Various techniques adapted to control fouling.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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It has numerous applications varying from industrial to home appliances. This book is an outcome of contributions and inspirations from many researchers in the field of PID control. The book consists of two parts; the first is related to the implementation of PID control in various applications whilst the second part concentrates on the tuning of PID control to get best performance. We hope that this book can be a valuable aid for new research in the field of PID control in addition to stimulating the research in the area of PID control toward better utilization in our life.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-166-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6003-8",doi:"10.5772/652",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"pid-control-implementation-and-tuning",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"85fa6169048e8bdeb686e8c50cdce0d7",bookSignature:"Tamer Mansour",publishedDate:"April 19th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/125.jpg",numberOfDownloads:41097,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:61,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 1st 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"64880",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"tamer-mansour",fullName:"Tamer Mansour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64880/images/1636_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tamer Mansour graduated from Tohoku University at 2008. Since then, he had been involved with the Aerospace Engineering Department at Tohoku University as a visiting researcher. He had published many papers in international journals like “Advanced Robotics” and “Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics.” He served as a reviewer for “Journal of Sound and Vibration” and “Robotica.” He had the experience in teaching and assisting during the period from 1996-2004. Since October 2004, he started his Ph.D. course and finished in July 2008. During this period, he had the experience as teaching assistant and research assistant in the graduate school of Engineering in Tohoku University. 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Heating or cooling of one medium by another medium is performed in a heat exchanger along with heat dissipation from surfaces of the equipment. In course of time during operation, the equipment receives deposition (Fouling) which retards heat exchanging capability of the equipment along with enhanced pressure loss and extended pumping power. Thus accumulation of undesired substances on a surface is defined as fouling. Occurrence of fouling is observed in natural as well as synthetic systems. In the present context undesired deposits on the heat exchanger surfaces are referred to fouling. With the development of fouling the heat exchanger may deteriorate to the extent that it must be withdrawn from service for cleaning or replacement.
The overall design of heat exchanger may significantly be influenced by fouling, use of material, process parameters, and continuous service in the system or process stream are all deliberately influenced by fouling phenomena. Preventive measures of fouling are highly encouraged as it keeps the service of heat exchanger for a longer time. However many mitigation techniques of fouling are harsh to the environment. A technique involving chemicals and means benign to the environment is the most desired approach and it could elongate the cleaning interval. On the other hand unique and effective arrangements may be required to facilitate satisfactory performances between cleaning schedules. As a result fouling causes huge economic loss due to its impact on initial cost on heat exchanging operation, operating cost, mitigation measures and performance. The present study focused on fouling phenomena, fouling models, environment of fouling, consideration of heat exchanger fouling in design and mitigation of fouling.
Fouling is the resultant effect of deposition and removal of deposits on a heat exchanger surface. The process of fouling could be represented by the equation (1).
where
Various deposition and removal processes during fouling.
Various deposition and removal processes for a typical system could be predicted as shown in Figure 1. The processes occur simultaneously and depend on the operating conditions. Usually removal rates increase with increasing amounts of deposit whereas deposition rates are independent of the amount of deposit but do depend on the changes caused by deposits such as increase in flow velocity and surface roughness. In the application of constant wall temperature or constant heat transfer coefficient boundary conditions, the interface temperature decreases as deposits build up which reduces the deposition rate.
Initiation period or time delay in heat exchanger fouling is considered the time when there is no deposition for some time after a clean heat exchanger has been brought into operation. Figure 2 illustrates this in detail. The initial growth of deposit can cause the heat transfer coefficient to increase rather than decrease resulting in a fouling resistance due to changing flow characteristics near the wall. At the initial stage the deposit penetrates the viscous sub-layer, the resulting turbulence increases the film heat transfer coefficient at the solid/liquid interface by changing flow characteristics near the wall. This increase in heat transfer coefficient may overcome the thermal resistance offered by the deposits and the net heat transfer coefficient may increase.
Several authors have reported negative fouling resistances [1, 2]. This process continues until the additional heat transfer resistance overcomes the advantage of increased turbulence. The time period from the beginning of the fouling process until the fouling resistance again becomes zero is called roughness delay time [3]. The time period from the beginning, when the formation of stable crystalline nuclei and their concretion to a compact fouling layer takes place is also called as induction period, which is in fact the roughness delay time and it ends up with the increase of fouling resistance above zero level.
Typical fouling curves.
The initiation period and the roughness delay time for particulate fouling are very small [4] in comparison to the fairly long delay time for crystallization fouling [5]. After the roughness delay time, the fouling curve can be classified into three categories, (a) Linear, (b) Falling, and asymptotic, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The linear fouling curve is obtained for very strong deposits where removal is negligible or in case where the removal rate is constant (and deposition is faster than removal). The falling rate curve is obtained from decrease in deposition and deposits with lower mechanical strength. The combined effect with time causes the net deposition or fouling rate to fall. Asymptotic fouling curve has been most commonly reported for different types of fouling. The removal rate increases with time for weak deposits and can eventually become equal to the deposition rate. The net rate is then zero as depicted in Figure 2.
Linear fouling curves have been presented by many authors for crystallization fouling [6-8]. However, there is some doubt as to whether the fouling rate may remain linear for a long time. For the constant heat flux situation, the net driving force may decrease with fouling. The increase in flow velocity due to the reduced cross-sectional area with deposit formation can increase the removal rate and the linear rate may change to a falling rate or even level-off completely [9]. Asymptotic behavior for crystallization fouling has reported by various authors [10, 5, 11-12]. Cooper et al. [13] found asymptotic behavior for calcium phosphate fouling (with some particulate fouling from suspended solids). For particulate fouling, asymptotic behavior is attained because particles do not adhere strongly to the wall and can be removed easily [4, 14].
A fouling process that follows a linear rate for constant heat flux can have falling or even asymptotic behaviour for constant temperature difference. The interface temperature decreases with deposit formation because of the extra resistance offered by deposit layer and enhanced flow velocities as flow passages are partially blocked by deposits. Thus the thermal boundary conditions can result in different fouling curves which may give wrong impressions about the actual fouling mechanism.
Fouling can be categorised a number of different ways. These are (1) heat transfer service, (2) type of service fluid and (3) application. Most fouling situations are virtually unique. Fouling [15] can be classified into the following categories: (i) particulate, (ii) Precipitation, (iii) corrosion, (iv) biofouling and (v) chemical reaction.
Particulate fouling is evolved by the accumulation of solid particles suspended in the process stream onto the heat transfer surface. Heavy particles settle on a horizontal surface due to gravity and fine particles settle onto heat transfer surfaces at different inclinations due to suction force or other mechanisms. Unburned fuels or ashes deposition on boiler tubes, dust deposition on air cooled condensers etc. are examples of particulate fouling.
This kind of fouling is also called crystallization fouling. Dissolved inorganic salts are normally present in fluid used in heat exchanger. There is a maximum amount of the salt (saturated) which can be dissolved in this fluid. During heating or cooling supersaturation occurs in the dissolved inorganic salts. The inverse solubility salts such as calcium and magnesium sulphate, carbonate, silicate, etc. have less solubility in warm water up to a certain temperature than in cold water. This may occur when the process condition inside the heat exchanger is different from condition at the entrance. A stream on a wall at a temperature above that of corresponding saturation temperature for the dissolved salts allows crystal formation on the surface. Normally crystallization starts at especially active points – nucleation sites – such as scratches and pits and often after induction period spread to cover the entire surface. This type of fouling is strong and adherent and requires vigorous mechanical or chemical treatment to be removed [16]. Fouling rate increases with the increase of salt concentration or surface temperature. These are often found in heat exchangers of process industries, boilers, evaporators etc.
This type of fouling occurs when the depositions are formed as a result of chemical reaction resulting to produce a solid phase at or near the surface. In the present case carbonaceous material deposits due to thermal gradation of the components of a process stream on hot heat transfer surface. This type of fouling is often extremely tenacious and need special measure to clean off the deposits from heat exchanger surfaces to provide them satisfactory operation life [16].
This type of fouling is also caused by some chemical reaction but it is different from chemical reaction fouling. This fouling is a reactant and it is consumed. In this case, the surface reacts with the fluid and become corroded [15]. The corrosion products can foul the surface provided it is not dissolved in the solution after formation. pH value of the solution is one of the controlling parameter. Such as, presence of sulfur in fuel can cause corrosion in gas and oil fired boilers. Corrosion is often more prone in the liquid side of the heat exchanger. In some cases the product of corrosion may be swept away to downstream of a process loop and cause deposition on surfaces there.
On a heat transfer surface the growth of biological materials results in biofouling. In this case biological micro and macro organisms are stick to the heat transfer surface. When microorganisms (e.g., algae, bacteria, molds etc.) and their products grow they form microbial fouling. Seaweeds, waterweeds, barnacles develop microbial fouling. These fouling may occur simultaneously. The growth of attached organisms is one of the common problems [15] in heat exchanger operation. Food processing industries, power plant condensers using seawater, etc. are experiencing biofouling.
Fouling is a complex phenomenon due to involvement of a large number of variables. From a fundamental point of view the fouling mechanism follows certain stages in developing on a surface [17]. These are: Initiation, transport, attachment, removal and aging.
Surface is conditioned in the initiation period. The initial delay induction period is influenced by the materials surface temperature, material, surface finish, roughness and surface coating. With the increase of degree of supersaturation with respect to the heat transfer surface temperature or increase of surface temperature the induction period decreases. During the induction period, nuclei for crystallization of deposit are also formed for biological growth. This period can take a long time, may be several weeks or a few minutes or even seconds.
The delay period decreases with increasing temperature in chemical reaction fouling due to the acceleration of induction reactions. If the initial period decreases with increasing surface temperature, crystallization fouling would be changed [18]. With the increase of surface roughness the delay period tends to decrease [19]. Additional sites are developed by the roughness projections, which promotes crystallization while grooves provide regions for particulate deposition.
In this part, fouling substances from the bulk fluid are transported to the heat transfer surface across the boundary layer. This is dependent on the physical properties of the system and concentration difference between the bulk and the surface fluid interface. Transport is accomplished by a number of phenomena including diffusion, sedimentation and thermophoresis [20, 21]. The local deposition flux
Where,
The phenomenon of transportation of a particulate matter in a fluid due to gravity on a horizontal or inclined surface is known as sedimentation. This is playing a vital roll where particles are heavy and fluid velocities are low.
At this stage, the deposits are adhered to the surface and among itself. Salt ions approaching to the surface are attracted to it due to electro-magnetic forces and adhere to the surface to form nucleation and gradually it grows with time to form a fouling layer. Thus forces acting on the particles as they approach the surface are impotent in determining attachment. Properties of the materials, such as size, density and surface conditions are dominating the attachment phenomenon.
There is competition between removal and deposition of the foulants, up to the steady growth of the deposition on the surface. Shear forces at the interface between the fluid and deposited fouling are responsible for removal. The velocity gradients at the surface, the viscosity of the fluid and surface roughness are guiding the shear forces. Removal from the surface is performed through the mechanism of dissolution, erosion and spalling.
With the commencement of deposition ageing starts. During the ageing, there may be transformation of crystal to improve or decrease the deposition strength with time. During aging the mechanical properties of the deposit can change due to changes in the crystal or chemical structure. Alteration of the chemical composition of the deposit by a chemical reaction may change its mechanical strength. On the other hand the biofouling layer may become weak due to corrosion at the surface by slow poisoning of microorganisms.
Figure 3 is showing the growth rate of deposit on the surface [15]. Region A: fouling is initiated in the induction period. Region B: a steady deposit growth on the surface. The rate of removal of deposit was increased when the rates of deposition gradually retards. Region C: in this region the rate of removal and deposition seems equal and the thickness of deposition remains constant.
Change in deposition thickness with time.
Some of the common salts causes fouling are CaSO4, CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2, and SiO2. Solubility, crystal structure and strength have impact on composite scale formation in fouling. Therefore, composite fouling needs more attention and further research [17].
Fouling phenomena imposes retardation on heat transfer and augmentation of frictional pressure drop which degrades the effectiveness of a heat exchanger. Some basic design aspects of heat exchangers along with mitigation of fouling are discussed in the present chapter.
A fixed value of fouling resistance could be assigned during the design stage although fouling is time dependent phenomenon. The cleaning schedule and operating parameters of the heat exchanger is dependent on the design fouling factor. Depending on application some heat exchangers require frequent cleaning whereas some need rear cleaning. Fouling rate is a dominating factor in designing a particular heat exchanger.
Fouling allowance: Provisions are during the design stage once fouling is anticipated. Different approaches are used to provide an allowance for fouling resistance. They all result into an excess heat transfer surface area. Updated methods include, specifying the fouling resistances, the cleanliness factor, or the percentage over surface.
A fouling resistance is prescribed on each side of the surface where fouling is anticipated. A lower overall heat transfer coefficient is resulted. To achieve the specified heat transfer, excess surface area is provided. Until the specified value of the fouling resistance is reached, the performance of the heat exchanger will be satisfactory. Depending on this fact, maintenance schedule could be planned to avoid unprecedented shut down for cleaning. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) [22] is referenced source of fouling factors used in the design of heat exchangers. Plant data, proprietary research data, personal and company experience etc. are other sources of fouling resistance data could be used in design.
Minimize Fouling by considering Design Features: Extent of fouling could be minimized by good design practice. Direct contact heat exchangers are considered where excess fouling is desired. In general a fouling prone fluid stream should be placed on the tube side as cleaning is easier. Generally higher fluid velocity and lower tube wall temperature retard fouling accumulation. Velocity of 1.8 m/s is a widely accepted figure for tube side flow of a heat exchanger. Heat Exchangers, operating over dew point for acid vapor and above freezing for fluids containing waxes prevent corrosion and freezing fouling. Fouling deposits are always found heavy in the region of low velocity at the vicinity of baffles in the shell side of the shell and tube heat exchangers.
Design features to facilitate fouling control: Full elimination of fouling may not be possible by good design practice alone. So, heat exchangers require cleaning at certain intervals. On-line cleaning can be employed to control fouling by extending cleaning cycle. Continuous fouling can ensure minimized fouling allowance. At construction and installation phase of a plant on-line cleaning system could be installed at ease. A heat exchanger with removable head and straight tube would be easy to clean and maintain. Space and provision for removal and cleaning of tube bundles are required to be available. On site cleaning facilities are to be provided with options of keeping isolation valves and connection provisions for cleaning hoses which could lead to chemical cleaning.
Fouling and operation of heat exchangers: Provision of excess surface area in heat exchangers for curbing fouling may lead to operation problem and fouling build. Generally high heat transfer area enhances total heat transfer which raises the out let temperature. By changing process parameters such as flow, surface temperature leads to higher fouling.
Fouling control strategies: A number of strategies are applied for fouling control. In operating condition additives are added. On-line or off-line surface cleaning techniques are other options. To control fouling under different consequences are consolidated by some researchers as stated in Table 1 [23].
On-line techniques | Off-line techniques |
Use and control of appropriate additives: Inhibitors, Antiscalants, Dispursants, Acids, Air jet On-line cleaning: Sponge balls, Brushes, Sonic horns, Soot blowers, Chains and scrappers, Thermal shock, Air bumping | Disassembly and manual cleaning: Lances: Liquid jet, Steam, Air jet. Mechanical Cleaning: Drills, Scrapers Chemical cleaning |
Various techniques adapted to control fouling.
Heat Exchanger with green additives: Many additives were developed for retardation of fouling but many of them found carcinogenic in nature. Now researchers are heading towards green additives. Chemistry and analysis are underway. Lab analysis and performances will be subsequently achieved. In near future users are looking for a breakthrough in this field.
Mineral scales deposited on heat exchanger surfaces are a persistent and an expensive problem in process industries, cooling water systems, steam generation units, desalination by evaporation etc. and also house hold equipment. Precipitation of mineral salts as a scale on the surface of the conduit and cause obstruction of fluid flow, impedance of heat transfer, wear of metal parts, localized corrosion attack and unscheduled equipment shutdown.
The deposit layer provides an additional resistance to heat transfer. Generally, the thermal conductivity of the deposit layer is very low compared with that of the material of the heat exchanger which may result in a much higher thermal resistance than the wall or film resistances. The deposit layer also reduces the flow area, which increases the pressure drop. This problem is quite severe and is further enhanced by the rough surface of the deposit. Both effects reduce the heat exchanger performance significantly. Additional energy requirements in terms of more heating or pumping power can hamper the economics of the process.
In a circular tube, fouling builds on the inside or outside of the tube depending on the flowing fluid. Fouling adds an insulating cover to the heat transfer surface. The overall heat transfer coefficient for a smooth tubular heat exchanger under deposited conditions, Uf can be obtained by adding the inside and outside thermal resistances:
where Rfi and Rfo represent resistances for the outer and inner surfaces of the tubes.
The thermal resistance due to fouling is evaluated generally based on experiments as difference in the overall specific resistances of the fouled and clean wall:
Where, the overall heat transfer coefficient Uƒ can also be evaluated by using the rate equation:
The heat flow rate
Using the definition of heat transfer coefficient and fouling resistance, the equation (6) can be derived for constant heat duty.
The required excess heat transfer area usually becomes excessive due to the higher clean heat transfer coefficients. It is often recommended that the additional surface should not exceed 25 percent of the heat transfer surface requirement for clean operation.
In heat exchangers pressure loss is considered more critical than loss in heat transfer due to fouling. Fouling results in a finite layer. Flow field, pressure drop are affected by the change in geometry of the flow passage. Thus in a tubular heat exchanger, the deposited layer roughens the surface, diminishes the inner and raises the outer dimension of the tubes. The inside diameter of the tube decreases and roughness of the tube increases due to fouling which, causes an increase in pressure drop. Pressure drop inside a tube of a heat exchanger under fouled and clean state can be correlated as follows:
Considering that the mass flow rates under clean and fouled conditions are the same, the mass flow rate can be represented as:
Equation (7) thus becomes:
The magnitude of
The thickness
For a known total fouling resistance, the tube diameter under fouled conditions can be evaluated on knowing the thermal conductivity of the deposits. Non-uniform thermal conductivity may result from the multi layers of fouling deposits. Approximate thermal conductivities of pure materials constituting fouling deposits are often used for estimation of thermal conductivity of the total deposits. Depending on situations the fouling layer is considered composed solely of one material. In some occasions to ease calculations
The conditions influencing fouling can be classified as: (A) operating parameters, (B) heat exchanger parameters, and (C) fluid properties. Among the operating parameters the important events which influencing fouling at a significant level are: (1) velocity, (2) surface temperature, and (3) bulk temperature.
Velocity influences fouling at a significant level. In diffusion controlled processes, increasing the fluid velocity causes more fouling [24]. In most cases, fouling decreases at higher fluid velocities [4, 13, 25]. Increasing flow velocity increases the fluid shear stress which causes more removal. This results in lower fouling rates which resulting to lower fouling resistance. For weak deposits (particulate fouling), increasing the flow velocity may completely eliminate fouling. For stronger deposits, increasing the flow velocity beyond a particular point may not decrease fouling significantly [25]. For very strong deposits, increasing the flow velocity may not have any effect at all [6].
Surface temperature may increase, decrease or have no effect on fouling [26]. The rates of chemical reaction and inverse solubility crystallization increase with an increase in temperature. For inverse solubility salts, higher surface temperature increases fouling due to higher concentration gradients and higher reaction rate constants. In case of normal solubility salts cooling results in more fouling.
The bulk temperature also effects on increase of fouling rate. In inverse crystallisation, when precipitation happens in the fluid bulk, increasing the temperature increases the rate of crystal formation and hence deposition. Thus bulk temperature has effects on chemical reaction rate and polymerisation rate.
The important heat exchanger parameters are classified as: surface material, surface structure (roughness), heat exchanger type and geometry [27]. Surface material is considered seriously for corrosion fouling because of the potential to react and form corrosion products. Different materials have different catalytic action and may promote or reduce fouling for different processes. The initial fouling rate and scale formation depends significantly on the surface roughness. Junghahn [28] proved theoretically that the free energy change associated with crystal nuclei formation was much less on a rough surface than on a smooth surface. Rough surfaces result in higher deposition due to protected zones in the cavities or pits where flow velocities are very low.
According to Rankin and Adamson [29], it is not the rate of nucleation but the nuclei attachment which is strongly dependent on the surface roughness. Chandler [30] also observed similar results. In general the rough surface causes more fouling which reduces the delay time for all types of fouling. Surface roughness increases turbulence near the surface, which in turn increases the removal rate of fouling on the surface. Better performance occurred due to the increase in surface roughness with deposit formation and has been reported by some authors [1, 2]. Marriott [31] reiterated that mirror finished surfaces in heat exchangers are used to reduce fouling in practice.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are used most commonly but they are not particularly suitable for fouling conditions. Fouling can be reduced with special baffle and tube design. Several studies [32-35] have shown that finned tubes foul less than plain tubes. Non-uniform thermal expansion leads to lower deposit strength and hence less deposition. Freeman et al. [36] found that tubes with longitudinal grooves on the outside had less particulate fouling (by alumina particles) than the plain tubes.
Fluidised-bed heat exchangers are used in several applications to reduce or even eliminate fouling completely. Fluidised particles remove deposits from the heat transfer surface. They also enhance the heat transfer efficiency as they interrupt the viscous sub-layer. These heat exchangers have been used successfully to reduce fouling by hard, adhering silica deposits [37]. Graphite heat exchangers are also reported to have less fouling. Direct contact heat transfer may be another alternative to reduce fouling [38]. Properties of the process fluid such as the nature and concentration of the dissolved constituents or suspended particles, presence of any living organisms, solution pH etc. affect fouling significantly.
Excessively high over-concentration of solids in the evaporating liquid may lead to carry-over in the steam and cause fouling in process heat transfer equipment. Corrosion is very important on the steam side of process equipment. Water pH, over-concentration of treatment chemicals in evaporating liquids and dissolved gases (mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide) are very important contributors to corrosion fouling [39]. The presence of living organisms causes biological fouling and makes biofilms. This can sometimes enhance other fouling mechanisms too, as microbial deposits may trap suspended particles. They may also change the chemistry of water and can cause scaling or corrosion [39].
A number of models have been proposed for different types of fouling. Analysis and model improvement is still progressing as there are difficulties due to the complex nature of deposit formation and lack of reproducible measurement of fouling resistance. Most of the models have been simplified with many assumptions [40] as stated below:
Surface roughness is neglected.
Change in surface roughness with deposit formation is also neglected.
Only one type of fouling is usually considered.
Changes in physical properties of the fluids are neglected in most of the cases.
The fouling layer is assumed to be homogeneous.
Changes in flow velocity with changing cross-sectional area due to fouling are usually neglected.
The shape of deposits, e. g. crystals or particles is ignored.
It is also observed that few attempts have been made to model the initiation or roughness delay period. Almost all the models predict fouling (scaling) after the delay period. Some other notable parameters are neglected in modelling such as: (a) effect of simultaneous action of different fouling mechanisms, (b) equipment design, (c) surface parameters e.g. surface material and surface roughness, (d) increase in surface area with deposition, (e) properties of foulant stream, (f) nature of process, and the (g) fluctuations in operation.
Modelling is usually done taking into consideration only (a) flow velocity, (b) concentration, (c) wall and bulk temperature, and (d) time.
Watkinson and Martinez [11] developed a model, based on the fundamental material balance equation (1). For the deposition rate the following expression is adopted:
The deposition rate is expressed as shown in equation (12).
For sparingly soluble salts with inverse solubility (e.g. CaCO3), the deposition rate is controlled by the slow reaction rate and the constant of reaction rate
with Tƒ as the interface temperature.
Kern and Seaton [43] recommend for the removal rate the equation:
Where τƒ is the shear stress exerted by the liquid flow on the fouling film. Even though CaCO3 deposits are much stronger than the particulate deposits considered by Kern and Seaton [43] the removal rate was assumed to be directly proportional to deposit thickness, which may not be correct for all the cases.
Kern and Seaton [41] proposed a model for particulate fouling which takes into account removal or re-entrainment of deposits. The mathematical model is based on a general material balance equation (1). Deposition and removal rates act separately and combine into a net deposition rate. The rate of deposition is expressed as:
Where,
Combining the equations for deposition and removal rates (15) and (16) with the material balance equation (1), the fouling resistance expression is obtained:
where θ is a time constant and
Here, λƒ is the thermal conductivity of the deposits,
An additional cost is imposed by fouling of heat transfer equipment in industries. Few studies have been undertaken to determine the fouling related costs in industry. Fouling costs can generally be divided into four major categories, such as (1) increased capital expenditure, (2) energy costs, (3) maintenance costs, (4) cost of production loss and (v) extra environmental management cost.
Country | Fouling costs US $ million | GNP (1984) US $ million | Fouling costs % of GNP |
USA (1982) | 3860-7000 8000-10000 | 3634000 | 0.12-0.22 0.28-0.35 |
Japan | 3062 | 1225000 | 0.25 |
West Germany | 1533 | 613000 | 0.25 |
UK (1978) | 700-930 | 285000 | 0.20-0.33 |
Australia | 260 | 173000 | 0.15 |
New Zealand | 35 | 23000 | 0.15 |
Total Industrial World | 26850 | 13429000 | 0.20 |
Estimated fouling costs incurred in some countries.
The heat transfer area of a heat exchanger is kept exaggerated to compensate retardation imposed by fouling. Oversized pumps and fans are selected to compensate design over-surfacing the enhanced pressure loss from reduction in the flow area.
In some occasions standby heat exchangers are kept in process design in order to ensure uninterrupted operation while a fouled heat exchanger is taken under cleaning maintenance. In-situ cleaning in some cases are recommended while chemical cleaning is preferred for others. All together, cost of cleaning, cleaning equipment, chemicals all are imposing extra to the capital cost of the plant.
Muller-Steinhagen [37] reported that total annual costs for highly industrialised countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom are about 0.25 percent of the countries gross national product (GNP). Even for a relatively less industrialised country like New Zealand, the total fouling costs are around 0.15 percent of its GNP. Muller-Steinhagen [37] has summarised the total fouling costs for various countries based on 1984 in Table 2.
Gilmour [42] reported that the degradation of heat transfer performance due to fouling in shell and tube heat exchangers occurs mainly due to poor shell-side design. In recent years numerous methods have been developed to control fouling. These methods can be classified as: (1) chemical methods, (2) mechanical methods and (3) changing the phase of the solution. By adding foreign chemicals in a solution, reduction of fouling is achieved by chemical methods of fouling mitigation. Chemical additives developed by many companies have been extensively used to mitigate fouling in the industrial sector. Various additives can be used to prevent scaling [43-44]. Bott [45] specified that the additives used act in different ways, such as (a) sequestering agents, (b) threshold agents, (c) crystal modifiers and (d) dispersants. Some of the common water additives are EDTA (sequestering agent), polyphosphates and polyphosphonates (threshold agents) and polycarboxylic acid and its derivatives (sequestering and threshold treatment). Sequestering agents such as EDTA complex strongly with the scaling cations such as Ca++, Mg++, and Cu++ in exchange with Na+, thus preventing scaling as well as removing any scale formed previously. They are used effectively as antiscalants in boiler feed water treatment. Troup and Richardson [46] claimed that their use is uneconomical when hardness levels are high.
Polyphosphates and polyphosphonates as threshold agents are also used to reduce scaling in boilers and cooling water systems. Bott [45] said that they prevent the formation of nuclei thus preventing the crystallisation and mitigate fouling. Very small quantities of these agents are effective in reducing scaling from supersaturated salt solutions.
Crystal modifying agents (e.g. Polycarboxylic acid) distort the crystal habit and inhibit the formation of large crystals. The distorted crystals do not settle on the heat transfer surface, they remain suspended in the bulk solution. If their concentration increases beyond a certain limit, particulate fouling may take place. This is prevented either by using techniques to minimise particulate fouling or using dispersing agents along with crystal modifying agents.
Though crystallisation fouling may not be prevented completely using additives, the resulting crystalline deposits are different from those formed in the absence of any additives. The layer looses its strength and can be removed easily. By controlling pH, crystallisation fouling can furthermore be minimised. The solubility of deposit forming components usually increases with decreasing pH. In many water treatment plants, sulphuric acid is added to maintain a pH between 6.5 and 7.5 [47]. In this case, addition of corrosion inhibitors may also be required which may enhance fouling again.
Seeding is used commercially to reduce crystallisation fouling. This method involves addition of seeds to the scaling fluid. Crystallisation takes place preferentially on these seeds rather than on the heat transfer surface. Calcium sulphate seeds are generally used to avoid calcium sulphate scaling [48-49]. These seeds need not be of the crystallising material, but they should have similar crystallographic properties, i. e. atomic agreement and lattice spacing [50].
To mitigate particulate fouling by chemical means, dispersants are used to reduce the surface tension of deposits. It helps in disintegrating the suspended particles into smaller fragments that do not settle so readily.
Addition of certain chemicals can slow down or terminate chemical reactions. Dispersants are very helpful in keeping the foulants away from the surface. Some particles such as corrosion products may act as catalysts. Chemical reaction fouling could be suppressed by reducing the number of these particles. Corrosion inhibitors (chromates and polyphosphates) can be used to reduce corrosion fouling [47]. Usually a passivating oxide layer is desired to prevent corrosion of the surface. Corrosion fouling may promote other fouling mechanisms e. g. higher roughness of the corroded surface may enhance crystallisation fouling. The corrosion products may act as catalysts and promote chemical reaction fouling and also augments particulate fouling by depositing on the heat transfer surface.
Mitigation of fouling by chemical methods has several drawbacks. Fouling and corrosion inhibitors usually contain considerable amount of chlorine, bromine, chromium, zinc etc. Therefore, their concentration has to be monitored carefully. Treatment of fluid released from the plant to natural waterways is necessary to prevent harmful effects. Higher concentrations can be used in closed systems but overdosing may have negative effects and some components may precipitate. Using different additives at the same time may result in dangerous chemical reactions. Some additives have limited life and some degrade with time and loose activity.
Pritchard [51] has broadly classified mechanical methods into two categories according to their ways of action. (1) Brute force methods such as high-pressure jets, lances, drills etc. (2) Mild methods such as brushes and sponge balls. Muller-Steinhagen [37] has reported that several mechanical methods have been developed in recent years. The following mechanisms predict the modern methods:
Breakage of deposits during brief overheating due to differential thermal expansions of heat transfer surface and deposits,
Mechanical vibration of the heat transfer surfaces,
Acoustical vibration of the surface,
Increased shear stress at the fluid/deposit interface, and
Reduced stickiness of the heat transfer surface.
Most liquid-side fouling mitigation techniques have been developed for the tube-side of shell and tube heat exchangers. The relevant techniques include:
increase in flow velocity,
reversal of flow direction,
heat transfer surface such as, surface roughness and surface materials,
fluidised bed heat exchangers,
pulsating flow,
turbulence promoters, and
transport of cleaning devices through tubes.
The deposits which are not strongly adhere to the surface can be removed by increasing the flow velocity. Muller-Steinhagen and Midis [4] reported that alumina deposits were removed completely when the flow velocity was increased for a short period of time after a fouling run. At higher flow velocity, the wall shear stress increases and causes more removal of deposits from the surface.
At a regular interval of time, the reversal of flow direction on the heat transfer surface could be another effective method of reducing fouling. This technique needs several modifications in the existing set-up. Muller-Steinhagen [37] stated that mitigation of fouling by increasing the flow velocity could be more effective than reversal of flow direction.
Surface material and surface roughness play an important role on fouling mitigation. Thus lowering the surface roughness retards the adhesion of deposits and the number of nuclei growth sites. Lower deposition rate also experienced with lowering surface energy of the material of heat exchanger. Using inert particles is an effective way of reducing or even eliminating fouling completely as practiced in fluidized bed heat exchangers. Pulsating flow in heat exchangers is a strategy to increase the level of turbulence [52-58]. Where, as a matter of fact heat transfer coefficient increases with the enhancement of deposit removal. Higher heat transfer reduces fouling by reducing the interface temperature which is beneficial for certain fouling mechanism such as crystallization fouling of inverse solubility salts. The higher level of turbulence augments the deposit removal rate.
Fracture of deposits by fatigue is enhanced by higher turbulence due to pulsation resulting to increase of removal rate. Generally the deposition rate of fouling phenomena [3] depends on the thickness of viscous and thermal sub-layers. Muller-Steinhagen [37] reported that by inserting turbulence promoters inside tubes or by using tube corrugations, the heat transfer coefficient can be increased by a factor of 2 to 15 by reducing the thickness of average thermal boundary layer. Turbulence promoters may reduce both the crystallisation and reaction fouling. Muller-Steinhagen [37] informed that particulate fouling will be enhanced if particulate or fibrous material already exists in the solution.
Middis [10] also reported fouling mitigation by adding natural fibre in the supersaturated solutions of concentration 3.6 g/L CaSO4. He observed that the rate of CaSO4 fouling on heated metal tube surface decreases with the increase of fibre concentration in the fouling solution. Kazi [59] also got similar results by adding different types and concentrations of natural fibre in supersaturated solutions of CaSO4.
Some novel methods which do not fall under well reported categories, such as magnetic or electric treatment are also available in the market to reduce fouling. Usually magnetic treatment is carried out by inserting permanent magnets in a pipe before the heat exchanger.
Parkinson and Price [60] have reported significant reduction in fouling by the magnetic treatment as it helps in precipitating the salts. These salts stay suspended in the bulk liquid and are removed later. On the other hand Hasson and Bramson [61] informed that there is no effect of magnetic treatment at all on fouling. They observed that magnetic treatment neither decreased nor increased the rate of scaling. The nature of the deposits also remained unchanged. Bernadin and Chan [62] have also reported no influence of magnetic treatment on silica fouling. Muller-Steinhagen [37] has stated that magnetic mitigation devices in some cases actually increased fouling. Thus from the available information no conclusion can be made about the influence of the magnetic field on the scaling process.
A decrease in the performance of a heat exchanger beyond acceptable level requires cleaning. In some applications, the cleaning can be done on line to maintain acceptable performance without interruption of operation. At other times, off-line cleaning must be used.
Garrett-Price et al. [27] presented some cleaning approaches for fouled heat exchangers. They specified on-line cleaning generally utilises a mechanical method designed for only tube side and requires no disassembly. In some applications flow reversal is required. Chemical feed can also be used as an on-line cleaning technique but may upset the rest of the liquid service loop.
On-line mechanical cleaning techniques are also in practice. On line tube side cleaning techniques are the sponge-ball and brush systems. The advantage of on-line cleaning is the continuity of service of the exchanger and the hope that no cleaning-mandated downtime will occur. The principal disadvantage is the added cost of a new heat exchanger installation or the large cost of retrofits. Furthermore there is no assurance that all tubes are being cleaned sufficiently.
Off-line chemical cleaning is a technique that is used very frequently to clean exchangers. Some refineries and chemical plants have their own cleaning facilities for dipping bundles or re-circulating cleaning solutions. In general, this type of cleaning is designed to dissolve the deposit by means of a chemical reaction with the cleaning fluid. The advantages of chemical cleaning approach include the cleaning of difficult-to-reach areas. Often in mechanical cleaning, there is incomplete cleaning due to regions that are difficult to reach with the cleaning tools. There is no mechanical damage to the bundle from chemical cleaning, although there is a possibility of corrosion damage due to a reaction of the tube material with the cleaning fluid. This potential problem may be overcome through proper flushing of the unit. Disadvantages of off-line chemical cleaning include corrosion damage potential, handling of hazardous chemicals, use of a complex procedure.
Off-line mechanical cleaning is a frequently used procedure. The approach is to abrade or scrap away the deposit by some mechanical means. The method includes high-pressure water, steam, lances and water guns. In off-line mechanical cleaning there are some advantages such as excellent cleaning of each tube is possible, good removal potential of very tenacious deposits. Disadvantages include the inability to clean U-tube bundles successfully, usual disassembly problem and the great labour needed.
Frenier and Steven [63] describe general methods for cleaning heat exchanger equipment, including both mechanical and chemical procedures. They have given guidelines for selecting between chemical and mechanical cleaning, and among the various types of chemical cleaning processes. They stated that water-based fluids can transport and deposit a wide variety of minerals, and corrosion products form due to the reaction of the aqueous fluids with the metals of construction. Hydrocarbon and petrochemical fluids transport and deposit a variety of organic scales. Common inorganic scale forming compound includes various iron oxides, hardness deposits (carbonates and silicates). They stated that the entire cleaning situation must be considered when choosing between mechanical and chemical cleaning, as well as the specific technique within the general category. The general categories of mechanical cleaning are abrasive, abrasive hydraulic, hydraulic and thermal [64].
Frenier and Barber [63] stated that, for chemical cleaning of the heat exchanger tubes, it is very beneficial to obtain a sample of the deposit so that its composition can be determined. Based on the chemical analysis of the deposit, an optimal treatment plan can be developed and the best solvent selected. They have classified the deposits generically, as organic (process-side) or inorganic (water-side).
They stated that the process side deposits may range from light hydrocarbon to polymers and generally they are similar to the fluids from which they originate. They mentioned that the general categories of solvents for process side scales include aqueous detergent solutions, true organic solvents and emulsions. Aqueous detergent formulations always contain a surfactant-type component. In addition they can contain alkaline agents, such as sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, or sodium phosphate. Builder molecules such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) suppress the effects of hard water, and coupling agents such as glycol ethers, improve the dissolution of some organic deposits.
Detergent formulations are effective only for removing the lighter deposits. Refinery fluids, aeromatics and terpenes are used to dissolve the organic deposits. N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone also is a very effective polar solvent with low toxicity characteristics. They reiterated that the effectiveness of the application depends greatly on proper application conditions, such as flow rate and temperature. Combination of surfactants, organic solvents and water emulsions are good cleaning agents. Emulsions with an organic outer phase are particularly useful for cleaning large vessels. Oily rust deposits having both organic and inorganic compositions can be removed by acidic emulsions combining an acid and an organic solvent.
Water-side deposits usually contain minerals, such as iron oxides (corrosion products), hardness (Ca and Mg carbonates) and silica, in individual cases other minerals can also be found. The solvents for removing inorganic deposits usually contain mineral acids, organic acids or chelating agents.
Mineral acids used in chemical cleaning include hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfamic acid (H2NSO3H). Hydrochloric acid is the most common and most versatile mineral acid. It is used on virtually all types of industrial process equipment at strengths from 5 percent to 28 percent (5-10 percent is the most usual range). It can be inhibited at temperatures up to about 180 F. HCl will dissolve carbonates, phosphates, most sulphates, ferrous sulphide, iron oxides and copper oxides. By using with appropriate additives, fluoride deposits, copper and silica can also be removed from surfaces with inhibited HCl. HCl is corrosive, so it has restricted use. HCl is not used to clean series 300 SS, free-machining alloys, magnesium, zinc, aluminium, cadmium, or galvanised steel because of the potential for generalised or localised attack. It is not desirable to contact the fouled metal with a strong mineral acid, because of the danger of damage to the equipment during or after cleaning. An alternative solvent family consists of aqueous solutions of chelating agents and organic acids with pH values of about 2 to 12.
Citric acid was one of the first organic acids used in industrial cleaning operations [65]. For removing iron oxide from steel surfaces, citric acid and a mixture of formic and citric acid could be used [66]. The mixture could hold more iron in solution than either of the acids alone could do. Ammonium citrate and sodium citrate solvents are currently used to clean a wide variety of heat transfer equipment, including boilers and various types of service water systems. The advantage of citric acid formulation is their low toxicity and ready biodegradability. EDTA is a versatile chemical that forms metal ion complexes with higher equilibrium constants than citric acid. As a result chemical cleaning solvents with pH values from 4.5 to about 9.2 have been formulated that can remove Fe and Cu, as well as Ca, Ni and Cr. The major advantage of the EDTA solvents is that they are much more aggressive than citric salts for removing very heavy iron oxide deposits especially if they contain copper. The disadvantage includes high cost per pound of metal removed and low biodegradability.
All of the chelating agents are also organic acids. Eberhard and Rosene [67] taught the use of solvents consisting of formic acid or citric acid for cleaning nondrainable tubes in super heaters. Reich [66] used a mixture of formic acid and citric acid to a proportion of 3:1, to remove iron oxide deposits. The advantage of these mixtures is that they avoid the precipitation of solids that formed in pure formic or citric acid solutions. Formulations of formic acid with hydroxyacetic acid and citric acid with hydroxyacetic acid can be used as a cleaning agent. Bipan [3] used acetic acid of concentration 3 percent to remove CaSO4.2H2O deposit on plate type SS heat exchangers. He said that with the increase in acid solution temperature the removal efficiency increases. Similar results were obtained by Kazi [68]. It reveals that a complete and systematic study of fouling on different metal surfaces and their mitigation by additives have been required to be done along with study of introducing a benign to environment technique for chemical cleaning of fouling deposits.
A - Heat transfer area - [m2]
A0 - Arrhenius constant – [m3/kg.s]
a1-a13 - Proportionality constant [-]
c - Concentration - [g/L] or [kg/m3]
cp - Specific heat capacity - [J/molK]
d - Pipe diameter – [m]
E - Activation energy – [J/mol]
ΔH - Head loss - m [H2O]
hc - Heat transfer coefficient – [W/m2K]
KR - Reaction rate constant (dimension depend on the order of n) – [m4/kg.s]
L - Length - [m]
mƒ - Solids deposited in the fouling film per unit area - [kg/m2]
P – Pressure – [kPa]
Pc - Intercrystalline cohesive force - [N]
ΔP - Pressure drop - [kPa/m]
R - Ratio of the radius of inner and outer tubes of annulus - [-]
Rb - Bonding resistance - [-]
Rg - Universal gas constant – [J/mol.K]
Rf - Fouling resistance – [m2K/kW]
r – Radius – [m]
T - Temperature - [oC]
Τƒ - Temperature at the surface of the fouling film - [oC]
ΔT - Temperature difference - [K] or [oC]
t - Time - [s]
tind - Induction time - [s]
U - Overall heat transfer coefficient – [W/m2K]
u - Velocity - [m/s]
u* - Friction velocity, - [(τw/ρ) m/s]
u+ - Dimensionless velocity,
ut - Turbulent friction or shear velocity,
w - Constant weight flow of fluid - [kg/s]
x - Distance in x direction - [m]
y - Distance in y direction – [m]
α- Constant - [-]
β- Individual mass transfer coefficient - [m/s]
θ- Time constant – [s]
ε- Height of roughness – [m]
ε/d - Roughness ratio -
ƒ- Fanning friction factor – [-]
λ- Thermal conductivity – [W/mK]
λƒ- Thermal conductivity of the deposits – [W/mK]
μ- Dynamic viscosity – [kg/ms]
ρ- Density – [kg/m3]
ρƒ - Density of the deposits – [kg/m3]
τ- Shear stress - [N/m2]
τw - Wall shear stress – [N/m2]
τƒ - Shear stress exerted by the liquid flow on the fouling film - [N/m2]
ν- Kinematic viscosity – [m2/s]
ϕ - Friction factor [-]
δ - Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness – [m]
δc - Linear thermal expansion coefficient of the fouling film porosity - [1/K]
δt - Thermal boundary layer thickness - [m]
ξ- Ratio of thermal to hydrodynamic boundary layers – [m]
Nusselt Number
Prandtl Number
Reynolds Number
The study of emotions has fascinated scholars from all over the world for millennia. Socrates and Plato dealt with it about two thousand five hundred years ago, and they probably were not even the first [1]. Although there have been considerable advances since then, our knowledge is far from complete.
In this chapter, the term
On the whole, these features reveal the essential functions of emotions, namely [7]:
One of the first scientists to define the nature of emotions was probably William James. Until then, the prevalent idea was that situations evoke emotions that, in turn, trigger bodily changes. James instead claimed that “bodily changes follow directly the PERCEPTION of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion” (pp. 189–190) [8]. The Danish psychologist Lange developed similar concepts in the same period. Therefore, today, scholars refer to this idea as the
Some years later, Walter Bradford Cannon falsified James’s idea. He considered that stopping sensory sensitivity would impair the central perception of physiological changes, thereby eliminating emotions. Thus, Cannon resected the animals’ spinal cords. Results suggested that surgically operated individuals still felt emotions, though. Furthermore, it seemed the same physiological changes accompanied various emotions. Cannon concluded that emotions disturb the activity of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) [10], and Philip Bard enriched this view. In brief, this hypothesis (i.e., the
Neither theory has disappeared over the years. Indeed, they have led to two contrasting approaches.
First, nonstate theories and general arousal models suggest the inexistence of specific internal states of emotions [11]. The two-factor theory [12], the component process model [13], and other hypotheses [14] reach the same conclusion. Empirical evidence does not support the idea that emotions have specific ANS patterns. Part of the data instead suggests that undifferentiated arousal accompanies emotional experiences [3]. Something in the body happens, but are the people who label it as an emotional experience (e.g., fear, joy, and sadness) [15]. Therefore, proponents of these theories (i.e., cognitive models) claim that emotions result from brain activity [5].
The second approach supports the existence of discrete emotions, each one characterized by specific neurophysiological and behavioral routines. In this case, scholars usually view emotions as an adaptive mechanism, a product of evolution [4]. Charles Darwin was probably the first to search for the cause of expressions [16]. Subsequently, several scientists focused on the link between emotions, autonomic activity, and behavioral responses (e.g., facial expressions) [17]. Proponents of this functional-evolutionary approach claim the existence of different emotions associated with biobehavioral layouts [5].
There is a lively debate still today. In particular, scholars did not reach a consensus on the existence of emotion-specific response patterns. One explanation for this diatribe lies in the methodological challenges the study of emotions entails. Individual differences (e.g., emotion recognition skills), the choice of elicitor (e.g., there is no certainty that a given stimulus elicits a given emotion in people), indicators (e.g., a continuous recording of different physiological and behavioral measures) [5], and statistical methods are among these [18].
Despite the issues, data support the hypothesis of specific response patterns for distinct subtypes of emotions [3]. For example, in rodents, different types of fear correspond to independent neural substrates [19]. Indeed, emotional families are sets of states that share elicitors (see Section 5), autonomic patterns, expressions, and behavioral reactions [17]. The neural substrates of emotional subtypes facilitate different behavioral responses. As an illustration, consider the
The
The
The bodily activity that occurs with emotions has a high signaling value. For example, organs and tissues, as well as the nervous system, can signal emotional states [20].
Furthermore, emotions and motor activation often correlate. That can affect the striated muscles of the neck, back, arms, or the smooth muscles of the blood vessels and alimentary tract. Similarly, facial muscles can also be part of the emotion [23]. All these activities can be
However, emotions are not the only determinants of bodily signals. In particular, contextual and cognitive factors make it challenging to distinguish expressions from cues attributable to other causes. Individual differences (e.g., age, gender and learning) are often decisive in expression regulation. Indeed, the nervous system (e.g., premotor cortex and primary motor cortex) has the flexibility to adjust actions already planned to the current situation [9]. That means individuals can generally inhibit, mask, or even simulate expressions [6].
In brief, emotional signals can belong to three macro categories. First,
Voice and speech are the two components of the act of speaking. The voice features are pitch, volume, intensity, and rhythm. Instead, speech is the content of discourses. It includes vocabulary, grammar style, and structure [24].
Humans can use verbal behavior to express emotions [25]. Speaking is a faculty that recruits several anatomical structures: cerebral regions (e.g., the frontal lobe) [9] and the digestive and respiratory systems (e.g., lungs, larynx, sinus cavities of the vocal tract, palate, tongue, and teeth) [26]. Noteworthy, dysfunction of the frontal lobe is one of the determinants of alexithymia, a condition that involves among other things, difficulty or inability to verbalize emotions [27]. However, a vast cerebral network underpins verbal expression of emotion. The right inferior frontal cortex, the right posterior superior temporal cortex, the left mid-fusiform gyrus, the right inferior prefrontal and bilateral fusiform cortices, and the amygdaloid complex are part of this network [25].
Behavioral responses can be emotional clues. For example, gait (e.g., arm swing, length, and speed of stride) can reveal whether an individual is happy, sad, or angry [28]. Furthermore, the emotional state can influence posture (i.e., the position of the body or its parts) [29], produce acoustic signals, such as laughter [30], and alter the sound of voice (e.g., pitch, intensity, and tension) [31].
However, humans can voluntarily signal and fake emotional states through their bodies (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, and posture) [30]. Birds also have this ability. For example, the wild fork-tailed drongos (
It is unclear whether emotional expression management relies on a single neurocognitive system. The intentional inhibition of human motor responses depends, at least in part, on the activation of the right inferior frontal cortex (rIFC). Indeed, the activity of the rIFC is often associated with the deactivation of other brain regions important for emotions, such as the amygdaloid complex [33].
The face is informative in several ways. For example, humans get clues about people’s health through skin color [34]. Nonetheless, the main source of information is the activity of the facial muscles. Their contraction, in specific combinations, produces skin movements, namely,
The muscles of the face include two large groups. First, the
Schematic representation of the motor pathways of mastication.
The
Schematic representation of the pathways of human facial expressive muscles.
The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movements through the corticospinal (or pyramidal) tract [23]. Two-thirds of this tract receives input from the motor cortex and the rest from the somatosensory areas, such as the parietal lobe [9]. For these reasons, emotional facial expressions seem to depend on the other trait, the extrapyramidal one.
The right side of the face could be dominant for emotional expressions. That is the idea of some scholars, based on some clinical evidence. For example, several people show a left bias during posed expressions [23]. Nevertheless, the empirical results are ambiguous, and academic speculations are divergent [35]. For instance, the approach-withdrawal model hypothesizes that emotions of “approach” (e.g., joy) coincide with more activity of the left frontal brain, and the “withdrawal” ones (e.g., fear) activate the right frontal brain to a superior extent [36].
Moreover, humans can exhibit brief, local contractions (i.e.,
Although the prototypical patterns are well known, there is a low coherence between facial displays and emotions. Specifically, the likelihood of a person showing an expression (e.g., the Duchenne smile) when feeling the corresponding emotion (e.g., joy) is often lower than chance, in the both laboratory [40] and naturalistic settings [41]. One of the determinants of this low emotion-expression coherence lies in
Despite limitations and still open questions, there are enough data to state that physiological changes accompany emotions (see Section 2).
Activities of the autonomic nervous system can induce appearance variations. For example, vasodilation can cause blood vessels to bulge and alter the color of the skin. Blushing (i.e., in embarrassment) and reddering (e.g., in anger) are two typical neurovegetative signals of an increase in the caliber of blood vessels. Conversely, vasoconstriction (e.g., in fear) produces blanching.
The body can also secrete various substances. For example, tear glands provoke crying [43] related to some types of sadness [44]. Similarly, the sweat glands produce sweat (e.g., in fear), and the salivary ones are responsible for the secretion of saliva, which is typical of certain emotional states, such as disgust and anger.
Other neurovegetative signals are piloerection and the change in pupil diameter. They can be cues to emotions (e.g., anger and fear) or other states (e.g., sexual appetite) [43].
At the central level, these ANS activities are outcomes of a neural network that involves the hypothalamus (Hy), which is essential for homeostasis. The Hy links with periaqueductal gray, the reticular formation, parabrachial nucleus, ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the raphe nuclei [45].
Rather than describing the whole emotional process, the James-Lange theory focuses on the emotional experience, namely, what the individual perceives of emotion [11].
In particular,
The elements of the emotional experience concern the
The neurophysiological basis of emotional experience may rely on two distinct networks. A first circuit seems to allow value-based representation. The essential brain regions of this network are the basolateral amygdala (BLA), the anterior insula, and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). In particular, the BLA provides an initial assessment of a stimulus. The anterior insula instead allows the representation of interoceptive inputs. Finally, the OFC makes processing more flexible by including information regarding the context. BLA and OFC are interconnected with each other, as well as have connections with the cortical regions responsible for sensory representations. The second circuit of emotional experience seems to be a sort of affective working memory that holds and processes emotive information for short periods. Its neurophysiological basis lies in the amygdaloid complex and the reciprocal connections between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the anterior cingulate cortex [46].
An emotional episode begins through exposure to stimuli with specific features. For example, loss causes sadness [50]. In this sense, emotion is a process, and these stimuli (i.e.,
Animals learn to feel certain emotions in specific situations. However, it is not just environmental cues that trigger an emotional episode. The state of the organism, behavior, and other complex faculties (e.g., thoughts and empathy) can be elicitors too.
Stimuli internal and external to the body can become elicitors of emotion through classical and operant conditioning. In particular, animals learn to associate a stimulus (S) with a specific emotional response (R). With an S-R association established, exposure to S may be sufficient to elicit the emotional response.
Yet, S-R associations can take complex forms. For instance, emotional reactions can even be self-reinforcing. An individual may experience a pleasant state that elicits behavior, which fuels repetition in a sort of loop [51]. However, the S-R associability is not absolute. For example, it seems impossible to teach a hungry pigeon to fly away by presenting it with food [52].
At the basis of emotional learning is a vast neural network that includes the reward system. Its architecture is complex and involves circuits for the cost/benefit assessment of specific reward values, reward expectations, and action selection (Figure 3). The amygdaloid complex and ventral striatum (vStr) underpin the appetitive processing of reward expectations. Moreover, dopamine (DA) pathways modulate motivation and behavior by connecting the ventral tegmental area, the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), and the striatum. The reward system is also capable of inhibiting the behavior. Specifically, five sub-circuits (or sub-loops) of the basal ganglia (BG) are essential for various functions, including action cancelation [53].
Schematic representation of reward system. One: cost/benefit assessment of specific reward value. Two: cortical loop. Three: limbic loop. Four: reward expectation. Five: action selection. Six: go and stop processes. Abbreviations: Amg, Amygdaloid complex; DA, dopamine; dlPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; dStr, dorsal striatum; GP, globus pallidus; Hip, hippocampus; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; SNc, substantia nigra pars compacta; SNr, substantia nigra pars reticulata; STN, subthalamic nucleus; vStr, ventral striatum; VTA, ventral tegmental area. This article was published in [
Even emotional signals (see Section 3) can be elicitors. For example, breathing [54], vocalizations [55], and postures [56] may elicit emotions. Indeed, some experiments suggest that an expansive pose lowers cortisol and increases testosterone levels. That would be enough to produce feelings of power and increase risk tolerance [57]. However, attempts to replicate such data have failed [58].
In general,
Observing signals and behaviors in others can also initiate the emotional process. In this sense, indirect experience (e.g., imitation and emotional contagion) is a potential elicitor of emotion. The anterior insula and the rostral cingulate cortex are part of the neural network responsible for these mechanisms [60].
Empathy consists of the emotional states produced by observation of individuals and situations. Thus, it is an elicitor of emotion
The resulting emotion may be the same as that of the observed individual, but not necessarily. Indeed, the emotional experience can be so intense as to produce an
Given the complexity of empathy as a faculty, it seems clear that its neurobiological basis is equally complex. For example, its neural substrate includes the insula, cingulate cortex, and the interoceptive network [65]. Furthermore, empathic responses probably depend on various processes (e.g., emotional contagion and affective mentalizing) that underpin distinct neural mechanisms. The temporoparietal junction, medial temporal lobe, prefrontal cortex, and dopamine pathways are part of the circuits of cognitive empathy. Instead, the neural substrates of emotional empathy include the frontal gyrus, insula, anterior cingulated cortex, and oxytocin paths [66].
Animals can feel emotions even when exposed to stimuli they have never encountered. For instance, the smell of predators they have never seen before scares rats [67]. Some scholars claim that humans also have innate fears (e.g., snakes) [68]. However, experimental results are controversial [69].
Several animals can respond to limited aspects of the environment (i.e.,
From a neurobiological point of view, it is unlikely that there are cells in the nervous system specialized in innately identifying specific stimuli. The determinants of any sign stimuli as elicitors could lie, then, in the biological predisposition [52].
Emotions influence several processes, including [4]:
The neurophysiological basis of the relationship between emotions and cognitive processes is not yet fully understood. In brief, neurophysiological superimposition of emotions and other mechanisms may underpin emotional outcomes. For example, amygdala, hippocampus, and orbitofrontal cortex have a role in several neural functions [80].
Some emotion-based symptoms may appear in various conditions, such as schizophrenia (e.g., anhedonia), borderline personality disorder (e.g., emotional instability), addiction (e.g., euphoria and dysphoria), and so on. These conditions can be related to several features of emotions, such as intensity, frequency, adaptivity, physiology, expression, and experience [81]. However, some scholars disagree with placing these disorders in the same category. Indeed there is the risk of generalizing qualitatively diverse states (e.g., emotions, moods, and affect) [7].
Several scholars use the term “
Albeit limitations [5], the literature suggests that emotions predispose the body to timely recognition and response to specific circumstances. Situations identify ancestral problems, and the responses illustrate the solutions that have proved most profitable for evolutionary success [4]. In this sense, the emotional process has as its central themes the body’s coordination [5], the signaling of the individual’s state [17], and the processing by the central nervous system of both endogenous and exogenous information [46].
The literature does not allow a conclusive illustration of the neurophysiology of emotions. Nevertheless, each emotional subtype likely has its patterns [3]. It seems then better to speak of families rather than single emotions [17].
Due to several factors, the emotional process affects performance in different domains (e.g., perception and attention). These factors include the partial overlap of the neural basis of emotion and other faculties and the numerous brain interconnections. Furthermore, elicitors are heterogeneous and even include the essential elements of emotion (e.g., expressions). That suggests the nonlinearity of the emotional process. In other words, emotions could have stochastic or aleatory progress: In probabilistic terms, each element can initiate, be a part of, or be their outcome [7].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Thanks to every enthusiast, scholar, and researcher who came before me. Thanks to those who deal with emotions today, and to those who will do so in the future. Everyone’s contribution is a step forward in the path of knowledge. Thanks to every reader, without whom the effort of writing this chapter would have been futile. Ideologies separate us, and emotions bring us together.
Amg | amygdaloid complex |
ANS | autonomic nervous system |
BG | basal ganglia |
BLA | basolateral amygdala |
CE | cognitive empathy |
CNS | central nervous system |
DA | dopamine |
dlPFC | dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |
dStr | dorsal striatum |
EE | emotional empathy |
GP | globus pallidus |
Hip | hippocampus |
Hy | hypothalamus |
HPA | hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis |
NVB | nonverbal behavior |
OFC | orbitofrontal cortex |
PFC | prefrontal cortex |
rIFC | right inferior frontal cortex |
SNc | substania nigra pars compacta |
STN | subthalamic nucleus |
vStr | ventral striatum |
VTA | ventral tegmental area |
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The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. 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By definition, an SP occurs in those patients with an underlying condition that alters the normal lung parenchyma and/or the visceral pleura and determines air entry in the pleural space (e.g., COPD) or, eventually, following trauma or invasive procedures (i.e., iatrogenic pneumothorax). Less frequent, yet described, is SP occurring in neoplastic patients or infectious ones. The gravity of an SP is directly correlated to the underlying cause and patients’ clinical conditions. For example, it may be a life-threatening condition in an end-stage COPD but less severe in a catamenial related syndrome. In this chapter, we are providing a surgical overview of the most relevant and updated information on etiology, incidence, pathophysiology, and management of secondary pneumothoraces.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Sobrero, Francesco Leo and Alberto Sandri"},{id:"80875",title:"Pneumothorax: A Concise Review and Surgical Perspective",slug:"pneumothorax-a-concise-review-and-surgical-perspective",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101049",abstract:"Pneumothorax is the collection of air in pleural cavity, which is commonly due to development of a communication between pleural space and alveolar space (or bronchus) or the atmosphere. In this chapter, we will discuss the various aetiologies of pneumothorax, the differences in their pathophysiology and the implications on the management of the disease. The chapter focusses on the surgical aspects in the management, the revolution brought in by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) and the advancement of the field by introduction of uniportal VATS and robotic-assisted thoracic surgery. The principles of management of catamenial pneumothorax are revisited. The chapter also throws light on the nuances of anaesthesia techniques and the latest developments are outlined. Lastly, a section is dedicated to COVID-19 associated pneumothorax and the approach to its management.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Shilpi Karmakar"},{id:"79289",title:"Indwelling Pleural Catheters",slug:"indwelling-pleural-catheters",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100645",abstract:"Indwelling pleural catheters (IPC) are now being considered worldwide for patients with recurrent pleural effusions. It is commonly used for patients with malignant pleural effusions (MPE) and can be performed as outpatient based day care procedure. In malignant pleural effusions, indwelling catheters are particularly useful in patients with trapped lung or failed pleurodesis. Patients and care givers are advised to drain at least 3 times a week or in presence of symptoms i.e. dyspnoea. Normal drainage timing may lasts for 15–20 min which subsequently improves their symptoms and quality of life. Complications which are directly related to IPC insertion are extremely rare. IPC’s are being recently used even for benign effusions in case hepatic hydrothorax and in patients with CKD related pleural effusions. Removal of IPC is often not required in most of the patients. It can be performed safely as a day care procedure with consistently lower rates of complications, reduced inpatient stay. They are relatively easy to insert, manage and remove, and provide the ability to empower patients in both the decisions regarding their treatment and the management of their disease itself.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Yuvarajan Sivagnaname, Durga Krishnamurthy, Praveen Radhakrishnan and Antonious Maria Selvam"},{id:"79221",title:"Surgical Challenges of Chronic Empyema and Bronchopleural Fistula",slug:"surgical-challenges-of-chronic-empyema-and-bronchopleural-fistula",totalDownloads:119,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100313",abstract:"Chronic empyema has always been a clinical challenge for physicians. There is no standard procedure or treatment to deal with the situation, and multi-modality approach is often necessary. Surgical intervention plays a very crucial role in the treatment of chronic empyema. Since bronchopleural fistula is often seen in chronic empyema patients, therefore it should also be mentioned. In this chapter, the focus will be on the different treatment options, various surgical approaches, and the rationale behind every single modality. Certain specific entity will be included as well, such as tuberculosis infection, post lung resection empyema, and intrathoracic vacuum assisted closure system application. Even with the advancement of technology and techniques, chronic empyema management is still evolving, and we look forward to less traumatic ways of approach with better outcome in the future.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Yu-Hui Yang"},{id:"78826",title:"Pneumothorax in Children",slug:"pneumothorax-in-children",totalDownloads:94,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100329",abstract:"Pneumothorax is a common pleural disease worldwide and is defined as the free accumulation of air between visceral and parietal pleura. Pneumothorax can be spontaneous, iatrogenic, and traumatic. Although it is less common than adults, it is seen in about 1.1–4 per 100,000 per year in the childhood age group. In patients presenting with variable clinic according to the cause of etiology, diagnosis is confirmed on a PA chest radiograph, sometimes a computed tomography may be required. The management of pneumothorax is varying from conservative, over intermediate (chest tube drainage) to invasive methods (video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery—VATS, thoracotomy). Here, we planned to write a chapter that includes a text containing general information about pediatric pneumothorax, algorithms, and visual and clinical cases of the causes of pneumothorax in children, including age, etiology, and treatment approach of pneumothorax in children.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Hatice Sonay Yalçın Cömert"},{id:"78760",title:"Bronchopleural Fistula after Pulmonary Resection: Risk Factors, Diagnoses and Management",slug:"bronchopleural-fistula-after-pulmonary-resection-risk-factors-diagnoses-and-management",totalDownloads:237,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100209",abstract:"Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) after a pulmonary resection is rare with some of the most life-threatening consequences and a high mortality rate. Contamination of the pleural space resulting in empyema and spillage of the infected fluid into the remaining lung leading to respiratory distress remain the biggest concerns with BPF postoperatively. There are many patient characteristics and risk factors that can be evaluated to decrease the chance of a postoperative BPF. Presentation of BPF can be early or late with the late BPF more difficult to diagnosis and manage. Many options to treat BPF include surgical repair, conservative management, and endoscopic treatment.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Kristina Jacobsen"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:332,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:142,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. 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He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. 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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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