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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\r\n\tThe members of the Enterobacteria are prevalent and involved in different types of infections (nosocomial, urinary tract infections, respiratory infections, gastroenteritis, food poisoining, different outbreaks, etc.), and they need to be reviewed after a period of time as different variants and species evolve and cause different infections that need to be studied thoroughly.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to cover all members of the genus Enterobacteria (E.coli, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, etc.) with respect to classification, identification, and new methods of identification for any new species identified. Explanations on the pathogenecity and variants of each of the members of enterobacteria are welcome, as well as any vaccines or prevention strategies, and outbreaks of infection reported for each of the members of Enterobacteria. The book hopes to serve as a complete resource on Enterobacteria for students, scientists, clinicians, and medical microbiologists.
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1. Introduction
The first sheep were brought to the Magallanes region from Chiloe in 1845 as a food source for the region’s new human settlements. The Magallanes governor encouraged the development of a larger sheep industry, which began in January 1877 with the arrival of the first Cheviot sheep from the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). Progress in Magallanes throughout the last 145 years has transformed the region into the most important sheep farming area of Chile via the development of both, meat and wool production. In the last 20 years, improvements have been realized through a strategic use of management techniques (strategic feeding, grazing, soil fertility, water supply, crossbreeding and brush control) and new technologies (plow machinery, direct drilling, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, dietary supplement formulation, satellite imagery, silage baling, and electric fence) that have enhanced both, process efficiency and product quality, forward to sustainability management.
To understand the different aspects of sheep farming and its development within the socioeconomic and environmental context of the Magallanes region, this chapter covers topics including location, climatic conditions and main characteristics of the livestock use area, common grazing management systems, locally-adapted fodder crops, artificial insemination, the main breeds (Corriedale, Merino mainly and meat crossbreed), breeding, lamb meat quality under different grazing regimes, wool management, lactation curve and cheese production, animal welfare, sheep-wildlife interactions, and rural tourism.
2. Geographical area and weather
The Magallanes region corresponds to an extensive territory located in the extreme south of Chile and the South American continent, encompassing the meridional section of Patagonia and the occidental part of the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, and the numerous archipelagos that make up a strip adjacent to both parts, ending in the south with the Cape Horn archipelago. The region extends from 48° 40′ to 56° 30′ south latitude (the greatest latitudinal amplitude in Chile), covering an area of 132,033.5 km2 (Figure 1A) [1]. The region is characterized by a marked physical contrast, generating different geological, orographic and climatic zones, which determine high amplitude in terms of vegetation types [3]. Likewise, there is a pronounced gradient of precipitation from west to east, going from more than 5.000 to less than 200 mm per year respectively [4, 5]. These characteristics make it evident that, in Magallanes, the territory of the eastern section is the most suitable for human life, and that is where the cattle activity has been established since 1870 [1, 6].
Figure 1.
Cartographies of the area of livestock use in the Magellan region. A: General location. B: Livestock use according to administrative division. C: Elevation ranges. Source: Own elaboration from ASTER GDEM digital elevation model. D: isohyets (mm·year−1) and isotherms (annual mean ° C) (prepared by author based in Ref. [2]).
The livestock use area is located mainly in the eastern section of the Magallanes region, extending between 50° 36′ and 55° 19′ south latitude and 67° 2 ‘and 73° 47’ west longitude, covering a surface area of 35,962.6 km2 distributed mainly in the provinces of Magallanes, Tierra del Fuego and Ultima Esperanza (15,577.9, 13,502.2 and 6,559.9 km2 respectively). With less representativeness and in the southernmost distribution lies the livestock territory of the Chilean Antarctic province with 322.5 km2(Figure 1B) [7]. The livestock use area can be divided into three provinces from north to south (the area corresponding to the Chilean Antarctic province is not considered in this analysis). The first section located in the Ultima Esperanza province presents spatial and topographic patterns different from the other sections (Magallanes and Tierra del Fuego), corresponding mainly to a transition strip between mountain ranges and the eastern plains, characterized by plateau sectors crossed by mountain chains with heights that rarely exceed 1000 masl (Figure 1B). The Magallanes and Tierra del Fuego sections present similar characteristics, beginning with a western sub-Andean transition strip that gives way to extensive eastern plains, corresponding to mainly flat territories, with low elevations and moderate undulations (Figure 1C) [3].
According to [8], from a climatic point of view, based on Koppen classification, this area can be defined as a trans-Andean climate with steppe degeneration in its western fringe and a cold steppe climate in the eastern plains sector. In the former, we can find annual average temperatures ranging from 2.6 to 6.6° C, while in the cold steppe climate the annual average temperatures can range between 4 and 7.4°C (Figure 1D) [2, 8]. On the other hand, the area of interest is located in the sotavento zone (east) of the Andean Patagonian mountain range, which despite presenting spatial discontinuities in its southern distribution, is the main geographical feature of the region and forms an orographic barrier that generates local climatic changes [5, 9]. This is how rainfall in the livestock use area can drop from approximately 600 mm to less than 200 mm per year in the direction of the Atlantic coast in the sections of Magallanes and Tierra del Fuego, while in Ultima Esperanza the rainfall ranges from 1,000 mm to 300 mm in the same direction W-E (Figure 1D) [2].
The marked variation in rainfall in the area of livestock use is reflected in the present vegetation, which could be categorized into three ecoregions: the Patagonian steppe, the deciduous Magellan forest and evergreen forest, but the latter have a small participation. The dominates the sub-Andean region, is present in the three provinces of the area of livestock use, characterized by associations of Nothofagus pumilio (lenga) and also including forests of Nothofagus antarctica (ñirre) and associations with Nothofagus betuloides (coihue de Magallanes) in the most humid sectors [3]. It is worth mentioning that in this ecoregion and specifically in the area of livestock use, there are extensive areas of forests that were formerly burned with the purpose of enabling land for livestock [10] and that today are known as naturalized grasslands. Dominating the area of the eastern plains, we find the Patagonian steppe, defined as a hard grass community without the presence of trees [8]. The characteristic specie of this ecoregion in Magallanes is the tussock coiron (Festuca gracillima), which may be present to different degrees of dominance or even absent in some cases. In this ecoregion, three large types of communities can be distinguished: a) natural grasslands, made up of coiron grasslands, vegas (mesic grasslands) and saline grasslands, b) scrublands, represented mainly by Chilliotrichium diffusum (romerillo) and other species less distributed and c) heaths (sub-shrubs), where Empetrum rubrum (murtilla) stands out [11]. It is important to highlight that 91.8% (24,434.2 km2) of the Patagonian steppe area present in Chile is located in the livestock use area of the Magallanes region and the Chilean Antarctic [11].
3. Grazing systems in Patagonian grasslands
The soils in the grazing fields in the region de Magallanes in Southern Chile are glacial and fluvio-glacial, with sandy-loam and loam-clay-sandy textures and a shallow surface soil horizon with mid to high organic matter content. The soils classification is dominated mainly for mollisols, but also histosols, inceptisols, espodosols and aridisols. Mineralization is very slow, implying severe nitrogen deficiency, also phosphorus and sulfur are limiting factors; pH values range from west to east from less than 4.8 rising to 7.7 where topography favors humidity and the accumulation of salts [11]. The photoperiod in summer is 12–14 hours/day, favorable for most long-day grasses. Dominant vegetation includes 32.7% of native shrubs and tussock grasses (Chiliotrichium diffusum – Festuca gracillima); 26.9% of tussock and naturalized grasslands (Festuca spp, Poa spp); 12.2% of dense shrubs (Ch. diffusum-Empetrum rubrum) and 16.5% forests (Nothofagus pumilio). Sown and improved pastures (T. repens; D. glomerata; Festuca spp) comprise 2.5% of the total area, and about 5% is scattered highly productive humid areas or wetlands (also called vegas) of glacial and morrenic origin (graminoids). The mean nutritive value of native grasslands is low (roughly less than 9% protein and 8.75 MJ EM/kg DM) but selectivity and seasonal variations allow an extensive grazing system sustaining at present over 1,570,000 sheep [12] and 100,000 cattle [7].
3.1 Patagonian grazing systems
Sub-Antarctic rangelands were originally dominated by dense high tussocks (Festuca sp.) and less palatable shrubs. However, after the onset of the sheep industry, stock numbers rose to about 3 million by mid-20th century [13] and the grazing vegetation community shifted, first towards short tussocks and an inter-tussock cover of dense, low stature grasses and geofites, and later towards growing patches of invaders such as Taraxacum sp., Agrostis sp., Aira sp. or Hieracium sp. and even bare soil following the humidity gradient. In contrast, wetlands are dominated by more palatable species [14, 15] with higher growth rates in comparison to the sites dominated by F. gracillima [16].
The extensive grazing management in Patagonia (Magallanes region in Chile and Southern Patagonia in Argentina) is defined as a seasonal continuous grazing system, with summer set-stocking on paddocks above 150 m of altitude. Early on, grazing was adapted for wool production, a productive system with lower nutritional demand. The productive system has since shifted towards meat production, increasing the nutritional requirements of sheep due to the pregnant ewe and lamb raising [17]. Considering an estimation of dry matter consumption by an ewe of 50 kg live weight raising one lamb is around 650 kg DM year−1.
The Sub-Antarctic rangelands (also called coironales) have an herbage mass production between 33 and 1439 kg DM ha−1 year−1 (depending on edaphoclimatic condition and grazing management) and are dominated by F. gracillima [16], a low palatability tussock species with low nutritional value that does not fulfill the minimum requirements of energy and protein for sheep maintenance and growth [18]. By comparison, wetlands or valley greens in Magallanes represent just 5% of the total productive surface with herbage mass production that ranges from 500 kg DM to 11,000 kg DM ha year−1 [16, 19]. These differences are due to the wetland’s intrinsic properties [14, 20] and poor farm organization to do not separately fence wetlands from the less productive sites (rangelands dominated by F. gracillima), leading to overgrazing due to continuous use, and increasing the heterogeneity within and between paddocks due to selective grazing [21], increasing the risks of soil erosion and ecosystem degradation for both rangelands and wetlands. Therefore, due to their difference in growth potential, rangelands dominated by F. gracillima need to be managed from an extensive management approach whereas wetlands are more adapted to an intensive use [17].
3.1.1 Continuous grazing system
Extensive pasture size and large herd numbers (thousands of animals), combined with the climatic conditions and cultural traditions, have led to seasonal continuous grazing being the most common livestock production management approach. This extensive management system is characterized by large paddocks of hundreds of hectares, designed to separate stock categories rather than to target defoliation periods. The defoliation period is determined by season, sheep physiological periods and location of the grazing sites. In sub-Antarctic rangeland, snow cover determines when and where herds graze. The grazing year is split in two periods, with summer grazing from December to May in wetlands or sites with altitudes of 150 m above sea level or greater. Winter grazing occurs from May to December in lower altitude sites with a more favorable temperature range during the coldest months [17, 22]. Winter grazing generally overlaps with lactation and postpartum periods [22, 23].
Even though the disadvantages of continuous grazing in highly productive livestock systems are clear, in low-producing rangelands, the disadvantages are more ambiguous. It has been indicated in medium and long-term experiments [24] continuous grazing with the correct stocking rate, calculated based on herbage mass production, is an effective way to control desertification and achieve good animal performance [24, 25]. However, it is recognized that continuous grazing can increase heterogeneity [25] and weed invasion [26] on overgrazed sites.
Sheep actively select preferred species based on plant phenology (tender shoots and new regrowth, flowers and fruits) thus, in continuous grazing management, sheep overgraze the more palatable material, under grazing or leaving untouched older shoots. Recommended grazing practices imply an even, controlled defoliation height, followed by a specific regrowth period. The latter is supported by physiological plant research performed in several species [27, 28, 29, 30, 31], suggesting that, independent of the grazing system or ecosystem evaluated, vegetative species, particularly forage species, depend on energy reserves to regrow following defoliation [32] and to survive after drought periods [33]. Thus, selectivity must be avoided through careful estimation of grazing pressure. This requires more, smaller paddocks of similar vegetative communities, and strict control of grazing frequency. Animal nutrition must be considered, since enforcing the consumption of low nutritive value material may not be tolerated by younger or pregnant sheep. Modifying the traditional system is a major task implying qualitative and quantitative changes in both labor and mind set.
3.1.2 Rotational grazing
For rotational grazing to be performed, it is necessary to improve farm organization and increase the number of paddocks, separating different vegetative communities, such as wetlands, rangeland and forests, to avoid the negative effects of seasonal continuous grazing [21]. Several types of rotational grazing have been proposed for rangeland grazing management, however, as sheep reproductive phenology has to be considered [23], two of them could be applied in the Magallanes region: 1) rotational deferred grazing; 2) traditional rotational grazing with a high animal density [17, 24, 25].
Rotational deferred grazing: In this system, each paddock is rested for a full year at some point in a multi-year rotation to allow species recovery and reseeding [24] and to recover ecosystem resilience after years of defoliation [25]. There are no clear results in animal performance when rotational deferred grazing is compared to continuous grazing [24]. Furthermore, [25] indicated that in Moy Aike Chico, there were no important differences between a rotational deferred grazing system and continuous grazing in terms of animal production.
Traditional rotational grazing: There have been a few examples in the region with different frequencies and intensities. However, high intensity grazing is not recommended in rangeland settings due to the diminishment in animal performance and the low durability of the rangeland [24]. Grazing with low intensity and short duration at an experimental level (Experimental station Leleque, Southern Patagonia) showed an improvement in animal performance, however, the low growth rates during winter together with a low precipitation, mains factors that limit the herbage growth in Patagonia, meant the resting periods would not be long enough for forage species to recover [25]. There is not enough evidence of the benefits of rotational grazing over continuous grazing in ecosystems with low potential growth under a proper stocking rate [24, 25, 34]. However, rotational grazing showed benefits over continuous grazing in sites with high potential growth such as in sites with higher rainfall or wetlands.
In 2004 a rotational experiment with lambs was carried out on a wetland in Tierra del Fuego. The wetland was excluded from the rest of the paddock and regenerated by direct drilling (zero tillage) with a mix of species including Lolium perenne, Festuca arundinacea, Dactylis glomerata, Trifolium repens and Plantago lanceolata at a seeding rate of 28 kg ha−1 of grasses and 8 kg ha−1 of broadleaf species. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur were applied at 46–46 – 22 – 22 kg ha−1, respectively. The original botanical composition evaluation identified Azorella trifurcata, a creeping plant without livestock value, as the dominant species. The natural grassland reported an average gross protein value of 40 g kg−1 in. After four seasons, the trend of dry matter production was analyzed. In the first year, approximately 1035 kg DM ha−1 were produced, and the annual average for the next three years was no more than 3600 kg DM ha−1 while the natural grassland in the exclusion zone (5 hectares) produced up to 700 DM kg ha−1 annually during the four seasons. In the last season, lamb liveweight gain after one month of rotational grazing (stocking density of 80 lambs ha−1) was 2.05 kg per lamb moth−1, significantly higher than the gains in the traditional grazing system (1.39 kg per lamb and a stock density of 2 lambs ha−1).
3.2 Future perspective
Modification of the traditional management is imperative to stop the depletion of the ecosystem functioning caused by sheep overgrazing in the Magallanes region. Ecosystem parameters such as vegetation, soil and water have to be considered to reach a sustainable productive system. Remote sensing technologies are an excellent tool for planning and evaluating changes in paddock grazing duration and timing, where University of Magallanes has developed this technology with use of satellite image in the agricultural area of the region from 2003. Also, the study of soil microbiology is an incipient area in development and could be an excellent assistance for soil fertility and grassland production. Efforts to shift the traditional paradigm from a sole focus on animal condition and performance to one that includes ecosystem functioning exist [35]. However, controlled experiments have to be performed to determine the necessary resting periods for the recovery of the rangeland and wetland vegetation, soil and water parameters.
4. Fodder crop
Livestock production in Magallanes depends on rangelands as the main source of food [36]. However, rangeland vegetation alone cannot meet sheep nutritional requirements, especially during peak nutritional demand (for example, the third trimester of pregnancy) [37]. Although wetland areas can provide food in quantity and quality, these are in a state of progressive degradation or are not capable of sustaining an acceptable production throughout the year due to erratic forage production. Since the beginning of sheep production in the region, farmers have seen the need to establish forage crops as a hay source, during critical physiological periods and harsh weather, or for grazing with the objective of increasing lamb weights before slaughter.
Establishment and development of sheep farming began in the Magallanes region during the second half of the 19th century. Large land concessions by the State and investment from private companies allowed the growth of the sector in the southernmost region of Chile [36]. Establishment of forage crops should be considered within its historical context.
In 1976, the Magallanes region had around 248,504.6 ha of sown grasslands, which could be divided between annual crops and permanent grasslands [38]. Ten years later, there were between 104,878 ha [39] and 194,185 ha [40], which were based on the use of forage mixtures such as cocksfoot (Dactilys glomerata), common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), white clover (Trifolium repens), monophytic grasslands of common velvetgrass, alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Festuca rubra and Agropyron elongatum. Although the Tierra del Fuego Livestock Society planted 10,000 ha year−1, today the vast majority are missing or in a state of degradation [41].
Current numbers indicate that there are no more than 6,039.2 ha of forage crops, of which the vast majority is alfalfa. However, [42], estimates that there are currently around 9,800 ha of alfalfa in the region. This is because state subsidy programs that begun in 2004 have allowed ranchers to establish fodder crops. Sowing grasslands is a necessity on the part of the agricultural sector and the area devoted to forage crops has been increasing. Although there is a wide range of species and cultivars on the market, only a few are able to establish themselves and produce desired yields due to edaphoclimatic conditions.
Among the most adaptable species are oats (Avena sativa) as the main annual crop and alfalfa and mixed meadows (mixes of cocksfoot -Dactylis glomerata-, tall fescue -Festuca arundinacea- and white clover –Trifolium repens) as permanent meadows. There are two different establishment methods for perennial plantings in Magallanes: a) traditional tillage; b) zero tillage by direct drilling. This last method is unique, but its effectiveness depends on site conditions such as species competition, soil humidity and soil depth. Some examples of typical direct drilling in the region are alfalfa on tussock steppe (without use of herbicide) and mix of grasses with white clover on meadows.
Rainfall during the growing season strongly influences yields since regional production is based on dryland systems with no irrigation, but there is an incipient advanced irrigation technologies as center pivot in Tierra del Fuego. The current varieties of oats have yields that can range between 5,000 and 10,000 kg DM ha−1 [43, 44]. Other annual crops such as hybrid rye can produce between 8,000–12,000 kg DM ha−1 [45]. Cocksfoot can yield from 3,000 to 7,000 kg DM−1 in the third year from the establishment, while tall fescue can produce 4,000–6,000 kg DM ha−1.
Without a doubt, alfalfa is the main forage crop in the Magallanes region. This species is preferred because of its ability to establish itself in the vast majority of the soils and climatic districts of Magallanes (Figure 2). Fall dormancy level 3–4 varieties capable of going into dormancy in the autumn-winter months are used. At least three years are required for the crop to enter full production, increasing forage production from 400 kg DM ha−1 [46] in the first year to a potential of 12,000 kg DM ha−1 [47].
Figure 2.
Fodder crop of Alfalfa in Torres del Paine, Magallanes region (Image by Jorge Ivelic-Sáez).
Management of forage crops in Magallanes is based, normally, on cutting for hay or silage during December and January. In March and April, following regrowth, fields are grazed in order to increase the weight of lambs before slaughter.
5. Artificial insemination
Farm productivity depends on each sheep producing at least one lamb each year. The use of natural service during the breeding period is the most common practice in commercial Magallanes farms. However, since the 1970s, artificial insemination (AI) has been part of the production system, especially in stud farms, in order to accelerate the genetic progress and the production of flock replacements (males and females).
5.1 Artificial insemination: a productive tool
AI has been used mainly in genetic and selection programs, in order to improve the commercial traits of interest [48]. For dual purpose breeds such as Corriedale, increasing fleece weight, reducing fiber diameter, and augmenting lamb weight at weaning are normally the traits to be improved via introduction of animals with a higher genetic value [49]. In Merino animals, fleece weight and reduced fiber diameters are the main selection traits. Among the different alternatives, intracervical AI using fresh semen is the most widely used AI technique.
5.1.1 Preparing the animals for artificial insemination with fresh semen
Selection of males is the first step in AI programs. Regardless of the origin (self-produced or acquired from a sheep stud farm), rams will be selected according to their phenotypic and productive characteristics. Genital tract soundness, evaluation for brucellosis (Brucella ovis), and conformation of legs, hoofs, and mouth, are normally checked by the farmer at least one month before the onset of the reproduction season. A good body condition and body weight will also be checked prior to the AI program as it influences the reproductive efficiency of animals [50], particularly prolificacy in Magallanes [51]. Similarly, females selected as recipients will be checked for body condition and any health issues, paying special attention to age, teeth, mouth and udder conformation and soundness.
5.1.2 Estrus synchronization protocols
Different estrus synchronization protocols are used in Magallanes selected based on factors such as labor, cost and efficiency. Although some producers may use the natural estrus, two options of synchronization are commonly utilized. The first one is the use of prostaglandin analogs in one or 2 doses, separated by 11–12 days [52]. The second one uses progestogens in the form of sponge pessaries or CIDR devised, used for 11 to 14 days available in the market with estrus concentration of 90% of the animal in 81 h after sponge withdrawal [53]. A protocol using equine chorionic gonadotrophin (eCG) hormone at the time of CIDR withdrawal is normally used to improve ovulation rate and fertility [54].
5.1.3 Artificial insemination facilities in Patagonia
Due to cold weather conditions, the use of indoor facilities is highly recommended. The basic infrastructure is a room for semen extraction, with a head stock for a female in heat, and a lower area for the personnel to have a better access to the ram penis. Lubricant gel, warmed water and artificial vagina for practicing, are the basics for obtaining semen. After semen collection, quality evaluation (e.g., volume, concentration, motility, etc.) and dilution takes place. This occurs in the lab area, where room temperature is maintained between 20 and 25°C. Access to the sheep in heat is through a window located at the height of the vulva, with the operator standing in an insemination pit in the floor of the lab and barn, and the ewes will be transported in a trolley with wheels on rails.
5.1.4 Fresh semen artificial insemination
Regardless of the synchronization protocol, the use of teaser rams helps in the identification of ewes in heat. Teaser rams are painted with a mix of edible oil and colored soil in a ratio of 2 liters of oil per 1 kg of soil. The use of a harness with a crayon has been previously evaluated, however; special attention must be paid to crayon selection, since temperatures below 0°C, which are normally observed during the winter, interfere with a good painting of ewes in heat. The mix with oil must follow a soil color gradient, starting with light colors and finishing with dark ones (e.g. yellow, red, blue and finally black) as this allows the identification of animals in different reproductive cycles, which normally lasts between 14 to 17 days.
Females are normally taken into the yards once a day, early in the morning. Those ewes showing a clear rump mark are separated, while those not presenting heat returns to the paddock with the teaser rams. Ewes in heat are artificially inseminated in the afternoon. However, in order to increase pregnancy rates, two checks in the day are recommended, early in the morning and in the afternoon, with ewes being artificially inseminated in the afternoon and the following morning, respectively. Every two or three days, the painting of the teaser rams is redone.
Fertility rates between 60 and 70% can be achieved with this method [48]. During AI the ear tag of each of the ewes is recorded, in addition to ram number and day and time of AI. After AI, ewes are maintained in a quiet place, with access to food and water, before being taken to their paddock. The use of dogs during all process is normally restricted in order to reduce stress in the animals, which could affect fertility.
5.1.5 Frozen semen artificial insemination
Sometimes, the farmer has the opportunity to import frozen semen from different countries (e.g., New Zealand and Australia due to their good sanitary status, similar to Magallanes). If this is the case, the use of intrauterine laparoscopic AI is the best course of action, with the use of eCG (200–300 IU) as a complementary management, to increase ovulation rate and the number of twins, with higher expected genetic potential. Fertility with frozen semen has been calculated to be over 70% [55].
5.2 Management concepts associated to artificial insemination
Good animal nutrition before and after AI reduces stress, and the farmer needs to consider forage quantity and quality, as well as access to water. Ultrasound pregnancy diagnosis is performed 90 days after AI, in order to check for fertility, but more importantly, to identify single- from twin-bearing ewes. Hence, the latter can be supplemented with a high protein (22%) concentrate to reduce lamb mortality at birth [18], which, under Magallanes environmental conditions, can range from 22 to 62%, being higher in twins [56]. All these managements contribute to increased AI success in Magallanes, making the system more productive and sustainable.
6. Breeding, breeds, and management of sheep production system in Magallanes
Since the second half of the 19th century, the establishment and development of sheep ranching began in the southernmost region of Chile, Magallanes. Large land concessions by the State, and an important commitment from private companies allow an accelerated growth of this industry, being sheep an intrinsic part of the local culture until today.
Natural rangelands in the world, which largely dominate the geography of Magallanes, are those areas used mainly for grazing because they cannot be cultivated. In these large rangelands, the grazing system is “extensive”, not only in the sense that it is carried out over large areas, but also because level of inputs, and management of animals is relatively low, with a stocking rate around 0.8 sheep equivalent ha−1.
6.1 Animal and natural resources
The sheep population in Chile is 2,037,516 heads and the 77.1% is located in Magallanes (1,571,056), the southern region of Chile [12]. In this area, sheep production is the most important, and almost the only agricultural industry. It has been developed for the last 145 years (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Number of sheep in Chile and Magallanes region. Dots in red and blue lines counting data between VI to XII region and farms with higher than 60 sheep [7, 12, 13, 38, 39, 57].
Corriedale is the main breed and represents 55% of the regional stock, just as a purebreed. Some operations have introduced different Merinos, as Australian Merino, MPM (Multi Purpose Merino, developed by an Australian stud, and imported for some breeding seasons into Magallanes), 4 M (Marin Magellan Meat Merino, developed by Marin family in a big sheep operation, from MPM and other Merino lines, and registered officially as the first local purebreed), and most important in recent years the Dohne Merino, and crosses during the last three decades. Because of the increasing value of meat in the total income of sheep business, it is common to see terminal cross use, typically with Suffolk rams but also some Polled Dorset, Texel, and White Suffolk. The regional average weaning percent is below 80%.
Breeding season is in fall, and lambing in spring. The extensive management system with very low inputs, low human intervention, and changing annual climatic conditions leads to erratic results.
Land is owned by medium to large producers. The most common situation are flocks with over 4,000 sheep. The meat and wool market is well developed in Magallanes and strongly oriented to exportation. The region has the potential to increase sheep numbers by at least 30% based on increased production estimates from improving 600,000 ha. of rangeland [58].
6.1.1 Management
Sheep production has traditionally been dual purpose; producing wool and meat, with a carcass average weight for lamb increasing from 10.8 in 1987 to 14.1 in 2020, meanwhile the market is targeting 14 to 16 kg [35].
In this scenario, meat, which at one time in the past was considered a by-product of the wool-focused Magellan sheep industry, today drives the income of sheep ranching in the region. Furthermore, San Isidro Farm (Canepa family) in conjunction with INIA Kampenaike introduced three races of hair sheep (White Dorper, Dorper, Katahdin) in 2012 with a high meat performance.
Sheep operations are based on year-round grazing of private land, with incipient use of strategic supplementation. Most ranches own summer range and winter on separate range (Figure 4). Over half do pre-lambing shearing, and lambing is on pasture at springtime.
Figure 4.
Herding sheep from summer to winter range, Tierra del Fuego (Image by Oscar Strauch).
7. Meat quality
The Magallanes region is not only recognized for its natural parks, such as Torres del Paine, but also for the vast pastoral landscapes and extensive sheep farming developed in this unique environment. The main product is lamb meat, which is exported to different countries, predominately in Asia (China: 45%) and the EEC (Italy: 12%) [59].
Magallanes lamb meat is a grass-fed product that normally comes from young animals (4 to 5 months of age), with an average carcass weight of around 13 kg, raised on natural pastures and maintained, in general, with their mothers until mark time. This gives them a mix of milk and grass nutrition which results in a very interesting product quality. Studies developed by INIA (Agricultural Research Institute), have demonstrated that lamb meat from Magallanes has on average 21% protein content, and a total fat content of 6.4%, which is lower compared to other type of meats. When considering the intramuscular fat (2.5%) and cholesterol (53 mg/100 g), this product may be considered as lean. Tenderness is another remarkable attribute of Magallanes lamb meat, with Warner-Bratzler shear-force results of 1.75 kgf, which positions it as a very tender meat. In addition, it has a similar content for SFA (2900 mg/100 g) to other meats, but a higher PUFA content (628 mg/100 g), compared to some reports in beef. However, the n-6/n-3 ratios (1.3 mg / 100 g) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 25 mg / 100 g) contents represent values that are considered good and desirable from a nutraceutical point of view [60].
7.1 The role of Magallanes lamb meat in human nutrition
The meat of lamb produced in Magallanes is characterized for having a high content of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). The average content of Fe for lamb meat in the three different areas of production in Magallanes is 3.9 mg/100 g of meat. This value is significantly higher compared to other meats (Table 1). Similar results are observed for Zn content which, with an average of 4.5 mg/100 g of meat, is superior to the Zn content described for other meats (Table 1).
Meat
Fe
Zn
Magallanes lamb
3.9
4.5
Foal
3.3
2.4
Lamb
2.3
2.4
Chicken
0.8
1.3
Beef
1.9
4.0
Pork
0.9
2.1
Table 1.
Iron and zinc levels in meat from different species (mg/100 g) [61, 62].
Iron is well known for its role in human health and disease, where deficiencies may result in anemia, leading to functional impairments, affecting cognitive development, immunity mechanisms, work capacity, learning ability, and are associated with increased rates of morbidity. Deficiencies during pregnancy may result in higher risk of sepsis, maternal mortality, perinatal mortality, and low birth weight [64]. According to the WHO [65], the iron requirements of 97.5% of individuals, in terms of absorbed iron, are higher in menstruating women (2.38 mg/day), 12–16 year-old girls and boys (2.02 and 1.92 mg/day, respectively), and lactating (1.31 mg/day) and pregnant woman (1.14 mg/day). Therefore, Magallanes meat lamb consumption is an excellent source for these groups to cover their daily iron requirements.
An adequate intake of zinc has critical impacts for human homeostasis, immune function, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and aging. A deficiency, even mild, may lead to arteriosclerosis and anemia [66]. The recommended daily dietary zinc requirement is estimated at 15 mg/day [67, 68]. The consumption of Magallanes lamb meat could certainly help cover this recommendation. In conclusion, the high content of iron and zinc, the low n-6/n-3 ratio and high CLA content, low cholesterol, and tenderness, make Magallanes lamb meat a healthy food with desirable organoleptic characteristics.
8. Wool production
Magallanes was an adequate location for extensive sheep production when wool was a commodity of worldwide importance. Historically, wool was bought in bulk directly on the farm through private deals, but since the 1980s the system has evolved to prices defined by proper conditioning and bale sampling for wool fineness (Table 2 and Figure 5).
Price, yield, and wool stock purchased by Standard Wool Cia. from 1998 to 2021 [63].
In these seasons, many farmers did not sell their wool production for low prices, because of the pandemic situation.
M.T. = metric tons.
Figure 5.
Net and clean wool purchased according to fleeces fibre diameter (season 2018/2019) [69].
Almost the entire wool crop is exported to a world market dominated by China. The wool exportation of Magallanes 50 years ago was 13,000 tons [70], but decreased to 5000 tons in the 2017 season [57]. Table 2 shows the price evolution to higher values while wool stocks have simultaneously trended down in recent years with a mean yield of 65% for Standard Wool Company [63] and Agropat1.
Industry trends towards lamb production and fine wools has changed traditional management from extensive grazing with the dominant Corriedale breed, focused on medium fineness wool production (24.5–31.5 μm and 4.0 kg fleece weight per ewe), to more intensive grazing systems based on dual purpose breeds, focused on lamb production and finer wools. Evaluation and breeding programs to meet shifting market demands have been proposed for different resources availability. In Magallanes there are some Corriedale studs grouped in the Corriedale Breeders Association: El Kark (Kroger family); America (Cardenas family); Jerónima (Vilicic family); Avelina (Menendez family); El Trébol (Maclean family); Tehuel Aike (Almonacid family); Chañarcillo (Gutierrez family); Las Vegas (Retamal family); Maria Isabel (Cavada family)2.
In Magallanes two new Merino crosses breeds have been registered in the past ten years: 4 M Merino (Marin Magellan Meat Merino – Tres Chorrillos farm by Marin family) and PRM (Patagonian Robertson Merino – Tres Hermanos farm by Robertson family), both aiming for finer wool (17–22 μm) and heavier lambs, while maintaining the hardiness of Corriedale. For another side, Dohne Merino has been introduced successfully in the region by Hugo Vera in 2004 (Josefina farm), and has resulted in higher profitability on some farms in comparison to traditional breeds [71]. Figure 5 show fleeces fibre diameter for one season, highlighting the range 26.1 to 28 microns as the main diameter in the region.
Shearing practices have also changed to include two options: (a) traditional timing of post-lambing shearing from the end of December to February; (b) pre-lambing shearing in late August and September. The pre-lambing shearing with positive results in lamb marking, lessened ewe mortality [69] and cleaner fleeces [35], this management arrived late in 80′ by the farmers Carlos García and Ivo Robertson. The tally-hi shearing method used in Magallanes was upgraded by New Zealand technicians. The shearing process starts with animals separated in a corral (Figure 6A) into different categories, and then they are moved into the shed (Figure 6B and C). Subsequently the sheep are sheared (Figure 6D and E), fleeces are cleaned on a table (Figure 6F) and placed into the wool press (Figure 6G) to build the bale (Figure 6H), and finally the wool bales are placed all together where each one has a note with a description of wool type and farm name (Figure 6I) and the ewe is released to outside (Figure 6J).
Figure 6.
The traditional shearing process in Magallanes, different process stages from A to J. (Image by Sergio Radic S.).
9. Lactation curve and cheese production
There is one dairy sheep operation that was set up as a pilot program in the 1990s by the University of Magallanes (coordinated by Sergio Kusanovic) in the city of Puerto Natales (Chilean Patagonia). The program uses East Friesian sheep (from Bolson city in Argentina) and was developed with the goal of cheese production at a local scale. The lactation curve (Figure 7) and cheese production is based on grassland grazing and strategic supplementation with 200 g d−1 of commercial concentrate (15% CP; 2.6 Mcal EM kg DM−1) from flushing two weeks prior to breeding through the breeding period. The sheep are fed under a grazing system in the first 100 days of pregnancy. For the last 50 days of pregnancy, 400 g DM d−1 of alfalfa hay is supplemented [73]. Because the nutritional management is mainly by grasslands, it is a way to develop organic farming, a production method with a specific market focus on products of premium quality and high standards [72].
Figure 7.
Milk yield (dotted green line) in lactation period and body live weight (solid blue line) during the year of East Friesian sheep [72].
The feed ration and body reserve are very important inputs for adequate milk yields in dairy sheep at the end of pregnancy and during lactation. For the latter, in systems that base their feeding management on grasslands, body weight at pregnancy, lambing and lactation may be considered indicators of animal nutritional status and body reserve level.
This initiative developed by the University of Magallanes produces the southernmost cheese of Chile. The higher concentrations of fat, total solids and protein (6.2%), present in sheep milk compared to goat (3.4%) and dairy cattle (3.2%), result in high yields in the production of dairy products [74]. There is a possibility to generate a brand image with this kind of cheese in the Chilean Patagonia. The commercialization of sheep cheese in Magallanes traditionally corresponds to consumers of foreign origin, but also markets to gourmet stores, hotels or restaurants, where there is the highest consumption [75].
10. Best livestock practices and animal welfare in Magallanes
In a highly globalized world characterized by increasing demands by the large international markets, the Magallanes region has some intrinsic advantages, including its geographical location, associated with characteristics of extensive production that allow for reducing the risks associated with animal welfare. Although this system minimizes human-animal interactions (limited number of operations and/or contacts)3, livestock should be managed and overseen by capable personnel to ensure the correct execution of management and create a positive human-animal interaction.
Although the concept of welfare refers to a state of physical and mental health where the animal is in complete harmony with the environment that surrounds it [76], today we focus on “one health”, a concept that entails good management and animal care that leads to good human health and positive collateral outcomes, both economic and social [77].
Animal welfare today is structured on five fundamental domains: adequate nutrition and water availability, health and disease prevention, good environment and provision of opportunities, behaviors and freedom to express them, and finally, mental state, which is determined by the experience of the four former domains, logically resulting in both negative and positive parameters. The complex part for extensive production systems is to find the right moment(s) to apply practical, quick, valid, reliable, and repeatable measuring techniques (direct and indirect indicators, based on the resources or the animal, to evaluate its state and condition) to generate an accurate picture of sheep production today in the Magallanes region.
In order to ensure a livestock sector that is both sustainable and adheres to both national (Law Chile 20380, decree-law numbers 28–29-30) and international requirements, rules, and regulations, the sheep industry, farms and livestock personnel are slowly but satisfactorily developing changes in some practices, especially those related to animal handling and painful procedures (tail docking, castration), where the Good Livestock Practices manual is one of the first to be generated on this subject in the region. It is essential today to have plans that allow for storage of adequate food and water supplies, constant health monitoring, and adequate facilities to minimize and facilitate animal handling in delicate procedures such as transport, herding, and shearing, among others, as well as allowing the manifestation of both natural and normal behaviors during production processes.
Finally, it is highly recommended that the personnel working in production units know and understand the concepts related to sheep management and production, which will result in adequate competence, minimizing risks, injuries and potential processes that generate negative effects in the production chain.
11. Sheep farming and wildlife interactions in Magallanes
The relationship between wildlife and animal production involves ecological interactions such as competition for foraging resources and space, and predation [78]. Wildlife-livestock interactions are mostly assumed to be detrimental to human economic activities, leading to wrong attitudes and prosecution of wild species in areas of coexistence with livestock [78]. The situation of sheep ranching in Magallanes is not different; sheep either compete with wild herbivores or are killed due to carnivore predation. Therefore, producer views towards wild species are generally negative [79, 80]. However, despite the economic importance of sheep production in Magallanes, studies about sheep interactions with wildlife are rather scarce, with more information from Argentinean Patagonia [81, 82].
When sheep ranching arrived in southern South America in the late 19th century [83], guanaco (Lama guanicoe), a large South American camelids and the main wild herbivore of the Patagonian steppe, numbered between 7 and 10 million individuals [84]. Since that time, guanaco have been considered the main competitor for sheep by ranchers [85], and their numbers declined to about 600,000 animals by the end of the 20th century. They currently occupy less than 40% of their original range [86]. The decline in guanaco abundance and distribution is associated with high numbers of sheep and resulting reduction in preferred forage [85]. Extensive sheep ranching seems to have produced an increasing degradation of guanaco habitat due to overgrazing, changes in the structure and composition of vegetation, displacing guanaco and changing their distribution [87]; however, sheep-guanaco interaction outcomes are still controversial [88, 89].
Available information is mostly limited to dietary composition of both species, indicating a large overlap in food items [81, 90]. It is assumed that this large herbivore consumes great amounts of vegetation, the equivalent of two to three sheep. Camelids, however, have low metabolism rates, implying lower food consumption, so the opposite situation should be considered [91]. Although ranchers in Magallanes do not place an economic value on guanaco, they are perceived as an obstacle to domestic sheep production [79]. There are efforts from Chilean government agencies under the Ministry of Agriculture to support the sustainable use of guanaco [92]. After several years of guanaco counts, annual hunting quotas under 3% of estimated guanaco population have been established to give guanaco economic value [92]. Currently, the guanaco population inhabiting productive lands in Magallanes is estimated at 297,844 individuals [93].
Other wildlife that might use similar food resources and space with sheep are herbivorous birds like the lesser rhea (Rhea pennata; [94]) and wild geese (Chloëphaga spp) like the upland goose (C. picta; [95]). However, these herbivorous birds are not seeing as competitors like guanaco because of their smaller size and lower conspicuity. Nonetheless, there is a lack of studies on wild birds interacting with sheep ranching in Magallanes and most of information occurs in Argentinean Patagonia [96] and the Falkland Islands [95].
Similarly, since the advent of sheep ranching in southern Patagonia, large predators, like puma (Puma concolor), and meso predators, like culpeo (Lycalopex culapeus) and gray foxes (L. griseous), have been interacting with sheep ranching in rural Magallanes [97]. This interaction with wild native carnivores generates economic losses to ranchers because puma and foxes are a source of sheep mortality. Additionally, the attack and predation of sheep by domestic dogs is a growing concern worldwide, and Magallanes is not an exception. In Chile, domestic dog predation on livestock lacks legal regulation.
According to official government records, carnivores impact animal production in Magallanes [98]. Between 2012 and 2017, 2259 livestock animals were killed by carnivores, 83% of which were sheep (1887 head) [98]. The majority of those attacks were reported on the Island of Tierra del Fuego (59%). If reported attacks are organized by predator species causing mortality, 78% of attacks corresponded to domestic dogs (55 events) accounting for 1855 predated livestock (82%) [98]. Foxes (Lycalopex spp) were reported to predate 208 livestock (9%), and puma predation on livestock was 1% (13 animals) [98].
Farmers hunt native carnivores despite this activity is illegal in Chile [80]. This situation could be associated to the lack of governmental programs to verify livestock mortality causes and issue compensation of economic loss [80]. Recently, sheep ranches near Torres del Paine National Park, one of the main protected areas in Magallanes, have changed their perception of puma because the presence of this large carnivore is a source of an important touristic activity in the area producing important economic revenues [80]. Other animals that are perceived as harmful for sheep farmers include raptors like southern caracara (Caracara plancus) and buzzard eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus), which predate on newborn lambs [99], but there are not formal reports from Magallanes.
It is necessary to differentiate sheep losses because of wildlife from those caused by deficient ranch management. Several sheep ranches seem to have incorrect estimates of appropriate stocking rate density that can cause overgrazing and degradation of the steppe that finally drive to poor animal conditions and economic losses, which is not directly related to the presence of wild herbivores. The importance of large carnivores in overall ecosystem health must be considered before lethal control. Predation prevention methods like night shelters or guard dogs, should also be used where appropriate [100].
12. The agritourism potential in Magallanes: Farm tourism or tourism on farms?
The farms in the Magallanes region have been characterized by developing and preserving an extensive infrastructure, consisting of numerous interrelated buildings to meet the demands and services of a sheep farm, which has historically been extensively developed [101]. Usually the farms are huge estates, hundreds or thousands of hectares in size, and in many of them there are still tools, machinery and furniture typical of the colonizing era from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century [102]. These locations are nestled within natural landscapes that include lakes, rivers and wide landscapes such as the Patagonian steppe, where the horizon and the sky display dramatic sunrises and sunsets. Furthermore, prior to the establishment of these ranches, these sites were inhabited by ancestral peoples who knew the territory and its resources very well [103]. All these conditions provide an ideal setting for agritourism [104] as a way to combine culture, nature, leisure and recreation in a landscape experience.
Tourism on farms in the Magallanes region is emerging and poses opportunities and challenges to innovate in regional economic development. Currently, the offer for tourism on estancias is traditional and restricted to activities typical of nature tourism such as wildlife observation, walks, horseback riding, photography and fishing, among others. To a lesser degree, activities typical of agriculture (Figure 8) are available, such as organic agriculture and observation of traditional tasks such as sheep herding or shearing, among others. Often, but not always, this offer is associated with spending the night in the manor houses itself and tasting local cuisine, so that the experience is complemented by the charm of the architectural heritage and historical legacy [101]. However, this type of tourism faces endemic problems such as seasonality, lack of specialized human resources and poor connectivity. Usually the distances are exaggerated, the accesses are tortuous, and even in many of them digital connectivity problems persist, which makes it difficult to implement online marketing and reservation systems, resulting in a loss of service. In addition, many times the tourist product offered is limited to passive observation experiences, but the tourist storytelling to enrich the visitor’s experience and feed their learning and interest, is absent. Thus, this type of tourism wanders between “farm tourism”, where the central activities are related to the ranch trade [105], or “tourism on farm”, a farm where tourist activities other than the traditional.
Figure 8.
a) Herding of sheep in Magallanes, one of the favorite activities to observe by tourists in estancias in the region (image by Claudio Vidal). b) Sheep bath, as another interesting farm task for tourism (image by Sergio Radic K.).
Today, the particularities of the tourist atlas of the Magallanes territory can be considered counterproductive for the development of farm tourism in isolated areas. The profitability of agritourism as such is low and occurs as a complementary element to other economic activities, but it is not the main one [106]. Tourist concentration is persistently monopolized and overshadowed by Torres del Paine National Park, considered by many to be the gem of Patagonia and the main pole of attraction for regional tourism [107]. Thus, perhaps a relevant option would be the diversification of tourism content on the basis of local identity; generate a local identity to offer a different product, where tourists enjoy and learn about distinctive aspects such as architecture, history, ethnography and rural life. This identity could be re-created from and for the territory, starting from the cultural histories and the memory of the ancestral peoples. There are numerous ethnographic, historical, architectural and family resources [103, 108, 109] to implement a touristic storytelling and generate an “experience scape”, as has happened in other areas of farm tourism [110]. However, tourism research is required to consolidate facts, protagonists, sites and narratives for a continuous valorization of the cultural and natural heritage with potential for the development of tourism, whether it is for farm tourism or tourism on farms.
13. Final comments
After 145 years of sheep production, the Magallanes region has become a characteristic and important territory for sheep industry, and must continue to improve the quality level of products demanded by consumers. Three key points lead the future of the industry in the region: sustainable management, markets, and human resources; but the ability to integrate all these points in the same direction will support farm success. Through technology adoption and sustainable management practices, the industry can achieve soil, water, and grassland conservation and utilize best livestock practices that improve animal welfare and sheep-wildlife interactions. Improving and/or intensifying utilization of a small percentage of each farm (approximately between 2 and 5% depending mainly to stocking rate used and the dry matter production of grasslands) will achieve sustainable and profitable long-term production. Considering the economic side of production in the region, the market currently demands lamb carcasses around 14 to 16 kg and finer wool, between 17 to 22 μm. Then, each decision making must consider existing management and farm production system (meat, wool, or dual purpose) and quality product that can be produced. Broadening market potential through diversification is an important consideration, but must be evaluated within the context of each farm, in this way tourism, dairy products or knowledge of ecosystem services could play a significant role. Finally, human resources need to be specialized to face these challenges, for which technical abilities, undergraduate and postgraduate studies are a key component. The Agricultural and Aquiculture Sciences Department of Magallanes University and the Agricultural Research Institute (Kampenaike Experimental Station) will have an important role in disseminating technical knowledge and providing professional development in our region.
Acknowledgments
This work is derived of the compromise acquired in the memorandum of understanding signed by Agricultural Research Institute (Kampenaike Experimental Station) and University of Magallanes. The authors acknowledge all technicians, students and scientists were involved in each research developed in the region in the last years. The farmers what contribute to the progress and sustainability of sheep production in Magallanes.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no interest conflict.
\n',keywords:"Chilean Patagonia, sheep production, grazing systems, fodder crops, artificial insemination, breeding, meet quality, wool production, sheep cheese, wildlife, animal welfare, agritourism",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79396.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79396.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79396",totalDownloads:82,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:44,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 10th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 29th 2021",datePublished:"April 28th 2022",dateFinished:"November 20th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Magallanes region in Chilean Patagonia encompasses 13 million hectares with approximately 3.6 million used for agricultural and livestock systems. This portion is located to the east of the Andean Mountain chain in the rain shadow zone, with annual precipitation increasing along an east to west gradient from 200 to almost 1,000 mm. To fully describe sheep farming in the Magallanes region, many topics need to be addressed, including sheep production and management, existing vegetative communities, livestock-wildlife interactions, and economic diversification into agritourism and another sheep industry products. All these give shape to the story of the development of sheep farming in Magallanes, which is important at the regional and national level. Three key points are identified that together can lead to a successful future for the industry: sustainable management, human resources and the market.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79396",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79396",book:{id:"11008",slug:"sheep-farming-herds-husbandry-management-system-reproduction-and-improvement-of-animal-health"},signatures:"Sergio Radic-Schilling, Francisco Sales, Raúl Lira, René Muñoz-Arriagada, Paulo Corti, Nilo Covacevich, Jorge Ivelic-Sáez, Iván Ordoñez, Osvaldo Vidal, Ricardo Echeverría and Camila Sandoval",authors:[{id:"270986",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Radic",fullName:"Sergio Radic",slug:"sergio-radic",email:"sergio.radic@umag.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428989",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sales",fullName:"Francisco Sales",slug:"francisco-sales",email:"fsales@inia.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428990",title:"MSc.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Lira",fullName:"Raúl Lira",slug:"raul-lira",email:"rlira@inia.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428991",title:"MSc.",name:"René",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Arriagada",fullName:"René Muñoz-Arriagada",slug:"rene-munoz-arriagada",email:"rene.munoz@umag.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428992",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Corti",fullName:"Paulo Corti",slug:"paulo-corti",email:"pcorti@uach.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428993",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilo",middleName:null,surname:"Covacevich",fullName:"Nilo Covacevich",slug:"nilo-covacevich",email:"covacevichnilo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428994",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Ivelic-Sáez",fullName:"Jorge Ivelic-Sáez",slug:"jorge-ivelic-saez",email:"jorge.ivelic@inia.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428995",title:"Dr.",name:"Iván",middleName:null,surname:"Ordoñez",fullName:"Iván Ordoñez",slug:"ivan-ordonez",email:"ivan.ordonez@inia.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428996",title:"Dr.",name:"Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Vidal",fullName:"Osvaldo Vidal",slug:"osvaldo-vidal",email:"osvaldo.vidal@umag.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428997",title:"Mr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Echeverría",fullName:"Ricardo Echeverría",slug:"ricardo-echeverria",email:"ricardo.echeverria@umag.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428998",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval",fullName:"Camila Sandoval",slug:"camila-sandoval",email:"camila.sandoval.torres@inia.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Geographical area and weather",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Grazing systems in Patagonian grasslands",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Patagonian grazing systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Continuous grazing system",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Rotational grazing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Future perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Fodder crop",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Artificial insemination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Artificial insemination: a productive tool",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"5.1.1 Preparing the animals for artificial insemination with fresh semen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.1.2 Estrus synchronization protocols",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.1.3 Artificial insemination facilities in Patagonia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.1.4 Fresh semen artificial insemination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.1.5 Frozen semen artificial insemination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.2 Management concepts associated to artificial insemination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Breeding, breeds, and management of sheep production system in Magallanes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.1 Animal and natural resources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.1.1 Management",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"7. Meat quality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"7.1 The role of Magallanes lamb meat in human nutrition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"8. Wool production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"9. Lactation curve and cheese production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"10. Best livestock practices and animal welfare in Magallanes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"11. Sheep farming and wildlife interactions in Magallanes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"12. The agritourism potential in Magallanes: Farm tourism or tourism on farms?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"13. Final comments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Martinic M. Nociones De Geografía De Magallanes. Ediciones de la Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas; 2001.'},{id:"B2",body:'Fick S, y Hijmans R. WorldClim 2: new 1 km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. 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DOI: 10.4067/S0718-22442011000100001'},{id:"B84",body:'González BA, Palma RE, Zapata B, Marín JC. Taxonomic and biogeographical status of guanaco Lama guanicoe (Artiodactyla, Camelidae). Mammal Review. 2006; 36:157-178. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00084.x'},{id:"B85",body:'Baldi R, Novaro A, Funes M, Walker S, Ferrando P, Failla M, Carmanchahi P. Guanaco management in Patagonian rangelands: a conservation opportunity on the brink of collapse. In: du Toit JT, Kock R, Deutsch JC, editors. Wild Rangelands. Wiley; 2010. p. 266-290. DOI: 10.1002/9781444317091.ch10'},{id:"B86",body:'Baldi RB, Acebes P, Cuéllar E, Funes M, Hoces D, Puig S, Franklin WL. Lama guanicoe. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. 2016. Available from: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T11186A18540211.en'},{id:"B87",body:'Moraga C, Funes M, Pizarro J, Briceño C, Novaro A. 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Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia 18: 113-131.'},{id:"B109",body:'Martinic M.B. 2011. Documentos inéditos de la historia de Magallanes: Las vivencias patogénicas de Mateo Ivanovic Sapunar. Magallania 39: 277-299.'},{id:"B110",body:'Mei X.Y., Hagensen A.M.S. & Kristiansen H.S. 2020. Storytelling though experiencescape: Creating unique stories and extraordinary experiences in farm tourism. Tourism and Hospitality Research 20: 93-104.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Cecilia Cavada, Agropat Ltda, Punta Arenas."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"https://www.asogama.com/los-planteles; Peter Maclean (El Trébol) and Cecilia Cavada, Agropat Ltda."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"At least three times per year, for operations (shearing, branding, and breeding)."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sergio Radic-Schilling",address:"sergio.radic@umag.cl",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The novel Coronavirus disease of 2019 (covid-19) caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus (CoV)-2 was first reported in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and had continued to ravage the world, causing widespread respiratory health problems and mortalities. The virus targets mainly the respiratory tract. It enters the lungs through the upper respiratory tract and attacks alveoli epithelial type2 (AT2) cells [1]. Many patients succumb to pneumonia in severe SARS-CoV-2 infections.
In the advent of the covid-19 pandemic, there had been a renewed focus on the mammalian respiratory anatomy and physiology. In this regard, this calls for a broader perspective and understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. This chapter therefore provides an overview of the functional anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract in the context of the covid-19 pandemic.
2. Anatomical organization of the respiratory tract
The mammalian respiratory system consists of tissues and organs whose main function is to ensure exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the organism and the external environment. From the functional perspective, the respiratory system is viewed as consisting of a conducting part and a gaseous exchange part while from a purely anatomical perspective the respiratory system is viewed as being composed of an upper respiratory component and a lower respiratory component.
The conducting part of the respiratory system, also known as the conducting airways, is that part of the respiratory system that merely transports gases from the external environment to the lungs and from the lungs to the external environment, while the gaseous exchange part is that part of the respiratory system that is responsible for the diffusion of gases (particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide) into and out of the blood capillaries of the lungs. Structures from the nasal cavity up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the conducting part of the respiratory tract. The conducting part also serves a protective function by conditioning the air that has been inhaled [2]. Conditioning of the inspired air by the conducting airways includes heating the air to body temperature, filtering out harmful gases and particles such as dust and bacteria as well as saturating the air to 100% relative humidity [2]. In trapping and filtering out harmful gases and particles, the respiratory tract uses a mucociliary escalator or mucociliary blanket. The mucociliary escalator is composed of cilia, mucus and a layer of fluid known as the periciliary layer. The fluid on the surface of the airways is constantly propelled by cilia from near the lungs to regions far away from the lungs towards the nasal cavity to be expelled.
The conducting part terminates at the terminal bronchioles before transforming into the gaseous exchange zone. The gaseous exchange zone is located within the lung parenchyma. The components of the gaseous exchange zone consist of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs together with their alveoli [2]. The gaseous exchange zone is a thin membrane that exists between the alveoli space and the pulmonary capillary blood. The pulmonary capillary blood network thoroughly covers the alveoli walls and receives the major cardiac output of the right ventricle via the pulmonary trunk [2, 3].
The entire mammalian respiratory tract from the nasal cavity to the bronchi tree is lined by a mucus membrane known as the respiratory mucosa. The respiratory mucosa consists of epithelial cells that sit on top of a layer of loose connective tissue. The main function of the respiratory mucosa is to prevent pathogens and noxious particles from reaching the lungs. In most parts of the respiratory tract, the respiratory mucosa secretes a thick protective mucus layer. Generally, the respiratory mucosa consists of a pseudostratified columnar epithelium and an underlying loose connective tissue known as the lamina propria. The epithelium normally transitions in structure from the nasal cavity towards the lungs starting with a pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the nasal cavity and ending with a simple squamous or cuboidal epithelium in the alveoli. The respiratory mucosa contains different types of epithelial cells that range from ciliated columnar to simple squamous. Within the respiratory tract epithelial cells are found mucus-secreting cells such as goblet cells and some specialized glands containing both mucus and serous cells [4].
Throughout the respiratory tract from the nasal cavity to the alveoli, sheets of cells cover the internal surface. The sheets of cells, known as epithelium, differ in structure and function depending on the location within the respiratory tract. The major part of the respiratory tract, from the nasal cavity to the bronchi, is lined by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium. From the bronchi downwards to the bronchioles, the epithelium changes into a simple columnar to cuboidal epithelium. The epithelium then changes in the alveoli to become a thin squamous epithelium that allows for gaseous exchange to take place. The epithelial cells sit on top of a basement membrane below which lies a layer of loose connective tissue known as the lamina propria [4].
Anatomically, the respiratory tract is viewed as consisting of the upper and lower parts. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavity and adjoining paranasal sinuses, pharynx and the portion of larynx above the vocal folds. The lower respiratory tract comprises of the lower parts of the larynx, the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli [5].
3. The upper respiratory tract
The upper respiratory tract is composed of the nose and nasal cavity, the pharynx and the larynx. It is the first entry point for air and other potentially harmful substances including bacteria and viruses. The upper respiratory tract functions in the filtration, warming and humidification of the inspired air. In addition, the upper respiratory tract contains nerve endings of the first cranial nerve known as the olfactory nerve which is responsible for detecting odors in the inspired air. This section provides an account of the functional anatomy of the major components of the upper respiratory tract particularly the nasal cavity and pharynx.
3.1 The nasal cavity
Up to 90% or more of inspiration occurs through the nose and therefore the nasal cavity is an important site for initial infection by most microorganisms including SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection via the ocular route is hypothesized to occur via drainage of virus-laden tears into the nasal cavity through the nasal lacrimal duct [6, 7, 8].
The air entering the respiratory tract is usually dry, cold and containing potentially harmful particulate matter. Therefore, the major function of the nasal cavity is to humidify and warm the inspired air. As the air passes through the nasal cavity, airborne particles are filtered off including microorganisms before the air reaches the lower respiratory tract. In addition, the nasal cavity is an olfactory (smell) organ and also helps in draining and clearing the paranasal sinuses and lacrimal ducts [7].
Entrance into the nasal cavity is provided by the nostrils, which are two external openings into the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity consists of the nasal skeleton which is made up of a combination of parts of bones such as the maxilla, the ethmoid, the perpendicular part of the palatine bone and the medial pterygoid plate. The nasal cavity is divided into two separate cavities by a cartilaginous nasal septum. Each half of the nasal cavity consists of a roof, floor, medial wall and lateral wall. The nasal septum is made up of cartilage and bone. In contrast to the lateral walls, the floor and the roof of the nasal cavity which are covered by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium, the nasal septum is covered by squamous epithelium [9]. The posterior boundary of the nasal cavity is provided by the choanae also known as posterior nasal apertures. The choanae open into the nasopharynx [10, 11, 12].
Four paranasal sinuses surround the nasal cavity in humans. These are the frontal sinuses (superior anterior), ethmoid sinuses (superior), paired maxillary sinuses (lateral), and sphenoid sinuses (posterior). The paranasal sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity through ducts that drain through ostia, which empty into spaces located on the lateral wall. Only the sphenoid paranasal sinus empties into the posterior roof of the nasal cavity [13].
There are three recognizable regions within each half of the nasal cavity: the nasal vestibule, respiratory region and olfactory region.
3.1.1 Nasal vestibule
The first part of the nasal cavity immediately posterior to the nostrils is the nasal vestibule. The initial half of the nasal vestibule is covered by a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that contains hairs known as vibrissae. The function of the vibrissae is to filter inhaled particles. The second half of the nasal vestibule is covered by a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium [14, 15].
3.1.2 Respiratory region
The respiratory region is the main part of the nasal cavity and is that part which houses the nasal conchae (or turbinate bones) and meatuses. Nasal conchae are curved shelves of bone that protrude from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The spaces between the nasal conchae are referred to as meatuses. The main functions of the respiratory region are to humidify and warm the inspired air and to trap and eliminate particulate matter. The respiratory region is covered in respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium) and mucous cells.
As the air passes through the nasal cavity, it is warmed to body temperature and is humidified to near 100%. The warming and humidification of the inspired air is aided by the neuromuscular network within this region. The neuromuscular network of the respiratory region regulates airflow within the nasal cavity by controlling the blood volume in the erectile tissue on the turbinate bones. Under normal physiological conditions, the erectile tissue is continuously stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to prevent nasal congestion [13].
Airborne particles that escape trapping in the nasal vestibule become trapped in the mucous produced by the respiratory nasal mucosa. The trapped particles are then eliminated by the ciliated cells of the mucociliary system which sweep mucous and trapped particles at a rate of 1 cm per minute into the naso-pharynx for further expulsion [16].
3.1.3 Olfactory region
One of the most commonly reported neurological indicators of SARS-CoV-2 infection is the temporary loss of smell (anosmia). Studies suggest that anosmia better predicts SARS-CoV-2 infection than other well-known symptoms such as fever and cough. Furthermore, studies suggest that the novel coronavirus changes the sense of smell in patients not by directly affecting neurons but by affecting the function of sustentacular or supporting cells [17, 18].
The olfactory region is a small area located at the superior apex of the nasal cavity and the ethmoturbinates and is lined with olfactory receptor cells. The olfactory region is responsible for sensing odors in inspired air. It is lined by an olfactory epithelium which is made up of a pseudostratified epithelium that contains olfactory sensory receptor cells, supporting cells and mucus secreting glands. The olfactory receptor neuron is a bipolar cell that gives rise to a small-diameter, unmyelinated axon at its basal surface that transmits olfactory information centrally. At its apical surface, the receptor neuron gives rise to a single process that expands into a knoblike protrusion from which several microvilli, called olfactory cilia, extend into a thick layer of mucus [19]. The fibers of the olfactory sensory receptor cells have their axonal projections onto the olfactory bulb of the brain [20, 21]. For efficient detection of odors in the inspired air, afferent (in-coming) airflow needs to be directed orthonasally (straight) and retronasally (backwards) in order for the nasal olfactory epithelium to pick up the odor [13]. The odor particles become trapped in the mucous and bind to odorant-binding proteins that concentrate and help to solubilize the odor particles. The odor particles then get attached to olfactory receptors located on the cilia of olfactory cells. Upon stimulation of the odor receptors, the odor signals are transmitted up through the cribriform plate to synapse with neurons of the olfactory bulb which then send the signals through the olfactory nerve (CNI) into the secondary neurons for higher processing. A unique feature of the olfactory receptors is that a single receptor cell can detect only one odorant type [13, 20, 22, 23].
3.1.4 Nasal conchae (turbinate bones) and meatuses
Nasal conchae, also known as turbinate bones, are any of several thin, scroll-shaped bony elements originating from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. Each half of the nasal cavity has three turbinate bones named superior, middle and inferior turbinates. The superior and middle turbinates extend from the ethmoid bone. The inferior turbinate bone is independent of the superior and middle turbinates. The inferior turbinate is the most anteriorly located and therefore the first of the turbinate bones to come into contact with inspired air. The turbinate bones, particularly the anteriorly located inferior turbinate, are involved in innate and adaptive immune reactions of the nasal cavity [14].
Nasal meatuses are spaces found between the turbinate bones and the nasal cavity walls. There are four meatuses in the nasal cavity: the superior meatus, the middle meatus and the inferior meatus.
Superior meatus. The superior meatus is located inferior to the superior turbinate and superior to the middle turbinate bones; this is the drainage site of the posterior ethmoid sinus.
Middle meatus. The middle meatus is located inferior to the middle turbinate and superior to the inferior turbinate. This is the drainage site of the frontal, anterior ethmoid, and maxillary sinuses.
Inferior meatus. The inferior meatus is located inferior to the inferior turbinate and superior to the floor of the nasal cavity. The nasolacrimal duct drains tears from the lacrimal sac at the medial canthus of the eye into the anterior portion of this meatus via Hasner’s valve [13].
3.1.5 Blood supply and lymphatics of the nasal cavity
The nasal cavity has a rich vascular supply which allows it to effectively regulate humidity and temperature of the inhaled air. The nasal cavity is also supplied by a network of lymphatic vessels which drain into various lymph nodes located in the pharyngeal region and the neck.
3.1.5.1 Blood supply
The function of warming and humidifying the inspired air in the nasal cavity is achieved by an elaborate network of blood vessels. The mucosa of the nasal cavity enlarges and shrinks due to sympathetic innervation of the nasal vasculature.
The main sources of arterial blood to the nasal cavity are the internal and external carotid arteries [24]. The internal carotid artery gives off the ophthalmic artery which in turn gives off two main branches to the nasal septum: the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries and the dorsal nasal artery. The anterior ethmoid artery supplies the lateral nasal wall and the nasal septum. The posterior ethmoid artery supplies the superior turbinate and the nasal septum [9, 14].
The external carotid artery gives off the maxillary artery and facial artery. The maxillary artery gives off a smaller artery known as the descending palatine artery which then passes through the pterygopalatine fossa through the palatine canal before it branches into the greater and lesser palatine arteries. The greater palatine artery enters the greater palatine foramen on the posterior aspect of the palate before traversing the palate anteriorly to enter the nasal cavity via the incisive canal. The greater palatine artery supplies the septum and the floor of the nasal cavity. The sphenopalatine artery, a branch of the maxillary artery, supplies the middle and inferior turbinate bones as well as the posterior part of the nasal septum [25].
The facial artery, a branch of the external carotid artery, gives rise to three arteries namely, the superior labial artery, the lateral nasal artery and the angular artery. The three arteries supply the nasal septum, nasal vestibule and dorsal nasal cavity respectively [25].
A common site of epistaxis (nose bleeding) in the nasal cavity commonly occurs at Kiesselbach’s plexus (Little’s area) located in the anterior nasal septum. This plexus is a vascular anastomosis between the anterior ethmoid artery, superior labial artery, greater palatine artery and the terminal branch of the posterior septal branch of the sphenopalatine artery [26]. The names of the veins that drain the nasal cavity follow those of the arteries with which they pair.
3.1.5.2 Lymphatic drainage of the nasal cavity
In general, the main functions of the lymphatic system in the nasal cavity include transportation of old leukocytes from the lymph nodes in the vicinity of the nasal cavity to the blood and transportation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to the lymph nodes in order to trigger an immune response.
Lymph from the vestibule of the nasal cavity is drained into the submandibular lymph nodes. The anterior one third of the nasal cavity is drained by lymphatic vessels that deposit their lymph fluid in the submaxillary lymph nodes. The posterior two thirds of the nasal cavity including the ethmoid sinuses is drained by lymphatic vessels that deposit lymph partly into the retropharyngeal lymph nodes and partly into the superior deep cervical lymph nodes [27].
3.1.6 Nerves of the nasal cavity
The first cranial nerve (olfactory-CNI) transmits signals from the nasal cavity to the brain to provide the sense of smell. The olfactory epithelium is in the superior portion of the nasal cavity. Within this epithelium are sensory cilia that project up through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb. From the olfactory bulb, signals are sent through the olfactory nerve proper to a network of secondary neurons for processing before ending up in the brain [28].
Sensory innervation to the external and internal parts of the nasal cavity is provided by the trigeminal nerve through its two branches the ophthalmic nerve and maxillary nerve [29].
3.1.7 Paranasal sinuses
The nasal cavity is extended by the paranasal sinuses. These are air-filled cavities found in some bones surrounding the nasal cavity. In the human, there are four pairs of paranasal sinuses which are named based on the bones in which they are found. The four sinuses are: the maxillary, frontal, sphenoid, and the ethmoid. The inner surfaces of the four paranasal sinuses are lined by a ciliated pseudostratified epithelium containing mucus-secreting goblet cells. Paranasal sinuses may serve in lightening the weight of the head, humidifying and warming of inspired air, increasing the resonance of speech, providing mechanical rigidity and increasing olfactory surface area [10].
4. The lower respiratory tract
All the structures from the trachea down to the alveoli constitute components of the lower respiratory tract. The components of the lower respiratory tract with support from the rib cage and diaphragm pull in the inspired air from the upper respiratory tract and transport it to the alveoli where oxygen is absorbed into the blood stream and carbon dioxide is released in exchange.
5. Functional anatomy of the lower respiratory tract mucosa
The mucosa of the respiratory tract is lined by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium which consists of a variety of cells (Figure 1). It has been estimated that the total number of cells covering the lower human respiratory tract is 1010 cells that covers a surface area of 2,500cm3 [30]. The pseudostratified columnar epithelium consists of four major cell types which lie on a continuous basement membrane. The four major cell types of the pseudostratified columnar epithelium are the ciliated, secretory, undifferentiated intermediate and basal cells (Figure 1). The function of the basal and the undifferentiated intermediate cells is to act as the progenitors of the other respiratory epithelium cells. The ciliated columnar cell type is the most predominant cell of the respiratory epithelium. It rests on a basement membrane and tapers towards the surface. On its luminal surface, the ciliated cells bear numerous cilia which distinguish them from other cell types. Cilia are hair-like cellular organelles that project from the surface of the cell [31, 32]. The luminal surface of each ciliated cell contains about 200–300 cilia. Each of the cilia on the luminal surface of the upper airways is estimated to be about 0.25 μm in diameter with a height of about 6.5 μm. The dimensions are smaller in the lower respiratory tract. In addition, there are numerous microvilli on the apical surface of the ciliated cells. The role of the microvilli is to ensure trans-epithelial movement of fluids and electrolytes. Ciliated cells are interconnected by tight junctions (Figure 2). These tight junctions are specialized protein structures that are responsible for regulating the passage of solutes and ions across the epithelial barrier [30, 33]. Thus, the tight junctions act as sieves that only allow the passage of selected substances.
Figure 1.
Schematic diagram showing apical junctional complexes found in the respiratory airway epithelium. Shown in this diagram are tight junctions (black) and adherens (blue). Apical junctional complexes are a key component of the innate immune system in the respiratory tract that form between two neighboring cells. Apical junctional complexes consist of mainly tight junctions and adherens junctions. Tight junctions control intercellular movements of ions and other molecules while adherens junctions are responsible for the initiation and maintenance of cell-cell adhesion.
Figure 2.
Schematic diagram showing the components of the mucociliary clearance system. The mucus layer traps particles suspended in the inhaled air. The trapped particles are then propelled by cilia with the aid of the serous layer towards pharynx.
6. Immune mechanisms of the respiratory tract
Respiratory infections are among the top 5 causes of high morbidity and mortality globally. Respiratory infections pose a continuous threat to humans due to their easy dissemination via aerial transmission as evidenced recently by the covid-19 pandemic [34].
A number of factors play different roles in the defense mechanism of the respiratory tract. The defense mechanism of the respiratory tract exists within two broad categories i.e. the humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity components. In addition, the physical or innate immune defense mechanism plays a critical role as the first line defense mechanism within the respiratory tract. The innate defense mechanism of the respiratory tract consists of non-specific physical barriers that can prevent noxious substances from accessing the delicate part of the respiratory system such as the alveoli thereby averting injury to those components.
The respiratory immune response consists of multiple tiers of cellular responses that are engaged in a sequential manner in order to control infections. In addition, specific mechanisms are in place to promote disease tolerance in response to respiratory infections. Various physical barriers, cell types and chemicals are involved in the respiratory system immune response and coordinate pathogen clearance and tissue repair within the respiratory tract [35]. The immune response within the respiratory tract follows an ordered, stepwise program of engagement of distinct tiers of defense [36].
Local sensor cells first detect the invading microorganism. This detection event can trigger cell-intrinsic defense responses that contain the pathogen, lead to secretion of chemo-attractants to recruit rapid responder cells such as neutrophils, and alert lung-resident lymphoid cells through the secretion of first order cytokines. The complex interplay between resident and infiltrating immune cells and secreted innate immune proteins shapes the outcome of host-pathogen, host-allergen, and host-particle interaction within the mucosal airway compartment [37].
6.1 Airway barrier defenses
The first line of defense against infection in the respiratory tract is the mucosal epithelium. The pulmonary epithelium initially acts as a physical barrier between the airway lumen and the vasculature. The epithelium provides the physical barrier by the formation of tight junctions that include claudins, occludins, and adherens.
The physical and chemical barrier to the airways is provided by four major cell types. These cells include ciliated cells, mucus-secreting goblet cells, and club cells, which produce antimicrobial compounds. Basal cells, along with club cells serve as regional progenitor cells to replenish the other cell types [38]. The proportion of each cell type, and the associated defense mechanisms, are compatible with the airway diameter. In the human respiratory tree, ciliated cells and mucus-secreting cells create the barrier defense in larger airways, whereas mucus-secreting cells become less frequent and secretory cells become more predominant in smaller airways. Within the alveoli, alveolar type 1 cells facilitate gas exchange whereas alveolar type 2 cells secrete pulmonary surfactant [35].
6.2 The mucociliary system as a respiratory tract defense barrier
Arguably, the most important component of the innate immune mechanism of the respiratory tract is the mucociliary systems. The mucociliary system is one of the primary mechanisms for protecting the respiratory tract tissues. It operates through the coordinated functions of mucus and cilia that trap and eliminate inhaled materials. Mucociliary action also ensures elimination of dead endogenous cells and debris [39].
The mucociliary clearance system (Figure 2) refers to the composite structures within the respiratory tract that are responsible for eliminating mucus and potentially harmful foreign materials from the respiratory tract. It is a self-cleansing mechanism of the respiratory tract and forms the major first line defense mechanism of the lungs [16]. The main components of the mucociliary clearance apparatus are the cilia found on columnar ciliated cells and the mucus produced by mucus secretory cells known as goblet cells. A layer of fluid and mucus known as the airway surface or periciliary layer covers the airways and this layer of fluid and mucus is constantly propelled by cilia from the distal to the proximal lungs [16].
The mucociliary clearance is a component of the innate immune defense mechanism [40]. In order for the lungs to perform normally, a properly functioning mucociliary escalator is cardinal. Problems with components of the mucociliary escalator, either the mucus or cilia, may cause airway blockage which may result in accumulation of harmful germs and particulate matter, thereby causing damage to the lungs [36]. High morbidity and mortality in many respiratory diseases have been attributed to dysfunctions in components of the mucociliary escalator including abnormal biophysical properties of mucus and ciliopathy [41]. Furthermore, some studies had shown that the majority of the pre-existing conditions that increased the risk of death from COVID-19 are the same diseases that were affected by long-term exposure to air pollution particularly exposure to fine particulate matter [42]. This may indicate that damage to the mucociliary escalator may be responsible for the high risk to covid-19 infection and other respiratory infections among people chronically exposed to air pollution. Treatment to reduce abnormalities of components of the mucociliary escalator have been shown to improve outcomes in respiratory diseases indicating the importance of the mucociliary escalator in pulmonary defense.
6.2.1 Role of cilia in mucociliary clearance
It has been estimated that cilia beat about 12 to 15 HZ in waves that are well coordinated. This ciliary motion has been observed to be metachronal i.e. back-to-front and is directed towards the pharynx [43]. With this motion, particulate matter trapped in mucus including bacteria and viral particles is moved towards the pharynx by being propelled through the vocal cords and glottis. As a result of this constant ciliary movement, an estimated 30 ml of respiratory mucus is discharged into the oral or nasal cavity or swallowed [43].
6.2.2 The role of basal cells in mucociliary clearance
Basal cells of the respiratory epithelium have the capability to differentiate into ciliated and secretory cells and hence can restore the normal structure of the respiratory epithelium after injury. The stimulus for differentiation into ciliated or secretory cells is by exposure to the luminal air [44]. The differentiation of basal cells into ciliated and secretory cells has been attributed to the activation of the transcription factor forkhead boxJ1 (FOXJ1) and the regulatory factor X [45]. Thus, the basal and intermediate cells impart regeneration capacity to various regions of the airway. In the human respiratory tract, the highest epithelial regeneration capacity is found in the large airways (trachea and bronchi) whose regeneration capacity is estimated to be about 8 times higher than in the smaller airways [36].
6.3 Adaptive immune response of the lower respiratory tract
The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to the external environment which contains numerous particles and molecules that can potentially trigger an inflammatory reaction. An important anatomical feature of the respiratory system in general and the lungs in particular is that it has a large surface area of epithelium that is constantly exposed to the external environment and, at the same time, is highly vascularized. This anatomical feature makes the respiratory tract and the lungs to be the major portal of entry for many pathogens including a wide array of respiratory viruses [46].
The respiratory immune system must discriminate between potentially harmful pathogens and those that are innocuous. Most diseases of the respiratory tract involve contributions from both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Complex interactions occur during most respiratory tract infections. A number of systems are involved in the overall immune responses within the respiratory tract and include epithelium-immune system interactions, early effector mechanisms, the influence of the microbiome and immunomodulatory and regulatory pathways [47].
As opposed to the innate immune system, the adaptive immune system (or acquired immune system) is highly specific to a particular pathogen. The adaptive immunity is also able to provide long-term immune protection. The cells responsible for carrying out the acquired immune response are the lymphocytes.
Many respiratory tract viral infections result in mild, self-limited disease. However, other viruses like the SARS-CoV-2 and certain type A influenza virus strains such as the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 viruses can produce severe and frequently fatal infections and can also target epithelial cells of the conducting airways [5].
Many types of immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, and B and T lymphocytes, contribute to lung immunity. Cell-mediated adaptive immune responses are key against all classes of pulmonary pathogens including viruses, various bacteria and fungi. Adaptive immune responses build upon and shape innate immune responses (Figure 3). They depend on sequential pairwise interactions between three cell types: T-cells, Natural Killer (NK) cells, and Dendritic Cells (DCs).
Figure 3.
Adaptive immune responses build and shape innate immune responses.
Dendritic cells (DCs) are also known as accessory cells whose function is to ingest and process antigen material and then present it on their surfaces to the T cells. DCs migrate to local lymph nodes once activated by antigens and within the lymph nodes they interact with T cells and B cells to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response. Thus, dendritic cells act as messengers between the innate and the adaptive immune systems [48].
Upon virus exposure, dendritic cells in the lungs mature and traffic to the local draining lymph nodes (cervical and mediastinal lymph nodes), where they display peptide antigen to naïve CD4 T cells. After being exposed to antigen, the antigen-specific T cells then become activated and initiate a program of proliferation and differentiation, resulting in the production of effector cells that have the capacity to migrate to the lung and terminate the infection [46]. T cells mediate viral clearance via cytokine production or direct cytolytic mechanisms which may be either perforin or Fas mediated pathways [49].
During the course of a respiratory virus infection, pools of memory T cells are established that persist for the life of the individual. These CD4 T cells differ significantly from their naive precursors in that they persist at a high frequency, generate rapid effector functions in response to antigen exposure, have distinct cytokine production profiles, have low requirements for co-stimulation, and have reduced susceptibility to apoptosis. Many memory cells can be found in secondary lymphoid organs, such as the draining lymph nodes and the spleen [46, 50, 51].
7. Conclusion
The respiratory system will continue to attract attention in terms of research particularly during and in the post covid-19 era. Thus, understanding the functional anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract will be cardinal. Respiratory diseases will undoubtedly continue to be major public health problems worldwide, with unpredictable morbidities and mortalities. To date, although considerable progress had been in understanding the functional anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract, there was need to put the subject in the context of the covid-19 pandemic in order to complement the prevailing research efforts in combating covid-19. Much remains to be done in terms of predicting respiratory disease prior to symptoms and also in the development of novel and new treatments in a more personalized manner [52, 53].
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to the University of Zambia for providing unlimited internet access and library facilities and to Biotechnology Kiosk and Intech for publishing the work.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Covid-19, SARS-CoV-2, Respiratory tract, Pandemic, Coronavirus, immunology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75277.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75277.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75277",totalDownloads:311,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 27th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 16th 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"February 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Atmospheric oxygen is an indispensable element required in order for mammalian cells to function normally. The mammalian respiratory system, through pulmonary ventilation and gas diffusion, provides the physical mechanisms by which oxygen gains access to all body cells and through which carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body. The network of tissues and organs of the respiratory system helps the mammalian body cells to absorb oxygen from the air to enable the tissues and organs to function optimally. The advent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) Pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has stimulated heightened and refocused interest in the study of various aspects of the respiratory system. The SARS-CoV-2 targets the respiratory system mucosal cells and in a cascade of biological processes curtails the ability of the respiratory system to absorb and deliver oxygen to the pulmonary blood and body cells often resulting in severe disease and/or death. The mucosa and submucosa of the respiratory tract are adapted to provide both innate and adaptive immune defense mechanisms against pathogens including the SARS-CoV-2. The entire respiratory tract is covered by a mucosa that transitions in its structural and functional characteristics from the upper respiratory tract to the lower respiratory tract. This chapter provides an overview of the functional anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract covering the mucosa from the upper respiratory tract all the way up to the alveolar epithelium. In the advent of the covid-19 pandemic, a broader perspective and understanding of the anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract will enable general readers and researchers to fully appreciate the discourse in covid-19 research as it affects the respiratory tract.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75277",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75277",signatures:"Humphrey Simukoko",book:{id:"10633",type:"book",title:"Biotechnology to Combat COVID-19",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnology to Combat COVID-19",slug:"biotechnology-to-combat-covid-19",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Megha Agrawal and Shyamasri Biswas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-627-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-626-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-628-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"193723",title:"Dr.",name:"Megha",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"megha-agrawal",fullName:"Megha Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"335282",title:"Dr.",name:"Humphrey",middleName:null,surname:"Simukoko",fullName:"Humphrey Simukoko",slug:"humphrey-simukoko",email:"h.simukoko@unza.zm",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anatomical organization of the respiratory tract",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The upper respiratory tract",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 The nasal cavity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Nasal vestibule",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Respiratory region",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Olfactory region",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Nasal conchae (turbinate bones) and meatuses",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5 Blood supply and lymphatics of the nasal cavity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"3.1.5.1 Blood supply",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"3.1.5.2 Lymphatic drainage of the nasal cavity",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.6 Nerves of the nasal cavity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.7 Paranasal sinuses",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. The lower respiratory tract",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Functional anatomy of the lower respiratory tract mucosa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Immune mechanisms of the respiratory tract",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.1 Airway barrier defenses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.2 The mucociliary system as a respiratory tract defense barrier",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.2.1 Role of cilia in mucociliary clearance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.2.2 The role of basal cells in mucociliary clearance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.3 Adaptive immune response of the lower respiratory tract",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Vallamkondu, J., John, A., Wani, W. Y., Ramadevi, S. P., Jella, K. K., Reddy, P. H., & Kandimalla, R. SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology and assessment of coronaviruses in CNS diseases with a focus on therapeutic targets. Biochimica et biophysica acta. 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The role of the innate immune system on pulmonary infections, Biological Chemistry, 2019. 400(4), 443-456. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/hsz-2018-0304'},{id:"B39",body:'Benam, K. H., Vladar, E. K., Janssen, W. J. & Evans, C. M. Mucociliary defense: emerging cellular, molecular, and animal models. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2018.15, S210–S215.'},{id:"B40",body:'Rutland J, Morgan L and de Iongh R. Respiratory Ciliary Dysfunction. In Pediatric Respiratory Medicine (Second Edition); Lynn M. Taussig and Louis I. Landau., Ed., Academic Press. 2008; pp 979-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-032304048-8.50071-2'},{id:"B41",body:'Boucher RC. 2007. Airway surface dehydration in cystic fibrosis: pathogenesis and therapy. Annu. Rev. Med. 58: 157-70'},{id:"B42",body:'Sanderson MJ, Sleigh MA. Ciliary activity of cultured rabbit tracheal epithelium: beat pattern and metachrony. J Cell Sci. 1981;47:331-47. pmid:7263784'},{id:"B43",body:'Bottier M, Blanchon S, Pelle G, Bequignon E, Isabey D. 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Chair’s Summary: Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in Airway Disease. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201405-210AW'},{id:"B48",body:'Curtis J. L. Cell-mediated adaptive immune defense of the lungs. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2005. 2(5), 412-416. https://doi.org/10.1513/pats.200507-070JS'},{id:"B49",body:'Eichelberger M, Allan W, Zijlstra M, Jaenisch R, Doherty PC. Clearance of influenza virus respiratory infection in mice lacking class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted CD8+ T cells. J Exp Med. 1991 Oct 1; 174(4):875-80.'},{id:"B50",body:'Woodland DL, Hogan RJ, Zhong W. Cellular immunity and memory to respiratory virus infections. Immunol Res. 2001; 24(1):53-67.'},{id:"B51",body:'Dutton R. W, Swain S. L, Bradley L. M. The generation and maintenance of memory T and B cells. Immunol Today. 1999 Jul; 20(7):291-3.'},{id:"B52",body:'Kiley JP. Advancing respiratory research. Chest. 2011;140(2):497-501. doi:10.1378/chest.11-0774'},{id:"B53",body:'Simukoko H. and Mujuni, B.; Options for covid-19 therapeutics: aerosolized inhalation antibody conjugated nanoparticles, Biotechnology Kiosk, Vol 2, Issue 8, PP: 4-16 (2020); DOI: https://doi.org/10.37756/bk.20.2.8.1'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Humphrey Simukoko",address:"h.simukoko@unza.zm",affiliation:'
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From 1993 to 1994, he was a visiting scholar at the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, and the Department of Radiology, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. In 2000, he was a visiting Professor in the Visualization and Intelligent Systems Laboratory (VISLab) at the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Riverside (UCR). From 2006 to 2007, he was a visiting Professor at Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado. From 2001 to 2003, he was a Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Since 2003, he has been a Professor of the Department of Information Management, National Chi Nan University, Nantou, Taiwan, and is currently the Dean of Research and Development. Dr. Yin received the Overseas Research Fellowship from Ministry of Education in 1993, Overseas Research Fellowship from National Science Council in 2000. He is a member of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society and listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in Science and Engineering, and Who’s Who in Asia. Dr. Yin has published more than 100 academic articles in reputable journals and conferences including IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE Trans. on Knowledge and Data Engineering, IEEE Trans. on Education, Pattern Recognition, Annals of Operations Research, IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, etc. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Applied Metaheuristic Computing and is on the Editorial Board of International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, Journal of Education, Informatics and Cybernetics, Journal of Pattern Recognition Research, Artificial Intelligence Research, ISRN Signal Processing, The Open Artificial Intelligence Journal, The Open Signal Processing Journal and served as a program committee member in many international conferences. He has also edited two books in the pattern recognition area. 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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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