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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5823",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Sliding Mode Control Theory and Applications",title:"Recent Developments in Sliding Mode Control",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The main purpose of control engineering is to steer the regulated plant in such a way that it operates in a required manner. The desirable performance of the plant should be obtained despite the unpredictable influence of the environment on the control system and no matter if the plant parameters are precisely known. Even though the parameters may change with time and load, still the system should preserve its nominal properties and ensure the required behavior of the plant. In other words, the principal objective of control engineering is to design systems that are robust with respect to external disturbances and modeling uncertainty. This objective may be very well achieved using the sliding mode technique, which is the subject of this book.",isbn:"978-953-51-3272-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3271-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4771-8",doi:"10.5772/65568",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-developments-in-sliding-mode-control-theory-and-applications",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1075a2f87196085bae2babfac6bc3d52",bookSignature:"Andrzej Bartoszewicz",publishedDate:"June 28th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5823.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7172,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 20th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 15th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"18337",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoszewicz",slug:"andrzej-bartoszewicz",fullName:"Andrzej Bartoszewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/18337/images/1630_n.jpg",biography:"Andrzej Bartoszewicz received M.Sc. degree in 1987 and Ph.D. degree in 1993, both from Technical University of Łódź, Poland. Then he obtained the degree of doktor habilitowany in control engineering and robotics from Academy of Mining and Metallurgy in Cracow, Poland. He was visiting scholar at Purdue University, West Lafayette, In., USA and at Strathclyde University, Glasgow, UK. Then for one year he was at the University of Leicester, UK. Currently he is Professor at Technical University of Łódź, head of Electric Drive and Industrial Automation Group and director of Institute of Automatic Control. He has published three monographs and over 300 papers, primarily in the fields of sliding mode control and congestion control in data transmission networks. In the year 2016 professor Andrzej Bartoszewicz was elected a corresponding member of the Polish Academy of Sciences.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"717",title:"Control Theory",slug:"engineering-control-engineering-control-theory"}],chapters:[{id:"54182",title:"State-Feedback Output Tracking Via a Novel Optimal-Sliding Mode Control",doi:"10.5772/67468",slug:"state-feedback-output-tracking-via-a-novel-optimal-sliding-mode-control",totalDownloads:1641,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes a new framework for the design of a novel suboptimal state-feedback-sliding mode control for output tracking while H2/H∞ performances of the closed-loop system are under control. In contrast to most of the current sliding surface design schemes, in this new framework, the level of control effort required to maintain sliding is penalized. The proposed method for the design of optimal-sliding mode control is carried out in two stages. In the first stage, a state-feedback gain is derived using a linear matrix inequality (LMI)-based scheme that can assign a number of the closed-loop eigenvalues to a known value while satisfying performance specifications and ensuring that all the closed-loop poles are located in a preselected subregion. The sliding function matrix related to the particular state feedback derived in the first stage is obtained in the second stage by using one of the two different methods developed for this goal. We present a numerical example to demonstrate the remarkable performance of the proposed scheme.",signatures:"Ahmadreza Argha and Steven W. Su",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54182",authors:[{id:"197599",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmadreza",surname:"Argha",slug:"ahmadreza-argha",fullName:"Ahmadreza Argha"},{id:"198713",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",surname:"Su",slug:"steven-su",fullName:"Steven Su"}],corrections:null},{id:"55306",title:"Discrete‐Time Sliding Mode Control with Outputs of Relative Degree More than One",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68931",slug:"discrete-time-sliding-mode-control-with-outputs-of-relative-degree-more-than-one",totalDownloads:1255,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work deals with sliding mode control of discrete‐time systems where the outputs are defined or chosen to be of relative degrees more than one. The analysis brings forward important advancements in the direction of discrete‐time sliding mode control, such as improved robustness and performance of the system. It is proved that the ultimate band about the sliding surface could be greatly reduced by the choice of higher relative degree outputs, thus increasing the robustness of the system. Moreover, finite‐time stability in absence of uncertainties is proved for such a choice of higher relative degree output. In presence of uncertainties, the system states become finite time ultimately bounded in nature. The work presents in some detail the case with relative degree two outputs, deducing switching and non‐switching reaching laws for the same, while for arbitrary relative degree outputs, it shows a general formalisation of a control structure specific for a certain type of linear systems.",signatures:"Sohom Chakrabarty, Bijnan Bandyopadhyay and Andrzej\nBartoszewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55306",authors:[{id:"18337",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Bartoszewicz",slug:"andrzej-bartoszewicz",fullName:"Andrzej Bartoszewicz"},{id:"196800",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohom",surname:"Chakrabarty",slug:"sohom-chakrabarty",fullName:"Sohom Chakrabarty"},{id:"196865",title:"Prof.",name:"Bijnan",surname:"Bandyopadhyay",slug:"bijnan-bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Bijnan Bandyopadhyay"}],corrections:null},{id:"54478",title:"Sliding Mode Control (SMC) of Image‐Based Visual Servoing for a 6DOF Manipulator",doi:"10.5772/67521",slug:"sliding-mode-control-smc-of-image-based-visual-servoing-for-a-6dof-manipulator",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The accuracy and stability are two fundamental concerns of the visual servoing control system. This chapter presents a sliding mode controller for image‐based visual servoing (IBVS) which can increase the accuracy of 6DOF robotic system with guaranteed stability. The proposed controller combines proportional derivative (PD) control with sliding mode control (SMC) for a 6DOF manipulator. Compared with conventional proportional or SMC controller, this approach owns faster convergence and better disturbance rejection ability. Both simulation and experimental results show that the proposed controller can increase the accuracy and robustness of a 6DOF robotic system.",signatures:"Shutong Li, Ahmad Ghasemi, Wen‐Fang Xie and Yanbin Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54478",authors:[{id:"2926",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Fang",surname:"Xie",slug:"wen-fang-xie",fullName:"Wen-Fang Xie"},{id:"196856",title:"Ms.",name:"Shutong",surname:"Li",slug:"shutong-li",fullName:"Shutong Li"},{id:"196857",title:"Mr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Ghasemi",slug:"ahmad-ghasemi",fullName:"Ahmad Ghasemi"},{id:"196858",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanbin",surname:"Gao",slug:"yanbin-gao",fullName:"Yanbin Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"54407",title:"Super Twisting Sliding Mode Control with Region Boundary Scheme for an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle",doi:"10.5772/67579",slug:"super-twisting-sliding-mode-control-with-region-boundary-scheme-for-an-autonomous-underwater-vehicle",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A robust tracking control for an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) system operated in the extreme ocean environment activities is very much needed due to its external disturbances potentially disturb the stability of the system. This research proposes a new robust-region based controller which integrates Super Twisting Sliding Mode Control (STSMC) with region boundary approach in the presence of determined disturbances. STSMC is a second order SMC which combines between continuous signal and discontinuous signal to produce a robust system. By incorporating region based control into STSMC, the desired trajectory defined as a region produces an energy saving control compared to conventional point based control. Energy function of region error is applied on the AUV to maintain inside the desired region during tracking mission, thus, minimizing the energy usage. Analysis on a Lyapunov candidate proved that the proposed control achieved a global asymptotic stability and showed less chattering, providing 20s faster response time to handle perturbations, less transient of thrusters' propulsion and ability to save 50% of energy consumption compared to conventional SMC, Fuzzy SMC and STSMC. Overall, the newly developed controller contributed to a new robust, stable and energy saving controller for an AUV in the presence of external disturbances.",signatures:"Vina Wahyuni Eka Putranti and Zool Hilmi Ismail",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54407",authors:[{id:"135439",title:"Dr.",name:"Zool",surname:"Ismail",slug:"zool-ismail",fullName:"Zool Ismail"},{id:"199359",title:"Ms.",name:"Vina Wahyuni",surname:"Eka Putranti",slug:"vina-wahyuni-eka-putranti",fullName:"Vina Wahyuni Eka Putranti"}],corrections:null},{id:"54380",title:"Adaptive Integral High‐Order Sliding Mode for a Fixed Wing Aircraft",doi:"10.5772/67580",slug:"adaptive-integral-high-order-sliding-mode-for-a-fixed-wing-aircraft",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to develop and implement the laws piloting for an aircraft, flights validation will be necessary. This could in fact be done, in a first step, by using flight simulators. In this work, we choose the predator virtual model flying in MicrosoftTM flight simulator (MSFS) and we propose the procedure of controlling its attitude. We send the adaptive integral high‐order sliding mode (AIHOSM) inputs piloting control. This work is a real‐time virtual simulation. For the AIHOSM controller, we propose the gain adaptation for reduction of chattering phenomena and possibility to control the aircraft presented by the uncertain nonlinear systems in which the uncertainties have unknown bounds. This technique is more robust and simpler to implement than the quaternion one and only needs the information about the sliding mode surface.",signatures:"Zaouche Mohammed, Foughali Khaled and Amini Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54380",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54380",authors:[{id:"196948",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaouche",surname:"Mohammed",slug:"zaouche-mohammed",fullName:"Zaouche Mohammed"},{id:"197491",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaouche",surname:"Mohammed",slug:"zaouche-mohammed",fullName:"Zaouche Mohammed"},{id:"197492",title:"Mr.",name:"Amini",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"amini-mohamed",fullName:"Amini Mohamed"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"103",title:"Sliding Mode Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5693e6e3680ceffd1e4f39d81a142db8",slug:"sliding-mode-control",bookSignature:"Andrzej 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This paper builds on a relevant and emblematic case study, the exterior sound signature for silent electric vehicles, in order to draw knowledge on sound design as a “coherent discipline of study in its own right” [1]. We postulate that sound design is a highly polymorphous and heterogeneous practice which still suffers from clarity of definition as well as lack of theoretical knowledge. We put this issue in the larger and conceptual context of design research [2] which will help to propose a formalized approach of the science of sound design, that is, by analogy with the design field [3]—the study of the principles, practices, and procedures of the discipline.
In sound design, a recently resurgent industrial object appears to be an emblematic case study: the electric vehicle (EV). This mechanical machine is a moving and silent object in a noisy environment, a kind of
Today, sound design covers a large range of practices and application fields. As seen on Wikipedia page1, its origin can be traced to sound-image relationship, the field where the profession was born in the early 70s. But, it can also concern manufactured products (
From this perspective, replacing sound design in the broader scope of design invites opportunities to put this subcategory within a broader reflexion on models of design research (research-by-project versus research-by-creation [8]), concepts of science of design (from scientific design to science of design [3]) and, more globally, issues related to the role of design between the sciences and arts/humanities (design as a “third area” or a third culture, as outlined by Archer [1]). Concretely, this attempt to transpose initial design research paradigms aims at proposing a conceptual framework for the science of sound design and at arguing in three main axes, as outlined by Cross [9] (cited in [2]):
people: status and practices of the sound designers;
process: innovative methods and tools in sound design;
products: forms, formats, and status of the designed sounds.
This paper will document these parts with analyses and results of the electric vehicle sound design project that appears to be a relevant observation point for nourishing this investigation.
The EV sound design project lasted almost 3 years (2009–2012) and mainly focused on one model of Renault’s electric range (“Zoe”). After a formalized presentation of its main inputs, this section will give the synopsis of its process (for further details please refer to [10, 11]).
First, the project was based on several inputs from different sources of inspiration: scientific from a state-of-the-art in the research field, environmental with regards to the context of use, and singular with regards to a specific corpus of inspiration. For the sake of formalization, these inputs may be associated with three different way of reasoning:
In reference with the seminal works of Schafer [15] and Krause [16], we first looked at the acoustic ecology theory that states the existence of a sonic organization in nature, in order to ensure the audibility of every species. Such structure is found in several dimensions (frequency, intensity, and timbre) or time scales (seasons, day/night cycle) and prevents masking or grouping phenomenons. By analogy, considering, the electric vehicle as a new sound species in a new (urban) ecosystem, we addressed the following questions: what is the structure of the urban soundscape? Are there overloaded zones or, inversely, are zones able to host EV sound signature components, allowing them to emerge in ecological conditions? From analysis of various soundscapes, we then
Due to the lack of scientific studies on the topic—at least when the project started—it was difficult to do a traditional state-of-the-art review. Nevertheless, we compiled a list of existing works, and in particular, two experimental studies from Wogalter et al. [17] and Nyeste and Wogalter [18] (see [11], for a more detailed review). In their joint studies, they tried to define sound categories that might provide acceptable auditory cues for quiet vehicles, respectively, in terms of object association and acceptability. From these results, we finally
The lack of scientific references mentioned above led us to explore another source of data: the cinematographic field (science-fiction movie genre dealing with mobility). This unconventional approach was based on the hypothesis that public expectations of the EV’s sound—and hence its acceptability—could partially be shaped by the work that sound designers did in this area of motion picture sound production. To a certain extent, this approach can also be seen as
For the project, different modes of interaction with the industrial partner were implemented: a decision committee from different departments (Product, Engineering, and Design), an expert team involving key persons from the project and a technical group mainly in charge of the development phase. On this basis, around 100 successive propositions (see [23] for details) were made using a mixed empirical and methodological approach: on one hand, a trial-and-error paradigm mainly driven by the expert team, and on the other hand, evaluations produced by the technical group or resulting from standard experimental procedures. In fact, at a certain stage of the project, two types of listening tests were conducted in order to: (i) assess the functionality of the propositions, that is, their ability to signify the approach and the presence of the vehicle and (ii) qualify the propositions in terms of hedonic judgment, emotional response, and evocation.
From a global point of view, the synopsis of the process that leads to the industrialized solution can be described with the following steps (see [10, 23] for a more detailed description):
implementation: the final results of our research results which included translation of sound engine prototypes, were embedded in a chip rendered via EEPROM native languages.
In the previous section, we gave a summary of the EV sound design project focusing on its uniqueness and complexity. In this section, we will formalize what we learned from this experience in order to contribute to a better definition of sound design as a discipline. Our analysis thus follows a structure and research design approach proposed by Cross [9] that focuses on acquiring knowledge on “people” (sound design epistemology), “process” (sound design methods), and “products” (sound design artifacts) (cited in [2]).
The project chronicle described above shows a complex process involving human interaction and technical issues for achieving an industrialized solution. In this context, the question of the amount of space left for individual creativity and authorship naturally arises. What is the role of the sound designer in a network of people who not only decide on, but also contribute to the design process?
A first attempt to answer this question could point out the ability of opening multiple versions of a work and creating a labyrinth of links where the network can slowly navigate until a given destination is reached. This
An example of simple
An example of
As these examples show, the presence of a didactic and self-effacing author is essential. In the first case, to ensure a convincing quality of the sound-logos, in the second case, to rebound from the rejection of propositions, and to learn how to use scalable constraints for creating relevant evolutions of original ideas.
For nearly 15 years, research in sound design has tended to formalize tools, methodologies, and concepts that enrich its disciplinary field (see [25] for a detailed review). Among these developments, a project methodology has been defined by the Ircam’s PDS team. This approach, coming from a standard ‘V’ cycle model, is composed of three steps: ‘Analysis’ (of the problem), ‘Conception’ (of solutions), and ‘Validation’ (of propositions). It also involves a retroactive loop that enables the methodology to iterate the conception step from the validation results in order to propose new solutions better fitting with the initial problem (Figure 1). This approach turned out to be relevant from a conceptual point of view and was implemented several times in our academic research [26] and pedagogical actions [27].
Sound design methodology, from Ircam/PDS team.
Thus, with regards to its unprecedented object (electric vehicle) and its strong industrial connotation (mass production), the present study gives the opportunity to provide analytical insights into this methodology and, in a way, provide frame to assess its level of practicability in realistic contexts.
As previously mentioned, the ‘Analysis’ step could not have been achieved in a traditional manner due to the topic specificity. Getting information on what already existed in terms of the EV’s sound signature was almost impossible because of the rather pioneering position of the project and forced us to look at other disciplines such as the moving image industry. Then, we did not really induce acoustic specifications from existing EV signal specimens but rather stated hypothesis from the collected marginal data. Nevertheless, this somewhat unusual approach had a positive side-effect opening up creative opportunities due to the lack of historical examples in the field. In fact, trying to expand the present is oftentimes less innovative than starting from the ground up. This is, in substance, what Hug claims—in the field of game sound design—about the “simulation of reality” and the necessity to go beyond this “unnecessary limitation” in order to propose “new directions of innovation” [28].
On another hand, the ‘Evaluation’ step was likewise altered due to our uniquely defined research setting. In fact, the theoretical process contains a feedback loop that increments a conception-validation module: conception being iterated in the light of validation results compared to the initial specifications. In practice, this step often mutates into a selection step (rather than an iterative evaluation), primarily due to time and cost constraints. Thus, the refinement process, expected from this loop, is more a
Finally, an interesting validation of the designed EV sound signature occurred a few years after the end of the project, in 2014, showing the legitimacy of a complete and controlled sound design approach for such a complex framework.
In 2011, an important three-year European project called eVADER4 aggregated a mixed consortium of various research labs, automotive industry partners, and suppliers to work on electric vehicle alert system for detection and emergency response. The main goal of this project was to propose and develop a sustainable answer to the issue of the EV’s sound, which additionally provided an experimental framework for further legal specifications.
One specific task undertaken during this project was to propose the design of experimental stimuli built on acoustic parameters and rules based on relevant perceptual and cognitive principles including auditory sensitivity, stream segregation, masking or saliency and, more generally, on the auditory warning strategies compiled from the state-of-the-art (see [29]). The experimental part of this work conducted listening tests with regards to two main criteria:
Detectability versus unpleasantness obtained after perceptual experiments in eVADER project (taken from [
In the final phases of eVADER project [32], the basic stimuli were mixed with the sound signature resulting from the project reported in the present article (called “
In a summary, these findings point towards to important observations: first, that (well) designed sounds can bear comparison with laboratory stimuli, that is, sounds designed on the basis of formal rules. And second, that the sound design process—that is, the integration of an artistic practice into a scientific/technical approach—can augment the conception of sound signals, moreover compatible with both functional and esthetics needs. This result can also promote the idea of a “
The project dealing with sound signature of electric vehicle led to collaboration between partners in the automotive industry, a research team, and a composer. It resulted in the implementation of a realistic and controlled sound design solution on an industrial product.
The range and richness of this
The autumn is usually called fall due to the featuring fall of leaves during this season as a phenological phenomenon called defoliation. This would figure out how intimately related are seasons and phenology or in other words how strong is the repercussion of climate seasonal variation on the plants and animals successive and cyclic phenomena. Indeed, we almost notice seasons via phenological variation along with climatic one. This deep intimate co-occurrence between climate and phenology phenomena is very appealing for wonder and consequently to the exploration of the relations and mechanisms of these relations and how living beings respond to climate seasonal variations during their life cycles.
As a matter of undeniable fact, this chapter consists of a core and mandatory knowledge for the agriculture and farmers to make their crops safe and the most productive. Therefore, this chapter is likely to be the backbone for this very book of agro- meteorology and all disciplines within the same scope and the nature and life’s scope.
Particularly, in the recent context of climate change. Indeed, Subrahmanyam and Murthy (in Ref. [1]) confirmed that global climate change is a reality, a continuous process that needs to be taken seriously. Many evidences have been gathered to depict that climate change is taking place. And although several species have responded to climatic changes throughout their evolutionary history, there is a concern as to how different ecosystems and populations will respond to this rapid rate of change.
The fact of the book being devoted to agro-meteorology imposes that this chapter should be more specified and oriented towards phenology of plants as to they are the subject of agriculture more than animals. This is also due to another fact that climate impacts plants more than animals. Accordingly, this chapter attempts to explain how climate factors affect and control each pheno-phase within the plant life cycle from dormancy and germination to fructification, after defining all of phenology, phonological phases, climate, climate factors, and climate seasonal variations.
In general, Phenology is the observation and measurement of events in time [2]. Obviously, the word phenology is composed of the part “pheno” which refers to phenomena and “logy” which is commonly known to mean science or study, thus phenology is literally the study or science of phenomena. Practically, Phenology refers to the study the cyclic phenomena of living beings mainly plants and animals including insect and their succession in seasons as well as their timings [1, 3]. This is under the direct influence and control of climate and surrounding environmental conditions including the duration of sunlight, precipitation, temperature and other life-controlling factors [1]. The recent climate changes makes the deep mastery and comprehension of phenology worthwhile, because some unpredicted climate changes could cause many crop damages. Actually, the assessment of impacts of projected climate changes on natural ecosystems is not based on accurate scientific modeling or field studies at regional level [1], and It is well documented that plant and animal phenology is changing in response to recent climate warming in the Palearctic [3]; besides, global change, encompassing natural and anthropogenic changes to the Earth system at sub-annual to geologic time scales, has strong interactions with vegetation phenology [4]. Thus phenology is central and crucial as a background for the discipline of agronomy and mainly agro-meteorology to predict the eventual response of living being to the unpredictable climate changes and therefore probable agricultural damages.
The term of phenology was first introduced in 1853 by the Belgian botanist Charles Morren. It refers to the science that measures the timing of life cycle events for plants, animals, and microbes, and detects how the environment influences the timing of those events. Namely, it focuses on how environmental factors mainly climatic variables influence the phenol-phases to hence make a harmony between seasons and life cycle events including defoliation, plant dormancy, leaf budburst, blooming and first flower, last flower, first ripe fruit, and leaf shedding, and for animals this includes molting, mating, egg-laying or birthing, fledging, emergence from hibernation, and migration. Thus, phenologists record the dates when every event occurs, its duration and how environmental conditions such as temperature and precipitation affect its timing [2].
The timing of phenological events can be quite sensitive to environmental conditions mainly climatic [2, 4, 5]. For example, an advance of leaf budburst and blooming for could be caused by warming an drought in spring and this could be for two weeks earlier than usual, whereas cold and moisture could exceptionally could equally delay them. Thus, weather and climate controls the timing of phenol-phases which vary among years [2]. Effectively, climate cyclic variations are the controlling variables of phenol-phases timing. In plants, bud-burst, leaf-expansion, abscission, flowering, fertilization, seedset, fruiting, seed dispersal and germination all take place in due season [6].
On the one hand weather is limited to a very short period of time from one day to less than week and it includes atmospheric conditions of a region, such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, and sunshine. The climate of a region, on the other hand, concern a long period more than thirty years commonly defined as the conventional period for climatic studies. Climate consists of the generally-prevailing weather conditions for this period and in a large geographic region. For example, Santa Barbara, California is characterized by a Mediterranean climate – warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters. There are, however, daily and weekly changes in the weather that can rapidly change the temperature, sunshine, and wind conditions [2]. Nonetheless, there is no steady rhythm for all years particularly in the context of recent climate changes. This would not be tolerated by some species and therefore they are likely been extinguished and rarified in many regions.
Temperature, solar radiation, and water availability are assumed to be the key factors that control plant phenology [4]. However, not only these climatic factors. Indeed, temperature is an inevitable factor on which depends all the chemical reaction and mainly those occurring inside cells of living organism. In addition the temperature is both a characteristic of live and an indispensable condition to survive. Some biological functions and reaction may be inhibited or stopped by cold like in hibernation and dormancy. The solar radiation is unequivocally source of energy which is transformed from it luminous form to the chemical form (ATP) by the photosynthesis in the chlorophyll within plants. Furthermore, sun light is factor to fixate the calcium, to product vitamin and the duration of insolation which is called photoperiod determines the season of fall, season of bud bursting and blooming. Precipitations are source of water for crops. Water is indispensable for any form of life on earth. Indeed water is the solvent in all physiological solution in living organisms. As well as it transmits nutrients and regulates temperature of bodies of living beings.
In fact all the climate with its elements and their features including duration, frequency and intensity are influencing phenophases and living beings lives whence the elaboration of the discipline of bioclimatology.
In period of tough climatic conditions some plants and animals can no longer neither resist nor adapt to rude conditions of autumn and winter. Therefore, they adopt a specific strategy to survive. This is possible by pausing growth and development, which can occur in different organs like seeds and buds. This is known as dormancy which is controlled both by genetic and environmental factors. As the most studied dormancy, seed dormancy is an important adaptive trait in wild plants. The plant hormone abscisic acid plays a crucial role in the establishment and maintenance of dormancy, whereas gibberellins promote germination. The abscisic hormone (ABA) is specific to plants, and plays many roles for plant responses to stresses such as drought, salinity, cold and freezing tolerance, heat stress and heavy metal ion tolerance. Dormancy is a main determinant period in the plant life cycle. It has strong variation between species [7].
According to the predictability of climate, the dormancy may be preventive or consequential. Predictive dormancy is when plants can predict the onset of winter through the short photoperiod and the decrease of temperature, however when climate is unpredictable and has a sudden changes, the organism enter directly in consequential dormancy after adverse conditions. This last may cause a high rate of mortality before entering in consequential dormancy which is a protection strategy. Furthermore, the biological clock in many spices determine autonomously the period of the year for every phenophase.
In soil, seeds dormancy is continually adjusted by a set of environmental signals (Figure 1). The time of the year is determined by signals related to the slow seasonal change and this may indicate how sensitive the plant sensors mainly in seeds are. The figure illustrates the range of environmental signals and how they can potentially inform the seed of the time [8]. As buried and incorporated into soil, seeds responds to a wide range of edaphic and physical conditions to inform about the time of year and its appropriateness to the germination as illustrated in the Figure 1. The nitrate is commonly known to have a very important role in informing plants about the surrounding environmental conditions.
Environmental signals controlling seeds dormancy and germination.
For the evergreen plants like some trees such as conifers, the dormancy consisted of the sustained light quenching for the whole winter period by the xanthophyll-mediated non-photochemical antenna. This is a form of a protection for the evergreen foliage from photo-oxidative damage when photosynthesis is restricted or prevented by low temperatures during the winter. The molecular mechanisms of this cold acclimation are still unknown, it implies alterations in the photosystem II antenna. Photosystem I is also involved via its support of cyclic electron transport at low temperatures, and also by non-photochemical quenching of absorbed light irrespective of temperature. Processes like chloro-respiration and cyclic electron transport may also be important for maintaining the functional integrity of the photosynthetic apparatus of overwintering evergreens both during periods of thawing in winter and during recovery from winter stress in spring [9].
Defoliation (removal of leaves), on the other hand and for the deciduous plants, is the strategy to minimize or stop the photosynthesis in the overwintering period. Defoliation accelerates sink metabolism and hence remobilizes carbon and nitrogen reserves, leading to improved source-sink relations. Through removing lower and senescing leaves, plant can assure a greatest capacity of photosynthesis and carbon and nitrogen metabolism in despite of adverse conditions [10]. Hence, the defoliation consists of a balancing between the minimum of photosynthesis supplies in adverse conditions and the plant needs.
Whenever conditions are favorable, dormancy and overwintering become useless. Plants and seeds start anew their active lives. This starting is accomplished through germination in seeds characterized by the emergence of embryo from seed enclosing covers the endosperm, perisperm, testa, or pericarp. This metabolism is mainly activated by the seeds imbibition by water. This would incite the respiration metabolism to provide the necessary energy for the expansion of the embryo and after that the radicle through the covering tissues of the seed. The emergence of the radicle out of the seed indicates the germination completed and hence called the visible germination which ends up with the seeds germinated. Germination does not include the seedling growth [11].
In fact, not only water is the climatic factor inducing germination, there is also temperature and sunlight. However, the most essential environmental factor required for seed germination is water. Water availability acts following a specific model, the hydro-time model of germination [11].
While water availability and imbibtion of seed are indispensable to launch germination, temperature is important as well for germination and for all physiological functions both for animal and plants. In fact, the regulator role of temperature is commonly recognized in physiology as well as in germination. Indeed, temperature determines the germinability of seeds by determining its rate. It removes primary and secondary dormancy and temperature also induces the second dormancy [11].
Light is primarily responsible for the effect inducing germination after turning soil. As little as one millisecond of exposure to full sunlight can cause many seeds to germinate and produce seedlings. This principle may be utilized to reduce the use of herbicides in weed management programs. Hence, soil plays the role of light filter [11].
Break in dormancy in many plants is triggered by temperature [1]. A sufficiently high temperature is indeed needed to make bud bursts. This would occur due the expansion of internodes and leaves formerly formed in previous season. This high temperatures is almost needed for the newly formed buds due to the apical meristem getting activity resumed. On the other hand, the burst of dormant buds is caused by the elongation of the internodes following to cell expansion [12]. The young buds are very sensitive to coldness and may be severely damaged if they burst early in winter. This probable damage of buds have an inevitable repercussion on the crop.
Although, almost factors controlling the phenology of bud burst are poorly understood, bud burst has a particular timing controlled by some climatic and non-climatic factors including:
Blooming or flowering is a featuring phenophase which usually heralds the arrival of spring season. Flowering is controlled by environmental conditions and developmental regulation. The complexity of this regulation is created by an intricate network of signaling pathways [13]. The plant Arabidopsis is a model for the study of flowering mechanism due to the significant number of environmental factors involved in this process for many other species. In addition, the genetic material of this plant is well developed. Many factors influence the flowering such as photoperiod, growth regulators, insolation and sunlight, circadian clock regulation, temperature, and chromatin structure [13].
One of the most important factors controlling flowering time in temperate regions is the duration of the daily light period, or photoperiod. Plant genes involved in sensing the photoperiod were identified by the molecular genetic approaches. These genes encode the proteins responsible of the flowering process and its regulation according the environmental conditions. Other genes encodes the components of light signal pathways and components of the circadian clock.
The Figure 2 illustrates the relations among factors, genes, and processes involved in flowering phenology relating to the photoperiod. The effect of photoperiod on flowering consists of a balance between genes which promote the flowering in green color in the Figure 2 and in red color those which repress the flowering. All these genes are incited by the sunlight. While Repressive effect is represented by the perpendicular arrows, and overexpression of genes is illustrated but e small upright arrows, the promotion is represented by arrows between genes. Similarly, interaction between proteins is indicated by simple lines. The expression of genes controlled by circadian clock is noted by arrows from it whereas arrows to the clock are for the process of lengthening the period by the gene [13].
Signaling pathways involved in the regulation of flowering by photoperiod in Arabidopsis
Biological Phenomena are almost systematic and have standard rhythm, timing and cyclicity. These are all controlled and adjusted by the biological clock or the circadian clock. This rhythmicity is at all living beings and in every division of time from one second to one year. The genes controlling the circadian clock have been identified by scientist as to be the gene (per, frq, clock, tau) [14].
The period of circadian clock is almost one day without being affected by transition between day and night, dark and light. This clock is observed in all functions and biological elements from stomat, CO2 assimilation, and gene transcription to the clearly observable phenophases like defoliation, bud burst and flowering. This rhythmicity and circadian are believed to be created by the cyclicity of environmental phenomena and hence underwent a selection pressure. Indeed this circadian clock serves the harmony between environment with it climates and the phenology and therefore permit to living beings to efficiently anticipate their environment changes in particular periodic variations or more appropriately the seasonality of climatic elements including temperature, insolation by its intensity and photoperiod, humidity, precipitations [14]. This implies the constant quality of this circadian clock and meanwhile poses a problem of adaption to the unexpected climates changes. Thus, many vulnerable species may have been extinguished due to this effect.
Three outstanding interrelated types of this rhythmicity are characterized in the circadian clock including the input pathways which are relating to the daily cycle of light and dark and adjusting the clock mechanism to it. Secondly, a central oscillator which is responsible to keep the mechanism of 24 hours’ time. And output pathways for specific process as the thirds category of this circadian clock [13].
As a commonly used technique, vernalization is used since a long history of agriculture. First discovered for plants which were planted in spring, then they needed some cold to germinate and to pass from vegetative life to productive life. Indeed, vernalization is almost related to flowering and fructification in particular. And it is defined as subjection of seeds and seedlings to coldness or chill in order to promote and hasten the growth and the flowering of plants.
In fact, plants are very sensitive to their environment and constantly adapting to the environmental variations by for example dormancy or overwintering during adverse conditions period which is a strategy to withstand them. However, in spite of its toughness, winter cold is in the other hand mandatory and indispensable for plant growth and flowering whence the principle of vernalization. This vernalization is also an adaptive trait to prevent flowering before the spring arrival with its favorable conditions. Genetically, vernalization is merely the inhibition of genes which repress flowering particularly in Arabidopsis and cereals [15].
Exposure to low temperatures for several weeks will often accelerate flowering. Susceptibility to this treatment can differ markedly between varieties of a species. Therefore winter seasons is likely to an inevitable period in the plants life cycle because without long exposure to cold plants do not flower not pass to the reproductive and productive phase of their life. During winter plants are in vegetative growth phase with the minimum of activities [13].
Figure 3 illustrates process, mechanism and all involved factors and genes in the flowering phenomenon, especially promotion of this flowering process is indicted in blue and the red color illustrates the components and genetic interaction which repress flowering including FLC (Flowering Locus C) and its relatives pointed as FLC clade. It inhibits the expression the flowering genes or properly named the floral integrator genes which are FD, FT, and SOC1 (Suppressor Of CONSTANS1). The photoperiod pathway passes by CO (CONSTANS) to induce the FT which is a protein working as a mobile signal of flowering. In the floral meristem, FT in partnership with FD protein activate SOC1 as well as SAP (sepalat), FUL (fruitful), and AP1 (apetatalata1) which are known as the floral meristem identity genes and which induces the floral meristems that will develop into flowers. Accordingly, Flowering locus C (FLC) and photoperiod pathway are antagonist.
Outline of flowering pathways in Arabidopsis source: Reference [
In the one hand, Autonomous pathways genes partially determine the expression of FLC. In the other hand, the prolonged winter and cold further repress the FLC remodeling of chromatin. In addition, flowering is promoted by the plants hormones class of gibberellin which activates SOC1 along with the floral meristem-identity gene LEY (LEAFY) [15].
As illustrated by Figure 4, vernalization, which repress FLC expression, along with the autonomous pathway genes induce flowering [13].
The effects of Vernalization and the autonomous pathway on flowering time, emphasizing the central role of FLC
The making of a fruit is a developmental process unique to plants. It requires a complex network of interacting genes and signaling pathways which consists of series of reaction launched by an environmental signal such as light, photoperiod, and temperature. Generally, fructification goes through three stages which are first the set of fruit which follows the pollination of flowers. Then the fruit development stage and finally the fruit ripening which received the most attention of researcher of the field. This is due its importance in commercialization an economy since it the quality of fruits is the most attractive feature for the customer. In fact the process of ripening activates a series of biochemical reactions that make the fruit edible and desirable to the consumer [16].
A detailed illustration of this process is provided by the following Figure 5. It is merely a scheme of activating the ripening related genes to be expressed into enzymes charged each of which by one or more of the various ripening pathways such odor, color or softening. This whole process is controlled and adjusted by hormonal and environmental signals. It is to be noted that ethylene as a plant hormone plays a major role in this process of ripening and fruit development [16]. Indeed, fruits whose ripening is related to ethylene and a respiration increase are called climacteric fruit, such as tomato, apple, pear, and melon. In the other hand, the non-climacteric are featured by no ethylene associated with the increase and peak of respiration during the ripening phase. It is to note that sales men uses this ethylene to preserve fruits during transportation or deposit for long-period by picking fruits prematurely and when ready for exposition for sale they use ethylene to induce ripening. Similarly, it is used to advance flowering before the adverse periods.
Schematic representation depicting the molecular mechanisms controlling the ripening of climacteric fruit
The obvious delay of defoliation and advance of blooming along with the appearance of butterfly in autumn and disappearance of many species of plants, insects and animals in many regions unequivocally indicate the climate change and warming, and triggered the scientific research and investigation in this respect [17]. In a context of global climate change being a reality, a continuous process that needs to be taken seriously, and a subject which continues to be a topic of hot debate at global conventions, world summits and international conferences and symposia [1]. Indeed, plant phenology is strongly controlled by climate and has consequently become one of the most reliable bio-indicators of ongoing climate change [18]. Thus, aberrations and anomalies in phenology are repercussions of climatic ones and hence are unequivocal and undeniable evidence of the climate change fact and the fact of their occurring irregularly. This may help to assess and predict ongoing and future significant impacts of climate changes on plants and the whole ecosystems. Effectively, it is largely noticed the disappearance of many vulnerable and hyper-sensible species because of the climatic stress, the unpredicted change of weather, and inability of these species neither to withstand adverse conditions nor to adapt. However if erraticity of weather and climate persist, plants would adapt and a new ecotypes will appear. Indeed, the first response to climate changes is through changes in plant phenololgy and phenophase with their timing and durations and this would have a potential impact on the available resources [1].
Accordingly, long phonological records generate authentic data to study the effect of climate change on phenology and the whole ecosystem, environment and nature future. This may includ parameters such as advance or delay in the appearance of leaf, leaf fall, and timing of opening of flowers, and blooming which can be recorded right at the field site for a long period to form a long time series valid and reliable for the scientific analysis and deductions. For instance, increase in level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequent global warming may have a profound effect on the flowering time of plants [1].
Accordingly, it was highly recommended to work actively in terms of implementation of the climate change scientific findings in the field of the field of agriculture to both preserve and increase crops. Namely, it was proposed to adjust and reconsider the agricultural calendar according to the recent climate changes to avoid damages related to climate hazards. Indeed, planting dates should be judiciously set in such a way that fragile phenophases (e.g. germination, fruiting) do not come across hard climatic periods [17, 19].
The climate changes are commonly known as frustrating and alarming when first talked about in the first years of the past century and when they first came into existence among scientific community. All scientist talked about inundation by the sea level rise, drought, desertification, natural resources depletion as climate change aftermaths in a very dramatic way as it is the certain end of life on this planet. In fact, climate changes are constantly with clear and remarkable impacts mainly on living beings and foremost plants due their sessile life style directly exposed to climate influences. Furthermore, this created an intimate relation between plants life and climate or the entire surrounding environments.
Thus, plant’s life and physiology is utterly dependent to its environment and mainly the climate.
As the plant is the first source of food for all other living beings, the food security is therefore subject to climate changes impacts. Indeed, since all phenol-phases are interrelated and related to climate seasonality and variation, the fructification as the final one is inevitably impacted by the climate changes and consequently crop quantity and quality. This uncovers and emphasizes the direct impact of climate changes on the food security.
Food is basically from cereal crops whose growth and development are dependent to the day length and growing degree days (GDDs) and they are responsive to climatic factors in specific seasons [20].
The global warming hinders the crop growth and development and mainly causes a shift in phenological development of crops and affects their economic yield [20]. This is due to the fact that the rise of temperature and warm winters are indeed against vernalization which, as previously posited, mandatory for flowering and fructification. This implies that there would be only vegetative life and neither reproduction nor production for plants. Hence, the impact of climate changes is decreasing production in favor of phonological and only vegetative plants.
As climate warming is global and unavoidable phenomenon, the unique solution for food security in this context consists of an adaptive strategy and agronomic management through breeding of climate-adapted genotypes and increasing genetic biodiversity [20]. This is to say that we should make use the field of genetic engineering to develop local species, or more properly and appropriately use more adapted species brought from already temperate regions. This last alternative is more recommended to avoid transgenic organisms and crops whose use as food is unsecure.
This chapter is a mandatory background knowledge for everyone interested on nature particularly on plants starting from agricultural professionals to simple farmers, amateurs and herborists. This chapter provides a solid basis for agro-meteorology, and agronomy.
Therefore it is an inevitable part for this very book of agro-meteorology. Actually, the controlling of climate to plant phenophases was emphasized to prove the importance of its knowledge to predict and prevent the probable damages due the climate changes.
For more emphasis, the last two titles were devoted to the impact of climate changes on phenology and consequently on food security.
I really owe special acknowledgments and thanks to dear Mrs. Mia Vulovic, the Author Service Manager, for she has encouraged me with insistence, reminded me repeatedly, postponed the deadline for me, and offered me her services with open heart.
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At a first step, ERS and Envisat data stacks are processed using COS software developed by the company SARMAP. Various features related to amplitude and phase as well as to their changes are then extracted from images of the same sensor. Combinations of the features extracted from one image, from several images of one sensor as well as from different sensors are performed to derive robust indicators of potential human-related changes. Finally, possibilities of exploiting and integrating other types of information sources such as various reports, maps, historical or agricultural data, etc. in the combination process are analyzed to improve the obtained results. 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Work on the automatic detection of trenches and craters is presented here. Land cover can be extracted and is quite useful to help mine action. We present here a classification method based on Gabor filters. The relief of a region helps analysts to understand where mines could have been laid. Methods to be a digital terrain model from a digital surface model are explained. The special case of multi‐spectral classification is also addressed in this chapter. Discussion about data fusion is also given. Hyper‐spectral data are also addressed with a change detection method. Synthetic aperture radar data and its fusion with optical data have been studied. Radar interferometry and polarimetry are also addressed.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Yann Yvinec, Nada Milisavljevic, Charles Beumier, Idrissa\nMahamadou, Dirk Borghys, Michal Shimoni and Vinciane Lacroix",authors:[{id:"133433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Yvinec",slug:"yann-yvinec",fullName:"Yann Yvinec"}]},{id:"55272",doi:"10.5772/67007",title:"Ground‐Penetrating Radar for Close‐in Mine Detection",slug:"ground-penetrating-radar-for-close-in-mine-detection",totalDownloads:2846,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, two of the major challenges in the application of ground‐penetrating radar in humanitarian demining operations are addressed: (i) development and testing of affordable and practical ground penetrating radar (GPR)‐based systems, which can be used off‐ground and (ii) development of robust signal processing techniques for landmines detection and identification. Different approaches developed at the Royal Military Academy in order to demonstrate the possibility of enhancing close‐range landmine detection and identification using ground‐penetrating radar under laboratory and outdoor conditions are summarized here. Data acquired using different affordable and practical GPR‐based systems are used to validate a number of promising developments in signal processing techniques for target detection and identification. 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Three sensors used for the detection and identification of sea mines are studied here: sonar, gradiometer and infrared camera. These sensors can be applied to detect different types of sea mines. Some signal and image processing techniques developed to extract relevant information for the detection of underwater objects are presented in this chapter. These techniques are validated using data collected in the frame of different European and NATO projects.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Olga Lucia Lopera Tellez, Alexander Borghgraef and Eric Mersch",authors:[{id:"176830",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Lucia",surname:"Lopera Tellez",slug:"olga-lopera-tellez",fullName:"Olga Lopera Tellez"}]},{id:"67505",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86586",title:"A New Real-Time Flight Simulator for Military Training Using Mechatronics and Cyber-Physical System Methods",slug:"a-new-real-time-flight-simulator-for-military-training-using-mechatronics-and-cyber-physical-system-",totalDownloads:1170,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"So far, the aeronautical industry has developed flight simulators and space disorientation with high costs. This chapter focuses on the design and implementation process of a low-cost real-time flight simulator for the training of armed force pilots using mathematical models of flight physics. To address such concern, the mathematical models of a Cessna type aircraft have been developed. This has been followed by a flight simulator, which operated with a new construction using a Stewart scale platform and operated by a joystick. Specifically, the simulator has been developed using an approximation of a physical cyber-system and a mechatronic design methodology that consists of mechanical, electrical and electronic elements that control the Stewart platform with three degrees of freedom. Based on software engineering, the algorithms of mathematical and physical models have been developed. These have been used to create an interactive flight simulator of an aircraft based on the Unity 3D game engine platform. The performance of the algorithms has been evaluated, using threads and processes to handle the communication and data transmission of the flight simulator to the Stewart platform. The evaluation of the developed simulator has been validated with professional pilots drilled with the Microsoft Flight Simulator. The results demonstrated that this flight simulator stimulates the development of skills and abilities for the maneuver and control of an aircraft.",book:{id:"8588",slug:"military-engineering",title:"Military Engineering",fullTitle:"Military Engineering"},signatures:"César Villacís, Walter Fuertes, Luis Escobar, Fabián Romero and Santiago Chamorro",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67881",title:"Military Aviation Principles",slug:"military-aviation-principles",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Military all over the world uses military aircraft in both offensive and defensive purposes. In offensive role, these aircraft are used in destroying enemy’s vital installations, air strips, ordnance depots and supplies. In defensive role, it provides close air support to land-based army and also deters the threats of enemy air strike. In naval warfare, military aircraft plays a significant role to detect and neutralize submarines and warships to keep the seacoast free from enemy attack. Military aircraft also provides logistic supply to forward bases, conducting airlift (cargo and troops), and participates in rescue operations during national disaster. Military aviation includes both transport and warcraft and consisting of fixed wing aircraft, rotary-wing aircraft (RWA) and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). From the early days of world war, it has been realized that air power supremacy is vital for winning a war as well as maintaining the sovereignty of any country. This chapter discusses basic flight mechanics, types and roles of aircraft, safety considerations and design and certification procedures.",book:{id:"8588",slug:"military-engineering",title:"Military Engineering",fullTitle:"Military Engineering"},signatures:"Kanchan Biswas",authors:null},{id:"67505",title:"A New Real-Time Flight Simulator for Military Training Using Mechatronics and Cyber-Physical System Methods",slug:"a-new-real-time-flight-simulator-for-military-training-using-mechatronics-and-cyber-physical-system-",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"So far, the aeronautical industry has developed flight simulators and space disorientation with high costs. This chapter focuses on the design and implementation process of a low-cost real-time flight simulator for the training of armed force pilots using mathematical models of flight physics. To address such concern, the mathematical models of a Cessna type aircraft have been developed. This has been followed by a flight simulator, which operated with a new construction using a Stewart scale platform and operated by a joystick. Specifically, the simulator has been developed using an approximation of a physical cyber-system and a mechatronic design methodology that consists of mechanical, electrical and electronic elements that control the Stewart platform with three degrees of freedom. Based on software engineering, the algorithms of mathematical and physical models have been developed. These have been used to create an interactive flight simulator of an aircraft based on the Unity 3D game engine platform. The performance of the algorithms has been evaluated, using threads and processes to handle the communication and data transmission of the flight simulator to the Stewart platform. The evaluation of the developed simulator has been validated with professional pilots drilled with the Microsoft Flight Simulator. The results demonstrated that this flight simulator stimulates the development of skills and abilities for the maneuver and control of an aircraft.",book:{id:"8588",slug:"military-engineering",title:"Military Engineering",fullTitle:"Military Engineering"},signatures:"César Villacís, Walter Fuertes, Luis Escobar, Fabián Romero and Santiago Chamorro",authors:null},{id:"55272",title:"Ground‐Penetrating Radar for Close‐in Mine Detection",slug:"ground-penetrating-radar-for-close-in-mine-detection",totalDownloads:2842,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, two of the major challenges in the application of ground‐penetrating radar in humanitarian demining operations are addressed: (i) development and testing of affordable and practical ground penetrating radar (GPR)‐based systems, which can be used off‐ground and (ii) development of robust signal processing techniques for landmines detection and identification. Different approaches developed at the Royal Military Academy in order to demonstrate the possibility of enhancing close‐range landmine detection and identification using ground‐penetrating radar under laboratory and outdoor conditions are summarized here. Data acquired using different affordable and practical GPR‐based systems are used to validate a number of promising developments in signal processing techniques for target detection and identification. 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The theory of the chain, in the shape of a hanging collar, was proposed by Robert Hooke (1676) and used by Christopher Wren in Saint Paul’s dome (1675). British school modern mechanic theory was introduced in Spain by Spanish Bourbonic military engineers and also by the Catholic Scottish and Irish families during the eighteenth century. The assessment of some drawings of gunpowder warehouses, found in the collection of Mapas planos y Dibujos (MPD) of the General Archive of Simancas (Archivo General de Simancas, AGS) (AGS 2014), has revealed the use of the chain theory in Miguel Marín’s projects for Barcelona (1731) and Tortosa (1733) and Juan de la Feriére ones in A Coruña (1736). A built evidence has also been found: the Carlón wine cellars in Benicarló, built by the O’Connors family from Ireland (1757). The analysis of these examples proved the theory of the chain arrival to Spain during the first half of the eighteenth century.",book:{id:"8588",slug:"military-engineering",title:"Military Engineering",fullTitle:"Military Engineering"},signatures:"Josep Lluis i Ginovart",authors:null},{id:"55688",title:"The Special Case of Sea Mines",slug:"the-special-case-of-sea-mines",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, work carried out at the Royal Military Academy regarding sea mines and mine countermeasures is summarized. Three sensors used for the detection and identification of sea mines are studied here: sonar, gradiometer and infrared camera. These sensors can be applied to detect different types of sea mines. Some signal and image processing techniques developed to extract relevant information for the detection of underwater objects are presented in this chapter. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"39",type:"subseries",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, 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