Selected univariate and multivariate regression models applied to calibration data in quantitative analytical determinations [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3855",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques",title:"Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents some innovative developments in sustainable aquaculture practices in the context of environmental protection and seafood production techniques. 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One of the most critical aspects of any analytical method, if not THE most critical aspect, is the
In this introductory chapter, the author (Editor) wishes to provide some background information for the reader, toward appreciation and understanding of the relevance and necessity of the process of calibration in quantitative chemical analysis, and the equally relevant and necessary role of the process of validation, or verification, of the calibration process. The subsequent chapters of this book will deal with the (much) finer details of analytical calibration and validation in current applications to various analytical methodologies, and thus allow the reader to see the many “faces” of calibration and validation in the realm of chemical analysis.
Calibration, in its broadest sense, may be defined as the process of bringing a task, method, procedure, or some operation in general, into conformity with a set of objectives and goals that are solidly established and highly reliable; i.e., based on information that is
The term validation denotes, in general, verification of something; i.e., demonstrating by some means that an object, concept, etc. is accurate or valid [1]. In analytical chemistry, validation has the same meaning—in this case, though, the “something” to be verified is the analytical method used for analyte quantitation [3]. The calibration scheme employed in the analytical determination is particularly subject to verification, and must be, as the reliability of the analytical results produced by the determination is dependent on the reliability of the calibration expression that relates analyte signal to its concentration. Typical parameters used to validate a quantitative determination of an analyte include accuracy, precision, limits of detection and quantitation, limits of linearity of the calibration curve, dynamic range of calibration, robustness, sensitivity, and selectivity [3].
The rationale for performing a calibration of an analytical method may be stated as follows:
The rationale for carrying out a validation study of the analytical calibration may be expressed as follows:
One can say that the process of calibration has many ‘faces”. There is a myriad of possible approaches to the design and analysis of calibration schemes; all one has to do is peruse the published, peer-reviewed literature of analytical chemistry to get an idea of the breadth and depth of calibration methods that have been developed and subsequently implemented for a variety of quantitative analytical determinations over many years. Two aspects of the calibration process in chemical analysis, particularly, are critical to the development and implementation of calibration schemes for analytical methods. These aspects are:
The design of the method, which would include such considerations as the number of analytes to be determined, the number of blanks and non-zero standards, the matrix of the blanks and standards, the concentration range of each analyte, and application of the method to univariate (one variable) or multivariate (more than one variable) data.
The mathematical/statistical treatment of the calibration data (i.e., analyte signals and concentrations) that will yield a logical, workable relationship between signal and concentration.
Let us now discuss briefly the aforementioned items as they apply to calibration and validation of analytical methods.
A calibration scheme may consist of as few as two standards (a blank sample containing no known analyte plus a standard sample containing a known, non-zero quantity of analyte) to a series of standards (at least one blank sample and many standards containing known, and varying, amounts of the analyte) in which the analyte concentrations are arranged in order of increasing concentration. The resulting calibration method may be designed so that known quantities of the analyte are added to the sample matrix, or include a non-analyte chemical species that serves as an
The external standard method is perhaps the best known and most widely used calibration method among analytical scientists. The external standard method employs a series of standards consisting of at least one blank that contains no known concentration of the sought-after analyte, and several non-zero standards containing known concentrations of the analyte and prepared in order of increasing analyte concentration. The calibration standards are prepared separate from (external to) the sample matrix, usually in a solvent, e.g., water, and containing the reagents used in sample preparation. The measured signals of the blank and non-zero standards are adjusted for the blank signal to yield a signal that reflects the signal due only to the analyte [3, 4]. The resulting blank-adjusted signals for the calibration standards are then regressed on the corresponding analyte concentrations to yield a calibration equation that is useful for determination of the concentration of the desired analyte in the unknown samples. If the analyte signal (I)-concentration (C) relationship is, e.g., first-order (i.e., “straight line”) linear with a slope m, the resulting calibration function will be of the form given by Eq. (1) [3]:
The blank-corrected signals of the standards may also be plotted versus the corresponding analyte concentrations, as illustrated in Figure 1. The calibration equation for this plot is shown on the plot itself.
An example of a first-order linear calibration curve for determination of aluminum by the spectrophotometric Eriochrome Cyanine R method (courtesy of original research of the author, November 2015).
This approach is employed mostly with samples that possess a component which yields a signal that interferes with the signal due to the analyte [3, 5, 6]. The method of standard addition involves direct addition (i.e., spiking) of known amounts of the analyte, usually as aliquots of a stock or working standard solution of the analyte, into equal-volume portions or aliquots of the sample itself. One of the sample aliquots is unspiked (i.e., no analyte added above what may already be in the sample), while the other aliquots are spiked with increasing amounts of the analyte, analogous to the scheme used for an external standard calibration. The effect of this addition of known amounts of the analyte to the aliquots of sample is to increase the signal due to the analyte in order to surmount the signal from the interfering species. The measured analyte signals of the unspiked and spiked sample aliquots are then regressed against the corresponding concentrations of spiked analyte to yield a calibration function that is utilized for determination of analyte concentration in the original sample by calculation of analyte concentration at zero signal. The standard addition method is used primarily to determine analytes in samples that contain chemical components which interfere with the signal produced by the analyte. An example of a standard addition plot is depicted in Figure 2.
An example of a standard addition calibration curve for determination of iron in mine drainage by the colorimetric Ferene-S method (courtesy of original research of the author and former students, November 2010).
The internal standard method makes use of addition of a chemical species, different from the analyte, in a constant amount to calibration standards, blanks, and samples involved in the quantitative determination of the analyte [2, 3]. A ratio of the analyte signal (IA,S) to the internal standard signal (IIS,S) is calculated for the blank and each standard. Likewise, a ratio of the analyte concentration (CA,S) to the internal standard concentration (CIS,S) is calculated for each standard (including the blank) in the calibration set. The signal ratios (IA,S/IIS,S) are then plotted against the concentration ratios (CA,S/CIS,S) to produce a calibration curve and its calibration equation of the form given by Eq. (2):
In Eq. (2), m is the slope of the calibration function. The internal standard method is used for irreproducible amounts of sample, varying signals from determination to determination, or losses of sample occurring during sample preparation.
For sets of data/results, the term
Regression method | Univariate/multivariate mode |
---|---|
Ordinary least-squares (OLS)
| Univariate (simple OLS, multiple OLS) Multivariate (multivariate OLS) |
Stepwise | Univariate/multivariate |
Weighted | Univariate/multivariate |
Principal component (PCR) | Univariate/multivariate (usually, one dependent variable regressed on multiple independent variables) |
Partial least-squares (PLS)
| Univariate (PLS-1) Multivariate (PLS-2) |
Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) | Multivariate |
Ridge | Univariate |
Lasso | Univariate |
Regression trees | Univariate/multivariate |
Artificial neural networks (ANN) | Univariate/multivariate |
Without the means to assess the reliability (i.e., accuracy and precision) of the calibration scheme used for quantitative determination of an interesting analyte, the calibration curve employed for quantitation of the analyte
Various statistical parameters and methods have been developed over the years to accomplish the task of performing assessments of the reliability of calibration schemes used in quantitative analyses. These parameters examine such aspects of calibration schemes as the linearity of the resulting calibration curve, the goodness of fit of the regression model to the experimental calibration data, the precision of the calibration slope, and the standard errors of calibration (SEC) and prediction (SEP) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13], among other quantities. Such statistical parameters as the regression equation (i.e., slope (m) and y-intercept (b)), square of the Pearson correlation coefficient (R2), and standard error of the regression (sr) are among the assessors of calibration performance for a univariate case (i.e., an analyte signal dependent on a corresponding analyte concentration, or vice versa) [2, 3, 4, 8], and are parameters that are usually an undergraduate chemist’s first exposure to calibration and validation in a quantitative analysis course. As those involved in data analysis know (all too well), there is much more to consider regarding calibration and validation methodologies. For both univariate and multivariate calibrations, parameters such as
Calibrations models are usually designed using two sets of response (dependent) variable and predictor (independent) variable data: a
In cases for which there might be a paucity of data available to perform a thorough evaluation of the calibration model, a method known as
This method uses training sets with a set number of objects randomly selected from the available data set. A calibration model is developed from the training set and subsequently applied to the objects in the available data set that are not part of the training set. This process yields corresponding prediction values and their associated errors. The process is then repeated many (sometimes up to 1000) times. Two advantages of the bootstrap method are an uncomplicated approach and having the same number of objects in the training set; some disadvantages are labor-intensive calculations, the possibility of unequal consideration of all objects in the available data, and results that are sometimes overly optimistic [11].
Let us not forget about other parameters that are useful for validation of the analytical method itself. These are the so-called “figures of merit” [2, 3, 4]—the accuracy (i.e., bias) and precision (i.e., standard deviation) of the analytical results, limits of detection (LOD), quantitation (LOQ), and linearity (LOL), the dynamic range (the range of concentration linear with signal from the LOQ to the LOL; i.e., LOL/LOQ), sensitivity, and selectivity [2, 3, 4]. All of these parameters for method validation are ultimately connected, and traceable, to the calibration scheme employed for quantitation of sought-after analytes using an analytical method or technique.
In this book on calibration and validation of analytical methods are a collection of research and review chapters on various applications and other aspects of calibration and validation in chemical analysis. In these highly interesting chapters, one can see the many and varied “faces” of calibration and validation revealing themselves to the reader, waiting to be studied and utilized by interested researchers. A quick glimpse of these “faces” should provide the reader with a preview of what is in store as one explores the content of this book:
The impact of factorial design and machine learning strategies on pharmaceutical analysis
Multivariate calibration methods applied to development of vibrational spectroscopic methods
Approaches to method validation for pharmaceutical assessments, using high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC)
A review of criteria for assessment of analytical method reliability
Using internal standards for quantitation of proteins in biological matrices by LC-MS/MS
Calibration methods for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
Analytical method validation, presented in the context of laboratory competence and generation of reliable analytical results
I anticipate that the reader will find this assemblage of chapters dealing with analytical method calibration and validation useful as well as interesting, and possibly inspiring some ideas for future studies.
This introductory chapter to this book on calibration and validation of analytical methods was written to provide the reader with a general overview of a sort on the topics of calibration and validation as applied to problems in chemical analysis. This included a general explanation of calibration and validation, the importance of these topics in quantitative analysis, and a rationale for their use in analytical chemistry. Also presented were overviews on calibration and regression methods, and validation parameters and methods for calibration schemes and analytical results. Finally, a glimpse of the subsequent chapters in this text was given. This introductory chapter is meant to be general in scope; the reader will get much more detail in the following research and review chapters. Thus, I invite the reader to explore the following chapters to see the various “faces” of analytical method calibration and validation.
The author thanks the University of Pittsburgh—Greensburg for its support of my efforts as Editor of this book, and for encouragement in writing the introductory chapter. Special thanks are due my colleague, Associate Professor of Statistics Dr. Dean Nelson for many interesting discussions on data analysis, to my Administrative Assistant Mrs. Valerie Kubenko for her assistance and encouragement, to all my former and current students in my introductory analytical chemistry, instrumental analysis, and introduction to chemometrics courses for all their ideas and interest in analytical data treatment, to the Pittcon Short Courses Committee for the opportunity to present my short courses on analytical data treatment at this conference since 2009, and finally, but by no means least, to my wife Resa for all her encouragement, love, and support.
According to Gillam [1], one of the challenges facing the clinician when examining a patient complaining of different types of dental pain is that the patient may be suffering from both physical or emotional discomfort. This may be very traumatic to them in terms of being unable to cope, resulting in the loss of sleep and work as well as in an economic cost to the health care provider [2, 3, 4]. This in turn may present difficulties for the clinician in determining a correct diagnosis of the cause of the patient’s pain. The importance of differentiating these different types of oro-facial pain based on the patient’s presenting clinical features and a thorough medical and dental history is a key to the successful management of the patient’s pain [1]. Furthermore, it should be recognized that pain is subjective in nature and is pertinent to the individual’s own perception of pain, which may also be influenced by several factors such as a previous history of pain, anticipation, or fear of the proposed dental treatment. Although dentine hypersensitivity (DH) may not be as severe as some of the other oro-facial conditions, it is a relatively common condition, which has an impact on the individual patient’s well-being and quality of life (QoL) [5]. There have been concerns regarding the awareness and confidence of clinicians to diagnose and successfully manage DH [1, 6, 7]. To address these concerns, several management and preventive strategies have been suggested to provide practical guidelines for clinicians [6, 8, 9, 10]. These guidelines include identifying the cause of the patient’s presenting problem based on a good medical and dental history with a thorough clinical examination using the appropriate diagnostic tests when distinguishing DH from other forms of oro-facial pain. Recommendations for the management of DH also included the importance of removing the aetiological and pre-disposing features to prevent further episodes of pain associated with DH to alleviate the impact on the patient’s QoL. The use and/or recommendations of the appropriate in-office (professionally applied) or over the counter (OTC; at-home) products and/or techniques depending on the severity of the problem should also be included in the clinician’s management strategy. The importance of a management plan that includes both a preventive strategy to reduce further damage to both the hard and soft tissues of the mouth, and with a monitoring component within the plan cannot be overstated [10]. This chapter, therefore, covers the relevant aspects for diagnosing and managing DH with an emphasis on adopting a preventive strategy that will attempt to minimize or eliminate the problem, thereby enabling the patient to have an improved QoL.
The published prevalence figures for dentine hypersensitivity range from approximately 1% to over 70% depending on how the figures are collected. For example, data from questionnaire studies report a higher prevalence of the condition, whereas data from clinical studies that examine the patient provide lower prevalence figures. The information from these types of studies may also depend on the location (university or hospital clinics, general dental practice, or specialist practice such as restorative or periodontics) and the country or culture of the population. For example, the traditional prevalence figures for DH
According to the findings of the Canadian Advisory Board on Dentin Hypersensitivity [6], 14 knowledge gaps were identified from the survey of participating clinicians, and these were classified as relating to either the causes and diagnosis or the management of the condition. It was evident from these findings that the prevalence of DH was underestimated, and this was due in part to the lack of routine screening for the condition by clinicians. Less than 50% of the participants considered a differential diagnosis to eliminate other dental conditions with similar pain characteristics to those of DH. There was also confusion regarding the nature of the predisposing factors associated with DH as well a misunderstanding of how desensitizing products work (mechanism of action). Furthermore, about 50% of the participants indicated that they lacked confidence in treating DH effectively with a similar percentage indicating that they would try to modify any predisposing factors prior to further treatment. A recent review of questionnaire studies on the awareness of DH by clinicians indicated that there are still areas of concern in the understanding of the underlying principles involved in the management of DH [7].
The currently accepted mechanism associated with DH as proposed by Brännström and Åström is hydrodynamic in nature [15]. This theory relies on minute fluid movements within the dentinal tubules in response to an external stimulus such as cold air or water to initiate pain in the dental pulp. There is also
The etiology of DH/RS is multifactorial in nature, and it is evident that the structure of dentine is altered because of a combination of the associated pre-disposing factors, which may include anatomical factors such as tooth position, quality of the buccal plate, and so on. For example, once the overlying hard and soft tissues have been removed exposing the underlying dentine surface through gingival recession, tooth surface loss through attrition, abrasion and possibly abfraction, over-zealous toothbrushing techniques, the effects of periodontal disease and its subsequent treatment, then these factors may play a part in widening the open dentinal tubules through erosion with the combination of over-zealous toothbrushing techniques. An epidemiological study in a population of young adults aged 18–35 years by West et al. [14] reported that there was a link between a healthy erosive diet and lifestyle and toothwear with DH.
Pain associated with DH is considered transient in nature and once the initiating stimulus, such as cold air from a dental air syringe or a cold drink, has been removed, the problem will have been resolved. The clinical features of DH as reported in the published literature primarily deal with the features associated with DH in patients with a well-maintained oral hygiene rather than clinical features associated with RS
Clinical features of a patient with gingival recession and dentine hypersensitivity (Acknowledgement N. Pandya [
It is important to recognize that two broad categories of patients attend a dental clinic: (1) patients who are regular attenders and have an established relationship with the clinician, and (2) patients who have not been previously attending a dental practice but may have decided to attend due to a dental problem such as toothache, esthetic concerns, or other dental problems which have arisen. In the first category of patients, the clinician will be aware of their personal medical and treatment history and to some extent, the consultation period including the examination may be straightforward. For example, a patient who has recently received dental treatment such as restoration of a tooth or had their teeth professionally cleaned may be experiencing discomfort from these procedures and such a problem can be swiftly identified and treated [16]. Patients who have not previously attended a dental practice, however, may require a more prolonged consultation to obtain the relevant medical, dental, and social history prior to the clinical examination and subsequent diagnosis of DH.
For patients with a more obscure orofacial problem, a persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP) may require a more extensive examination and it is advisable for the clinician to refer these patients to a Specialist Oral Medicine/Pain clinic [16].
Prior to a clinical examination, the clinician should obtain medical, dental, social, and dietary histories to supplement the information collected during the clinical examination and any subsequent tests such as radiographs. During the initial consultation, it is important to ask the patient why they have arranged the appointment. Toothache is one of the most common of oro-facial pains that prompts a patient to visit a dentist and where possible the clinician should determine the nature of the problem, the location of the pain (if the patient is able to pinpoint the exact location), duration, intensity, and any factors that may intensify or relieve the pain. For example, the clinician can ask if the patient is able to continue their daily activities such as eating, drinking, brushing their teeth without any discomfort. One suggestion would be to use visual analogue scale (VAS) scores (0-10), verbal descriptors, or Quality of Life Questionnaires (QoL) to determine the severity of the discomfort the patient is experiencing, and any impact DH/RS may have the patient’s QoL [5]. The clinical examination will involve a thorough evaluation of the patient’s oral status including a Basic Periodontal Examination (BSP) and a Basic Erosive Wear Assessment (BEWE) to determine the degree of tooth surface loss [10].
During the clinical examination, clinicians will use a dental explorer probe and air from a triple air syringe to screen any sensitive areas on the exposed cervical/root region. If the patient is prone to DH, then this mechanical or evaporative/thermal stimulus will elicit a response from the patient [1]. The response to these stimuli will be varied depending on the individual’s pain threshold and subjective perception of pain. This pain should be transient in nature, in that once the stimulus has been removed, the pain will be resolved. If the pain, however, is continuous in nature, then this may indicate that the problem is related to other dental problems such as dental caries, which will require more extensive testing using an ice stick, ethyl chloride, pulp testers, and so on to evaluate the status of the dental pulp (pulp vitality testing). A simple test at this stage of the initial evaluation for DH is to (1) ask the patient to indicate their perception of the pain they are experiencing with DH following blowing cold air on the tooth (or teeth) in question using a VAS score, (2) apply a varnish to the affected site of the identified tooth (or teeth), and (3) retest the tooth (or teeth) in question using cold air from a dental air syringe and ask the patient to indicate their pain perception using a VAS score. If there is an improvement in the VAS scores, then this may indicate that the initial diagnosis of the patient’s problem was DH (see management section).
According to Gillam [7], there are a variety of methodological approaches used in the dental clinic to identify (diagnose) DH such as tactile, evaporative, and thermal stimulation using cold air from a dental triple syringe as well as the patient’s self-reporting (VAS, patient history, etc.). An example of the range of methodological approaches recommended or used by clinicians can be observed in Figure 2 [18]. The use of these methodological approaches may, however, be difficult to justify [19].
Diagnostic steps used by clinicians to identify DH (Acknowledgement Exarchou et al. [
A useful device to aid clinicians in determining both a provision and definitive is the use of mnemonics such as ‘LOCATE’ or ‘SOCRATES’. This will help to ascertain the relevant information to identify the patient’s problem by asking the following questions:
Pain characteristics: What were the symptoms relating to pain experienced by the patient?
Location of the pain: Was the pain localized or generalized in nature and can the patient point to the site of the problem?
Pain onset: Was the patient able to relate to the clinician when the pain started?
Pain duration: Was the pain transient or long lasting in nature?
Pattern of pain: Was the patient able to recall the pattern of the pain?
Pain severity: What was the severity of pain and did it vary?
Relieving factors: Are there factors that relieve or worsen the pain such as the application of cold or heat, medication, changing position (lying down), and so on?
Associated factors: Are there any other factors that you might be aware of when you are experiencing pain?
The clinician, however, should be aware that depending on the longevity and severity of the patient’s pain, and particularly from severe toothache, they may have difficulties recalling some of these features due to being unable to cope with pain before attending the clinic [2].
The classic definition of DH was based on specific wording as ‘pain derived from exposed dentine in response to chemical, thermal tactile or osmotic stimuli which cannot be explained as arising from any other dental defect or disease’ [6]. In other words, DH is in essence a diagnosis of exclusion based on both the history of the problem and a clinical examination to exclude other forms of oro-facial pain and as such a thorough clinical examination together with a medical and dental history of the patient should enable the clinician to come to a correct diagnosis [1, 20].
There are, however, several problems facing the clinician when investigating oro-facial pain, for example, the time taken to identify the areas in the mouth causing the discomfort as well as the highly subjective nature of the pain response [20]. The clinician is, therefore, reliant not only on the patient’s self-reporting of the history of DH but also on the information that they have accumulated through their own analysis of the problem (medical, dental, and social history together with a thorough clinical examination, which may require further evaluation). For example, patients who have recently received restorative, bleaching, and periodontal procedures within the last few weeks before attending the clinic may in fact be suffering from post-operative sensitivity and this should be relatively easy to identify and reassure the patient that the pain should resolve within 4-6 weeks and if not to return for further investigation. For new patients or those with a recent complaint of DH, the clinician will spend more time discussing the problem with the patient, trying to determine the history of the problem using some of the diagnostic tests indicated in Figure 2. The clinician should be aware that as DH is an exaggerated response of the normal pulp-dentine, the patient may only be aware of the problem once an external stimulus such as a cold stimulus (cold air from a dental triple syringe, suction from a high-volume suction, etc.). The evidence identified during this process may enable to provide a provisional diagnosis of DH.
According to the Canadian Advisory Board on Dentin Hypersensitivity [6], there is a major problem in the diagnosis of DH where ≤50% of the clinicians participating in the survey considered using a differential diagnosis to eliminate other dental conditions with similar pain characteristics to those of DH. Other studies have also reported on the apparent reluctance by clinicians to consider in this aspect of the management of DH [7].
One of the reasons for this reluctance in making a definitive diagnosis of DH may be the complexity and time required to eliminate the other dental conditions that have similar pain characteristics to DH such as reversible and irreversible pulpitis, dental abscess, cracked tooth syndrome, periodontal disease, pericoronitis, idiopathic oral facial pain, and post-operative sensitivity [18] (Figure 2). It is, therefore, important for the clinician to make a definitive diagnosis of DH before undertaking any treatment of the patient’s problem. A useful summary of selected oro-facial conditions with their pain characteristics and presenting features is shown in Table 1 [20].
Aetiology | Pain character and timing | Pain intensity | Proving factors | Relieving factors | Associated features |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dentine hypersensitivity | Sharp, stabbing, stimulation evoked | Mild to moderate | Thermal, tactile, chemical, osmotic | Removal of the stimulus | Attrition, erosion, abrasion, abfraction |
Atypical odontalgia (persistent dentoalveolar pain) | Continuous, no paroxysmal, dull, aching and throbbing but occasionally sharp | Mild to moderate | Touch, heat and cold | Sleep and rest Topical agents: lidocaine, capsaicin. Systemic agents: antidepressants | May have no obvious clinical features |
Reversible pulpitis | Sharp, stimulation evoked | Mild to moderate | Hot, cold, sweet | Removal of the stimulus | Caries, restorations |
Irreversible pulpitis | Sharp, throbbing, intermittent/continuous | Severe | Hot, chewing, lying flat | Cold in the late stages | Deep caries |
Cracked tooth syndrome | Sharp intermittent | Moderate to severe | Biting, ‘rebound pain’ | — | Trauma, parafunction |
Periapical periodontitis | Deep, continuous boring | Moderate to severe | Biting | Removal of trauma | Periapical redness, swelling, mobility |
Lateral periodontal abscess | Deep continuous aching | Moderate to severe | Biting | — | Deep pockets redness and swelling |
Pericoronitis | Continuous | Moderate to severe | Biting | Removal of trauma | Fever, malaise, imprint of upper tooth |
Dry socket (acute alveolar osteitis | Continuous 4–5 days post-extraction | Moderate to severe | — | Irrigation | Loss of clot, exposed bone |
Differential diagnosis of dental pain (modified acknowledgement Aghabeigi [20]).
Once a definitive diagnosis has been determined, the clinician can then formulate a management strategy to treat the condition. The complexity of this treatment plan will depend on (1) on the extent and severity of the problem, (2) the willingness of the patient to comply with the recommendations provided by the clinician, and (3) the ability of the clinician to successfully diagnose the problem and provide the appropriate treatment including preventative strategies. Broadly speaking, the initial treatment will be either (1) professionally applied (in-office treatment) such as a fluoride varnish or more invasive strategy (composite, laser, periodontal surgery) for localized severe DH, or (2) patient applied/at home [over the counter treatment (OTC)] such as an OTC toothpaste for a mild-moderate discomfort (see Table 2 for examples). The clinician should also be aware of the impact of DH on the QoL of the patient and it is important for the clinician to monitor whether the recommended treatment has improved the patient’s QoL. For example, can the patient continue their daily routine of eating, drinking and oral hygiene practices without any interruption to their daily activities.
Gingival recession | Tooth wear | Periodontal treatment |
---|---|---|
Clinical evaluation
| Clinical evaluation
| Clinical evaluation
|
Patient education (including preventive advice)
| Patient education (including preventive advice)
| Patient education (including preventive advice)
|
Corrective clinical outcomes
| Corrective clinical outcomes
| Corrective clinical outcomes Initial phase Non-surgical periodontal procedure(s). DH treatment (including desensitizing polishing pastes/Fluoride varnishes) Re-evaluation Follow-up assessment on periodontal status and dentine hypersensitivity Corrective phase
Maintenance phase
|
Recommendations for home use (including toothpaste/mouth rinses)
| Recommendations for home use (including toothpaste/mouth rinses)
| Recommendations for home use (including toothpaste/mouth rinses)
|
Overall management strategy options for treating DH (Acknowledgement Gillam et al. [10] modified).
Several investigators have recommended treatment algorithms to help the clinician mange DH successfully [6, 8, 10]. An example of one of these algorithms is displayed inFigure 3 based on the recommendations from a UK Guidelines workshop, London, UK [10]. An important aspect of these guidelines was the recognition that the management of DH should be based on the presenting features of the problem rather than simply providing a blanket treatment plan to cover all aspects of DH. For example, three categories were presented for the clinician to consider: (1) patients with gingival recession in a well-maintained mouth, (2) patients with a tooth wear problem, and (3) patients with a periodontal problem (Table 2) [10]. This concept was utilized and developed by Gillam and Koyi [21] covering six clinical case scenarios in dealing with oro-facial pain with specific clinical presentations.
Selected responses from participants on what other dental conditions should be excluded when determining a differential diagnosis (Acknowledgement Exarchou et al. [
The management of DH can therefore involve both simple and complex cases to treat and it is important that the clinician is aware of both their expectations of success and the patient’s expectation of resolving their pain. There may be times when this aspiration can only be partially met to the satisfaction of both parties. The clinician should avoid simply handing out or recommending a treatment or technique without identifying the aetiological factors that initiated the problem in the first place. One of the concerns from the Canadian Advisory Board on Dentin Hypersensitivity [6] was whether clinicians had the confidence in the products that they recommended for treatment. This concern has also been highlighted by several investigators and it appears that this issue is still a matter of concern [7, 19].
Depending on the severity of the problem, the following products and techniques can be suggested (see Table 2). The question as to whether these products or techniques are effective in the treatment of DH has been the subject of several systematic reviews and meta-analysis [22, 23, 24, 25].
The importance of a preventive strategy for minimizing further episodes of DH cannot be overstated. It is not enough to simply provide a patient with a treatment such as a toothpaste or composite restoration without first eliminating or at least minimizing the aetiological or predisposing features that initiated the problem in the first place. This aspect will involve reviewing the clinical features implicated with the condition such as patients with a healthy mouth or patients with a periodontal or restorative problems. For example, patients with a healthy, plaque-free mouth may be over-zealous, or an enthusiastic brusher with a healthy diet that may include acidic drinks will need advice on modifying their tooth brushing technique and minimizing the effects of dietary acids. The patient with a periodontal or restorative problem will require more extensive and prolonged treatment and perhaps one way of initially alleviating post-operative pain following this treatment would be to apply a desensitizing polishing paste or dental varnish [16].
Traditionally, clinicians expect their patients to change their health behavior, which is a philosophy based on a top-down approach (clinician directed) where the patient was provided information that was considered beneficial to them by the clinician. This philosophy, however, not only failed to empower the patient but was also ineffective in motivating the patient to initiate any behavior changes to improve their health and well-being. It is, therefore, important for the clinician to adopt management strategies and goals that will effectively encourage the patient to take individual responsibility to initiate these behavioral changes in the lifestyle of their patients. According to Gillam and Ramseier [26], the introduction of patient-centred approaches such as Motivational Interviewing is ideal for motivating patients in dental practice. It is acknowledged, however, that for many clinicians, this approach may be difficult to implement, due to time constraints, although the process could be continued over several visits as in the periodontal maintenance phase [27]. There are several factors to consider when developing a strategy using this approach, for example, (1) the extent and severity of the patient’s problem, (2) acquiring the patient’s permission to discuss any proposed changes, (3) the availability of the patient and their willingness to engage with the consultation process, (4) the rapport between the patient and clinician, (5) the willingness of the patient to reflect on the proposed changes and to weigh up the advantages/disadvantages and decide whether to accept or reject these proposals, (6) the patient’s motivation to initiate these changes and subsequently adhere (comply) to the recommended changes to their behavior, and (7) the frequency of monitoring during the maintenance phase and subsequent reinforcement strategy in monitoring the patient’s progress [26, 27].
According to Gillam ([20] modified), the following key points may be useful in ascertaining whether a patient has DH and how much it impacts on their QoL and should enable the clinician not only to manage the problem in a structured manner but also to encourage to take personal ownership of their oral health by making the necessary changes/modifications in their behavior.
Ask patients if they have a history of DH
Ask patients if it is a current problem
Does it impact on their QoL? If ‘Yes’, ask them to elaborate on the extent and severity of the problem
Examine the patient for DH, particularly the buccal (facial) surfaces of the standing teeth using a probe and an air-blast from a dental triple syringe.
A good history of the complaint is important, listen to the patient and examine areas where the dentine is exposed, identify any aetiological and predisposing factors. Listen to the patient; they will give you the diagnosis.
The use of diet sheets will help in identifying potential risk factors in the diet (diet analysis).
Have a basic understanding of the mechanisms associated with dentine hypersensitivity, in particular, the Hydrodynamic Theory and its importance in choosing a suitable OTC/professionally applied product when treating the patient.
Educate the patient, indicating where they can reduce the impact of DH on their QoL, modifying their toothbrush technique, using a less abrasive toothpaste and avoiding consuming acidic food and drinks particularly around the time of brushing.
Encourage the patient to take ownership of their oral health to allow for any behavior changes to reduce the impact of DH on the QoL when undertaking their day-to day activities (Consider the use of Motivational Interviewing).
Remember there is no one treatment or procedure that will resolve all your patient’s problems and that simply providing a toothpaste or in-office procedure alone without correcting or modifying any underlining predisposing features that initiated the problem will not resolve the problem in the long term.
Apply the guidelines outlined in this chapter; in your practice, monitor patients DH within your practice’s recall procedure(s), avoid simply handing out or recommending dental products expecting the problem to resolve, without any further intervention by the clinician.
Use the algorithm (or similar examples; see references) illustrated in this chapter to aid you in the management of DH. It may be that despite all your efforts the patient still has oro-facial pain. The steps outlined in the algorithm will enable you to revisit the diagnosis of DH, which may result in further investigations to determine the cause (reversible/irreversible pulpitis) or a referral to a specialist oral medicine clinic if the problem is of a non-dental origin such as idiopathic facial pain (PIFP).
DH is an enigmatic dental condition that is often discounted or underdiagnosed by clinicians who may fail to appreciate its impact on the QoL of their patients, and therefore, screening for the problem should be included in a clinical examination.
Clinicians should recognize it is a diagnosis of exclusion and all other possible causes of the pain should be ruled out. This will require the clinician to collate the relevant medical, dental, social, and diet history from the patient, which will supplement the clinical examination. It is important for clinicians to acknowledge that the management is not just based on providing or recommending OTC products or in-office therapies and procedures but on the removal or modification of any predisposing feature together with involving the patient to make changes in their own behavior to minimize the impact of DH on their QoL.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69501",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:"Design of experiment is the method, which is used at a very large scale to study the experimentations of industrial processes. It is a statically approach where we develop the mathematical models through experimental trial runs to predict the possible output on the basis of the given input data or parameters. The aim of this chapter is to stimulate the engineering community to apply Taguchi technique to experimentation, the design of experiments, and to tackle quality problems in industrial chemical processes that they deal with. Based on years of research and applications, Dr. G. Taguchi has standardized the methods for each of these DOE application steps. Thus, DOE using Taguchi approach has become a much more attractive tool to practicing engineers and scientists. And since the last four decades, there were limitations when conventional experimental design techniques were applied to industrial experimentation. And Taguchi, also known as orthogonal array design, adds a new dimension to conventional experimental design. Taguchi method is a broadly accepted method of DOE, which has proven in producing high-quality products at subsequently low cost.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"14634",doi:"10.5772/15998",title:"The Application of FT-IR Spectroscopy in Waste Management",slug:"the-application-of-ft-ir-spectroscopy-in-waste-management",totalDownloads:6635,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1574",slug:"fourier-transforms-new-analytical-approaches-and-ftir-strategies",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - New Analytical Approaches and FTIR Strategies"},signatures:"Ena Smidt, Katharina Böhm and Manfred Schwanninger",authors:[{id:"20376",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Böhm",slug:"katharina-bohm",fullName:"Katharina Böhm"},{id:"22840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ena",middleName:null,surname:"Smidt",slug:"ena-smidt",fullName:"Ena Smidt"},{id:"22915",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Schwanninger",slug:"manfred-schwanninger",fullName:"Manfred Schwanninger"}]},{id:"15157",doi:"10.5772/15959",title:"Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for the Molecular Level Characterization of Natural Organic Matter: Instrument Capabilities, Applications, and Limitations",slug:"fourier-transform-mass-spectrometry-for-the-molecular-level-characterization-of-natural-organic-matt",totalDownloads:4331,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"122",slug:"fourier-transforms-approach-to-scientific-principles",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - Approach to Scientific Principles"},signatures:"Rachel L. 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In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:5398,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:"Experimental design plays an important role in several areas of science and industry. Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"60864",title:"Statistical Methodology for Evaluating Business Cycles with the Conditions of Their Synchronization and Harmonization",slug:"statistical-methodology-for-evaluating-business-cycles-with-the-conditions-of-their-synchronization-",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The importance of the topic of business cycle research and their interaction is due to the fact that the cyclical nature of development is a universal feature of the market economy (regardless of the level of development of the country’s economy and the principles of its organization). In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6815,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82378",title:"Covers and Properties of Families of Real Functions",slug:"covers-and-properties-of-families-of-real-functions",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100555",abstract:"We present results on the relationships of the covering property GΦΨ for Φ,Ψ∈OΛΩΓ and G∈S1SfinUfin of a topological space and the selection property GΦ0Ψ0 of the corresponding family of real functions. The result already published are presented without a proof, however with a citation of the corresponding paper. We present a general Theorem that covers almost all the result of this kind. Some results about hereditary properties are enclosed. We also present Scheepers Diagram of considered covering properties for uncountable covers.",book:{id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg"},signatures:"Lev Bukovský"},{id:"82356",title:"Geometric Properties of Classical Yang-Mills Theory on Differentiable Manifolds",slug:"geometric-properties-of-classical-yang-mills-theory-on-differentiable-manifolds",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105399",abstract:"Gauge theories make up a class of physical theories that attempt to describe the physics of particles at a fundamental level. The purpose here is to study Yang-Mills theory at the classical level in terms of the geometry of fiber bundles and differentiable manifolds. It is shown how fundamental particles of bosonic and fermionic nature can be described mathematically. The Lagrangian for the basic interactions is presented and then put together in a unified form. Finally, some basic theorems are proved for a Yang-Mills on compact four-dimensional manifolds.",book:{id:"11502",title:"Manifolds - Recent Developments and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Bracken"},{id:"82335",title:"Straight Rectangular Waveguide for Circular Dielectric Material in the Cross Section and for Complementary Shape of the Cross Section",slug:"straight-rectangular-waveguide-for-circular-dielectric-material-in-the-cross-section-and-for-complem",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104815",abstract:"This chapter presents wave propagation along a straight rectangular waveguide for practical applications where there are two complementary shapes of the dielectric profile in the cross section. In the first case, the cross section consists of circular dielectric material in the center of the cross section. In the second case, the cross section consists of a circular hollow core in the center of the cross section. These examples show two discontinuous cross sections and complementary shapes that cannot be solved by analytical methods. We will explain in detail the special technique for calculating the dielectric profile for all cases. The method is based on Laplace and Fourier transforms and inverse Laplace and Fourier transform. In order to solve any inhomogeneous problem in the cross section, more than one technique can be proposed for the same mode-model method. We will explain in detail how and where the technique can be integrated into the proposed mode-model. The image method and periodic replication are needed for fulfilling the boundary condition of the metallic waveguide. The applications are useful for straight rectangular waveguides in millimeter regimes, where the circular dielectric material is located in the center of the cross section, and also for hollow waveguides, where the circular hollow core is located in the center of the cross section.",book:{id:"11150",title:"Recent Advances of Wavelet Transform and Their Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11150.jpg"},signatures:"Zion Menachem"},{id:"82204",title:"Some Solvability Problems of Differential Equations in Non-standard Sobolev Spaces",slug:"some-solvability-problems-of-differential-equations-in-non-standard-sobolev-spaces",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104918",abstract:"In this chapter an m-th order elliptic equation is considered in Sobolev spaces generated by the norm of a grand Lebesgue space. Subspaces are determined in which the shift operator is continuous, and local solvability (in the strong sense) is established in these subspaces. It is established an interior and up-to boundary Schauder-type estimates with respect to these Sobolev spaces for m-th order elliptic operators, the trace of functions and trace operator are determined, the boundedness of trace operator and the extension theorem are proved, the properties of the Riesz potential are studied regarding these Sobolev spaces, etc. It is considered a second-order elliptic equation, and we study the Fredholmness of the Dirichlet problem in the Sobolev space generated by a separable subspace of the grand Lebesgue space. It is also considered one spectral problem for a discontinuous second-order differential operator and proved the theorem on the basicity of eigenfunctions of this operator in subspace of Morrey space, in which the infinitely differentiable functions with compact support are dense.",book:{id:"11149",title:"Differential Equations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11149.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Bilalov, Sabina Sadigova and Zaur Kasumov"},{id:"82011",title:"Spatial Statistics in Vector-Borne Diseases",slug:"spatial-statistics-in-vector-borne-diseases",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104953",abstract:"Vector-borne diseases are those caused by the bite of an infected arthropod, such as the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which can infect humans with dengue or Zika. Spatial statistics is an interesting tool that is currently implemented to predict and analyze the behavior of biological systems or natural phenomena. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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