:"Rui Vaz"},{id:"142958",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"helena-garcia",fullName:"Helena Garcia"}]},{id:"58358",title:"Internal Derangements of the Temporomandibular Joint: Diagnosis and Management",slug:"internal-derangements-of-the-temporomandibular-joint-diagnosis-and-management",totalDownloads:3339,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Millions of individuals worldwide suffer from temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders and are characterized by pain and joint dysfunction. TMJ internal derangement (ID) is the most frequent type of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). The ID of TMJ is defined as a joint dysfunction associated with an abnormal disc position. Identification and elimination of the causes of tissue breakdown of the TMJ that lead to ID are the key factors for successful treatment. The common causes for TMJ ID are trauma and parafunctional habits which lead to joint overload and degenerative changes in the articular structures, increased friction, and gradual disc displacement. Local and systemic inflammatory/degenerative arthropathies may also affect TMJ and cause ID. The aim of this chapter is to give comprehensive knowledge about the contemporary perspective of TMJ ID including diagnostic and therapeutic developments and innovations. Clinicians should establish the correct diagnosis and cause of the disease for appropriate management so that patients do not suffer from ineffective treatments. As an innovative development, TMJ replacements with alloplastic joint prosthesis and tissue-engineered structures hold promise for the future of management of TMJ ID.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Ufuk Tatli and Vladimir Machon",authors:[{id:"203864",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ufuk",middleName:null,surname:"Tatli",slug:"ufuk-tatli",fullName:"Ufuk Tatli"},{id:"204401",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Machon",slug:"vladimir-machon",fullName:"Vladimir Machon"}]},{id:"61976",title:"Metabolic Alkalosis",slug:"metabolic-alkalosis",totalDownloads:1488,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Metabolic alkalosis is a disorder where the primary defect, an increase in plasma bicarbonate concentration, leads to an increase in systemic pH. Here we review the causes of metabolic alkalosis with an emphasis on the inherited causes, namely Gitelman syndrome and Bartter syndrome and syndromes which mimic them. We detail the importance of understanding the kidney pathophysiology and molecular genetics in order to distinguish these syndromes from acquired causes. In particular we discuss the tubular transport of salt in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. The effects of salt wasting, namely an increase in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis are discussed in order to explain the biochemical phenotypes and targeted treatment approaches to these conditions.",book:{id:"6790",slug:"fluid-and-electrolyte-disorders",title:"Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders",fullTitle:"Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders"},signatures:"Holly Mabillard and John A. Sayer",authors:null},{id:"41364",title:"Histological Change of Aquatic Animals by Parasitic Infection",slug:"histological-change-of-aquatic-animals-by-parasitic-infection",totalDownloads:8588,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"2619",slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Watchariya Purivirojkul",authors:[{id:"149747",title:"Dr.",name:"Watchariya",middleName:null,surname:"Purivirojkul",slug:"watchariya-purivirojkul",fullName:"Watchariya Purivirojkul"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"193",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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