Physicochemical properties of IDA and MGDA.
\r\n\t
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Environmental pollution by toxic metals occurs globally through military, industrial, and agricultural processes and waste disposal (Duffus, 2002). Fuel and power industries generate 2.4 million tons of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, V, and Zn annually The metal industry adds 0.39 million tons/yr of the same metals to the environment, while agriculture contributes 1.4 million tons/yr, manufacturing contributes 0.24 million tons/yr and waste disposal adds 0.72 million tons/yr. Metals, discharged or transported into the environment, may undergo transformations and can have a large environmental, public health, and economic impact (Brower et al. 1997; Nriagu & Pacyna, 1988; Gadd & White, 1993).
Among different techniques used for removal of high concentrations of heavy metals, precipitation-filtration, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, oxidation-reduction, solvent extraction, as well as membrane separation should be mentioned (Hubicki,et al. 1999; Dąbrowski et al. 2004). However, some of the wastes contain substances such as organics, complexing agents and alkaline earth metals that may decrease the metal removal and result in unacceptable concentrations of heavy metals in the effluents. The pollutants of concern include cadmium, lead, mercury, chromium, arsenic, zinc, cobalt and nickel as well as copper. They have a number of applications in basic engineering works, paper and pulp industries, leather tanning, petrochemicals, fertilizers, etc. Moreover, they have also negative impact on human health.
Cadmium accumulates in kidneys, pancreas, intestines and glands altering the metabolism of the elements necessary for the body, such as zinc, copper, iron, magnesium, calcium and selenium. Damage to the respiratory tract and kidneys are the main adverse effects in humans exposed to cadmium compounds. In humans exposed to fumes and dusts chronic toxicity of cadmium compounds is usually found after a few years. The main symptom of emphysema is that it often develops without preceding bronchitis. The second basic symptom of chronic metal poisoning is kidney damage. It includes the loss and impairment of smell, pathological changes in the skeletal system (osteoporosis with spontaneous fractures and bone fractures), pain in the extremities and the spine, difficulty in walking, the formation of hypochromic anemia. The most known ‘Itai-Itai’ disease caused by cadmium exposure is mixed osteomalacia and osteoporosis. However, an important source of cadmium in soils are phosphate fertilizers. Large amounts of cadmium are also introduced to soil together with municipal waste. The high mobility of cadmium in all types of soils is the reason for its rapid integration into the food chain. Daily intake of cadmium from food in most countries of the world is 10-20 mg.
Lead is used as industrial raw material in the manufacture of storage batteries, pigments, leaded glass, fuels, photographic materials, matches and explosives. Lead being one of very important pollutants comes from wastewaters from refinery, wastewaters from production of basic compounds containing lead, wastewaters with the remains of after production solvents and paints. Large toxicity of lead requires that its contents are reduced to the minimum (ppb level). To this end there are applied chelating ions with the functional phosphonic and aminophosphonic groups. Also weakly basic anion exchangers in the free base form can be used for selective removal of lead(II) chloride complexes from the solutions of pH in the range 4-6. Also a combined process of cation exchange and precipitation is often applied for lead(II) removal form wastewaters (Pramanik et al. 2009). The average collection of lead by an adult was estimated at 320-440 mg/day. Acute poisoning with inorganic lead compounds occurs rarely. In the case of acute poisoning in man, the symptoms are burning in the mouth, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, constipation progressing to systolic, blood pressure and body temperature. At the same time there is hematuria, proteinuria, oliguria, central nervous system damage. Alkyl lead compounds are more toxic than inorganic lead connections. Tetraethyl lead toxicity manifested primarily in lead damage of the nervous system. Toxic effects of lead on the central nervous system are observed more in children. In adults, the effects of lead toxicity occur in the peripheral nervous system. Symptoms of chronic poisoning may vary. The acute form of poisoning known as lead colic is the general state of various spastic internal organs and neurological damage in the peripheral organs. Long-term lead poisoning can lead to organic changes in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Characteristic symptoms include pale gray skin colour and the lead line on the gums (blue-black border).
In nature, natural circulation of
Arsenic accumulates in tissues rich in keratin, like hair, nails and skin. Arsenic and its inorganic compounds can cause not only cancer of the respiratory system and skin, but also neoplastic lesions in other organs. Arsenic compounds enter the body from the gastrointestinal tract and through skin and respiratory system. Arsenic compounds have affinity for many enzymes and can block their action, and above all disturb the Krebs cycle. Inorganic arsenic compounds are more harmful than organic and among them AsH3 and As2O3 should be mentioned. 70-300 mg of As2O3 is considered to be the average lethal dose for humans. The dose of 10-50 ppb for 1 kg of body weight can cause circulatory problems, resulting in necrosis and gangrene of limbs. The dominant effects of arsenic in humans are changes in the skin and mucous membranes as well as peripheral nerve damage. There are xerosis soles and palms, skin inflammation with ulceration. In addition, there is perforation of the nasal septum. The values of the maximum allowable concentration (NDS) in Poland set for inorganic arsenic compounds are 0.3 mg/m3 and 0.2 mg/m3 for AsH3.
In nature,
Ion exchange may be defined as the exchange of ions between the substrate and surrounding medium. The most useful ion exchange reaction is reversible. When the reaction is reversible, the ion exchanger can be reused many times. Generally resins are manufactured in the spherical, stress and strain free form to resist physical degradation. They are stable at high temperatures and applicable over a wide pH range. Ion exchange resins, which are completely insoluble in most aqueous and organic solutions, consist of a cross linked polymer matrix to which charged functional groups are attached by covalent bonding (Sherrington, 1998). The ion exchangers which contain cations or anions as counter-ions are called cation exchangers or anion exchangers, respectively. The usual matrix is polystyrene cross linked for structural stability with 3 to 8 percent of divinylbenzene (3-8 % DVB) (Kunin, 1958; Helfferich, 1962). The resins of higher cross linking (12-16% DVB) are more costly, both to make and to operate and they are specially developed for heavy duty industrial applications. These products are more resistant to degradation by oxidizing agents such as chlorine, and withstand physical stresses that fracture lighter duty materials. Typical ion exchangers are produced with a particle size distribution in the range 20-50 mesh (for separation of anions from cations or of ionic species from nonionic ones). For more difficult separations, materials of smaller particle size or lower degrees of cross linking are necessary. Moreover, when the separation depends solely upon small differences in the affinity of the ions, a particle size of 200-400 mesh is required and when the selectivity is increased by the use of complexing agents, the particle size in the 50-100 mesh is adequate. The ion exchangers finer than 100 mesh are employed for analytical purposes and for practical applications on the commercial scale the materials finer than 50 mesh are used.
Depending on the type of functional groups of exchanging certain ions, the ion exchangers with strongly acidic e.g., sulphonate -SO3H, weakly acidic e.g., carboxylate -COOH, strongly basic e.g., quaternary ammonium -N+R3 and weakly basic e.g., tertiary and secondary amine -N+R2H and -N+RH2 should be mentioned. The strong acidic cation exchangers are well dissociated over a wide pH range and thus reaching its maximum sorption capacity. On the other hand, weak acidic cation exchangers containing, for example, carboxylic functional groups reach the maximum sorption capacity at pH> 7.0 as presented in Fig.1.
The sorption capacity of ion exchangers depending on pH.
Additionally, ion exchangers possess: the iminodiacetate functional groups (-N{CH2COOH}2), phenol (-C6H4OH), phosphonic (-PO3H2) and phosphine (-PO2H) functional groups. These groups are acidic in nature and are dissociated with the exchange of H+ or Na+ ions for other cations from the solution. Negative charge of the functional groups is offset by an equivalent number of mobile cations so-called counter ions. Counter ions can be exchanged for other ions from the solution being in the contact with the resin phase.
There are also amphoteric exchangers, which depending on the pH of the solution may exchange either cations or anions. More recently these ion exchangers are called bipolar electrolyte exchange resins (BEE) or zwitterionic ion exchangers (Nesterenko & Haddad, 2000). The aminocarboxylic amphoteric ion exchangers AMF-1T, AMF-2T, AMF-2M, ANKB-35 as well as the carboxylic cation exchanger KB-2T were, for example used for recovery of Ni(II) from the Mn(NO3)2–H2O system (Kononowa et al. 2000).
The individual ions present in the sample are retained in varying degrees depending on their different affinity for the resin phase. The consequence of this phenomenon is the separation of analyte ions, such as metal ions, however, the nature and characteristics of the resin phase determine the effectiveness of this process (Fritz, 2005). The affinity series which for various types of ion exchangers are as follows:
It is well known that the affinity of sulphonic acid resins for cations varies with the ionic size and charge of the cation. The affinity towards cation increases with the increasing cation charge:
Na+< Ca2+<Al3+<Th4+,
and in the case of different cations with the same charge the affinity increases with the increasing atomic number:
Li+< H+< Na+< NH4+ < K+< Rb+< Cs+< Ag+< Tl+
Mg2+ < Ca2+ < Sr2+ < Ba2+
Al3+ < Fe3+.
Generally, the affinity is greater for large ions with high valency.
For the strong acidic cation exchanger the affinity series can be as follows:
Pu4+ >> La3+ > Ce3+ > Pr3+ > Nd3+ > Sm3+ > Eu3+ > Gd3+ > Tb3+ > Dy3+ > Ho3+ > Er3+ > Tm3+ > Yb3+ > Lu3+ > Y3+ > Sc3+ > Al3+ >> Ba2+ > Pb2+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Ni2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Co2+ > Zn2+ > Mg2+ > UO22+ >> Tl+ > > Ag+ > Cs+ > Rb+ > K+ > NH4+ > Na+ > H+ > Li+\n\t\t\t\t
and for Lewatit SP-112 it is as: Ba2+ > Pb2+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Ni2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Co2+ > Zn2+ > Fe2+ >Mg2+ > K+ >NH4+ > Na+ >H+.
Cation exchangers with the carboxylic functional groups show the opposite the affinity series for alkali and alkaline earth metal ions. Noteworthy is the fact that the cations exhibit a particularly high affinity for H+. The affinity of this type of cation is therefore as follows:
H+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+ > Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+.
The charge of the anion affects its affinity for the anion exchanger in a similar way as for the cation exchangers:
citrate > tartrate > PO43- > AsO43- > ClO4- > SCN- > I- > S2O32- > WO42- > MoO42- > CrO42- > C2O42-\n\t\t\t\t
> SO42> SO32-> HSO4- >HPO42- > NO3- > Br- > NO2- > CN- > Cl- > HCO3- > H2PO4- > CH3COO-
> IO3- > HCOO- > BrO3- > ClO3- > F- > OH-\n\t\t\t\t
for
ClO4- > I- > HSO4- > NO3- > Br- > NO2- > Cl- > HCO3- > CH3COO- > OH- > F-,
for
ClO4- > I- > HSO4- > NO3- > Br- > NO2- > Cl- > HCO3- > OH- > CH3COO- > F-
Only with the exception of the OH- ion, the affinity of the anion exchangers with the tertiary and secondary functional groups is approximately the same as in the case of anion exchangers with the quaternary ammonium functional groups. These medium and weakly basic anion exchangers show very high affinity for OH- ions.
Anion exchange materials are classified as either weak base or strong base depending on the type of exchange group. These are two general classes of strong base anion exchangers e.g. types 1 and 2 depending on chemical nature. The synthesis of the weak base anion exchangers with the tertiary amine groups is usually provided by the chloromethylation of PST-DVB followed by the amination by secondary amine (Drăgan & Grigoriu, 1992). Weak base resins act as acid adsorbers, efficiently removing strong acids such as sulphuric and hydrochloric ones. They are used in the systems where strong acids predominate, where silica reduction is not required, and where carbon dioxide is removed in degasifiers. Preceding strong base units in demineralizing processes, weak base resins give more economical removal of sulphates and chlorides. The selectivity for the bivalent ions such as SO42- depends strongly on the basicity of the resin, the affinities of various functional groups following the order: primary > secondary > tertiary > quaternary. Therefore among the factors affecting the sorption equilibrium the most important are: first of all nature of functional groups and the concentration of the solution (Boari et al. 1974). At low concentration the resin prefers ions at higher valency and this tendency increases with solution diluting. It should be also mentioned that obtaining resins with the primary amine functional groups is difficult by chemical reactions on polystyrene-divinylbenzene copolymers. Weakly basic anion exchangers can be used, for example for zinc cyanide removal from the alkaline leach solutions in the Merrill Crowe process (Kurama & Çatlsarik, 2000).
The development in polymerization technique has provided novel matrices for a series of new ion exchangers. They differ from the earlier corresponding copolymers that are characterized by being essentially cross linked gels of polyelectrolytes with pore structure defined as the distance between polymeric chains.
It is well known that the fouling of the resin by organic compounds and mechanical stress imposed by plant operating at high flow rates are the most important problems encountered in the use of the ion exchange resins (De Dardel & Arden, 2001). To overcome these problems the ion exchangers with a high degree of cross linking containing artificial open pores in the form of channels with diameters up to 150 nm were introduced (Fig. 2).
The structure of gel and macroporous ion exchangers (http://dardel.info/IX/index.html)
The first macroporous ion exchanger was a carboxylic resin made by Rohm and Haas, which covered a wide variety of acrylic compounds copolymerized with polyvinyl cross linking agents to make insoluble, infusible weakly acidic resins. By 1948 AmberliteTM IRC-50, made by the copolymerization of methacrylic acid and divinylbenzene was in production and possessed the ‘sponge structure’ (Abrams & Milk, 1997). According to the definition by Stamberg and Valter (1970) the macroporous resin should be characterised by measurable inner surface by any suitable method resulting from pores 5 nm, even in the completely dried state. In contrast, the gel materials did not show any porosity in the dry state. Then the term ‘macroreticular’ (sometimes abbreviated to MR) was selected to distinguish resins with a particular type of porosity obtained by application of precipitating diluents such as t-amyl alcohol. In 1979 Amber-Hi-Lites stated that ‘macroreticular’ resins are those made by a copolymerization technique which brings about precipitation during the polymerization, thus resulting in a product which has two phases, a gel phase in the form of microspheres formed during the phase separation and the pore phase surrounding the microspheres (Kunin, 1979). Later when quantitative porosity measurements were used it was shown that other methods of preparation gave products similar to those declared as ‘macroreticular’. Therefore classification of resins should be based on their properties and function (Ion exchange resins and adsorbents, 2006).
During last decades the great progress was made by the development of the macroporous ion exchange resins. It should be mentioned that macroporous resins can also perform as adsorbents because of their pore structure. For organic ion exchange resins based on cross linked polystyrene the porosity was originally selected by the degree of cross linkage. These gel type resins are able to sorb organic substances from water according to their degree of porosity and the molecular weight of the adsorbate. They not only allow for large molecules or ions to enter the sponge like structure but also to be eluted during the regeneration. Therefore they perform two functions: ion exchange by means of the functional groups and the reversible adsorption and elution due to the macroporous structure. They are also resistant against organic fouling which results in a longer resin life compared with the conventional gel type ion exchangers as well as the quality of the treated water is much better because of the adsorption of organic species by the macroporous structure. The SEM scan of the macroporous anion exchanger Lewatit MonoPlus MP 500 is presented in Fig. 3.
SEM scans of macroporous resins.
Ion exchange applications can be performed by either column (flow continuous) and batch technique. In column operations the ion exchange resin is placed in the vertical column to form a bed. Once the application is completed, the resin can be regenerated to use in another cycle. In batch operations the resin is shacked in a vessel with the solution to be treated. After the application is completed, the resin can be regenerated in place or transferred to a column for regeneration.
While the main aims in the production of conventional ion exchangers were focused on obtaining a high ion exchange capacity and improved chemical resistance and thermal and mechanical strength, in the case of monodisperse ion exchange resins, these efforts directed towards improvement of kinetic parameters. Heterodisperse ion exchangers are usually characterized by a standard grain size of 0.3-1.2 mm and uniformity coefficient (UC) within the limits of 1.5-1.9. In the case of monodisperse ion exchange resins during the manufacturing process the grain size from 0.6 mm and uniformity coefficient within the limits 1.1-1.2 is usually achieved. In addition, monodisperse ion exchangers, due to the uniform packing of the column, show more than 12% higher ion exchange capacity, faster kinetics of exchange and a much higher mechanical strength, which is extremely important from the economical point of view. As the particle size of the ion exchanger material and its uniformity are the most important parameters influencing the hydraulics and kinetics of the ion exchange therefore the monodisperse ion exchangers provided better flow characteristics in column applications in comparison to the conventional heterodisperse ion exchangers (the flow rate decreases with the decreasing particle size, however, smaller particles have larger outer surface, but cause larger head loss in the column processes) (Scheffler, 1996; Krongauz & Kocher, 1997). The visualization of the monodisperse and hetrodisperse ion exchangers is presented in Fig. 4a-b.
For example the research carried out by Zainol & Nicol (2009a) shows that in the the sorption process of Ni(II) and other metal ions the monodisperse resin (Lewatit MonoPlus TP 207) proved to be superior to the conventional heterodisperse ones in terms of loading capacity for Ni(II) and also the kinetics of adsorption. This makes it a preferred choice for different applications.
The monodisperse and hetrodisperse ion exchangers.
The influence of temperature on the equilibrium properties of ion exchange resins was studied extensively. The decrease of the capacity of the cation exchange resins based on the polystyrene matrix due to the operation temperature is not a significant problem. However, the relatively slight decomposition gives enough decomposition products to cause significant problems elsewhere. This may be decomposition of the bone polystyrene matrix, resulting in styrene sulphonic acid derivatives or as a substitution of the sulphonic group giving sulphate. Further decomposition of styrene sulphonic acid derivatives will also result in sulphate as one of the end products (desulphonation). The amount of sulphate produced is sometimes high. The information on the stability of the ion exchange resins mainly deals with the anion exchange resins. The mechanism of the degradation of quaternary ammonium salts and tertiary anions is well-known (Reynolds, 1982; Fernandez-Prini, 1982; Fisher, 2002). The effect of temperature on the properties of chelating ion exchangers was also described in the paper by Ivanov (1996).
Ion exchange technique can remove traces of ion impurities from water and process streams and give a product of desired quality. Ion exchangers are widely used in analytical chemistry, hydrometallurgy, antibiotics, purification and separation of radioisotopes and find large application in water treatment and pollution control (Clifford, 1999; Luca et al. 2009). The list of metals which are recovered and purified on an industrial scale by means of ion exchange include: uranium, thorium, rare earth elements (REEs), gold, silver, platinum metals (PGM), chromium, copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt and tungsten.
In some of these cases, the scale of operations is relatively small, for instance in the rare earth elements or noble metals, but the values of recovered metals are very high. Ion exchange process is particularly suitable for purification of metal ions with a high value and low processing. The alternative is also a process of large-scale recovery of trace amounts of metals from waste streams, such as cadmium and mercury, chromium, or copper and zinc. The use of ion exchange processes in hydrometallurgy is high and every year continues to grow. It is associated mainly with the progress of what is observed in the synthesis of new selective chelating ion exchangers containing complexing ligands (Minczewski, et al. 1982;
Typical disadvantage of lack a of the selectivity towards heavy metal ions and alkali and alkaline earth metal ions of most widely used functionalized ion exchangers such as Chelex 100 is overcome by introducing chelating ligands capable of removing selective metal ions. It exhibits high affinity for heavy metal ions:
Generally, the functional group atoms capable of forming chelate rings usually include oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Nitrogen can be present in a primary, secondary or tertiary amine, nitro, nitroso, azo, diazo, nitrile, amide and other groups. Oxygen is usually in the form of phenolic, carbonyl, carboxylic, hydroxyl, ether, phosphoryl and some other groups. Sulphur is in the form of thiol, thioether, thiocarbamate, disulphide groups etc. These groups can be introduced into the polymer surface by copolymerization of suitable monomers, immobilization of preformed ligands, chemical modification of groups originally present on the polymer surface. However, the last two are most often used (Warshawsky, 1987). Chelating resins with such type of ligands are commonly used in analysis and they can be classified according to Fig.1. (Kantipuly et al. 1990). The choice of an effective chelating resin is dictated by the physicochemical properties of the resin materials. These are the acid-base properties of the metal species and the resin materials, the polarizability, selectivity, sorptive capacity, kinetic and stability characteristics of the resin. The sorption capacity of chelating ion exchangers depends mainly on the nature of functional groups and their content as well as solution pH as for their selectivity it depends on the relative position of functional groups, their spatial configuration, steric effects, and sometimes their distance from the matrix and to a lesser extent on the properties of the matrix. Their use allows the recovery of valuable metals from ores and sludge, sea water and industrial effluents. They are used as flotation agents, depressants, flocculants and collectors.
It is worth emphasizing that these resins are invaluable wherever it is necessary to concentrate or remove elements present in very low concentrations.
With a range of well known chelating ion exchangers only a few types are produced on an industrial scale. Among the most important ones these with the functional groups: amidoxime, dithiocarbamate, 8-hydroxychinoline, iminodiacetate, aminophosphonic, bispicolylamine, diphosphonic, sulphonic and carboxylic acid groups, thiol, thiourea as well as isothiourea should be selected (Sahni & Reedijk, 1984; Busche et al. 2009). Among them the chelating ion exchangers possessing methylglucoamine, bis(2pirydylmethyl)amine also known as bispikolilamine, thiol etc. are used for special applications such as removal of precious metal ions, heavy metal ions from the acidic medium, boron and special oxoanions removal. A separate group are ion exchangers of solvent doped type used for In, Zn, Sn, Bi, etc. separation. The advantages of ion exchangers from these groups include good selectivity, preconcentration factor, binding energy and mechanical stability, easy regeneration for multiple sorption-desorption cycles and good reproducibility in the sorption characteristics.
The choice of hydroxamic acids is based on their application in mineral processing as collectors in flotation of haematite, pyrolusite or bastnaesite ores. The copolymer of malonic acid dihydroximate with styrene-divinylbenzene was used for uranium(VI) removal from sea water (Park & Suh, 1996). In the paper by Ahuja (1996) it was found that glycin hydroximate resin shows maximum adsorption for Fe(III), Cu(II) and Zn(II) at pH 5.5; for W(VI), U(VI), Co(II) and Ni(II) at pH 6.0 as well as for Cd(II) at pH 6.5. It can be recommended for separation of Cu(II) from Co(II) and Ni(II) at pH 5.5. However, the iminodiacetic– dihydroximate resin can be applied for U(VI), Fe(II), Cu(II) separation according to the affinity series:
and metal ions are coordianated by the hydroxamide functional group (a).
Chelating resins with the amidoxime functional groups such as Duolite ES-346, and Chelite N can be applied for the concentration of solutions containing Ag(I), Al(III), Cd(II), Co(II), Cr(III), Cu(II), Fe(III), Hg(II), Mn(II), Ni(II), Mo(VI), Pb(II), Ti(IV), U(VI), V(V) and Zn(II) in the presence of alkali and alkaline earth metal ions (Samczyński & Dybczyński, 1997; Dybczyński et al. 1988). Alkali and alkaline earth metal ions are poorly retained by these resins. Duolite ES-346 is commonly used to extract uranium(VI) from seawater and As(III) from aqueous solutions. It can be also applied for Pd(II) removal (Chajduk-Maleszewska & Dybczyński, 2004). It is characterized by high selectivity towards Cu(II) ions due to the presence of amidoxime groups and small quantities of hydroxamic acid (RCONHOH):
where: R is the resin matrix.
It was found that for the amidoxime resins the selectivity series can be as follows:
However, the second reaction is the representative of the degradation of amidoxime groups under less acidic conditions (pH < 3.0). The increase in pH causes the weakening of the hydrogen ions competition for active sides resulting in an increase in the complexation of metal ions such as Cu(II). The fact that the degradation of the functional groups of Duolite ES-346 occurs under the influence of strong mineral acids is a serious problem which can significantly reduce the chelating capacity of the resin. However, this effect was made use of the recovery of adsorbed ions on the resin ion exchange. Corella et al. (1984) demonstrated that poly(acrylamidoxime) can be successfully used for the preconcentration of trace metals from aqueous solutions.
Also salicylic acid is a ligand which can selectively complex with Zn(II), Pb(II), Fe(III). Using the salicylic acid loaded resin for preconcentration of Zn(II) and Pb(II), it was proved that the preconcentration factors are much higher than those for bis(2-hydroxyethyl)dithiocarbamate (Saxena et al. 1995). However, the phenol-formaldehyde resin with the salicylaldoxime and salicylaldehyde functional chelating groups shows high selectivity for Cu(II) ions (Ebraheem & Hamdi, 1997).
The affinity order of metal complexes of salicylaldoxime is as follows: Fe3+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+.
The high affinity for transition metal ions is also exhibited by the classes of ion exchangers with the dithiocarbamate functional groups (including commercially available Nisso ALM 125), in which sulphur is the donor atom. Ion exchangers of this type have high affinity for the Hg(II), Pb(II), Cd(II) ions as well as precious metal ions, however, they do not adsorb alkali and alkaline earth metals. It was shown that dithiocarbamates obtained with the share of primary amines are less stable than those obtained with the share of secondary amines, and the binding of metal ions to the functional group of the donor atom increases in the number of Fe2+ < Ni2+ < Cu2+. The sorption efficiency is dependent on the presence of ions in the solution such as SCN-. In the paper by McClain and Hsieh (2004) the selective removal of Hg(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) was presented. This resin is also effective for separation and concentration of Mn(II), Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II), Fe(III) and Zn(II) from complex matrices (Yebra-Biurrun et al. 1992). The copolymer of poly(iminoethylo)dithiocarbamate was used for sorption of VO2+, Fe(II), Fe(III), Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) (Kantipuly et al. 1990)
A simple method for immobilization of 8-hydroxyquinoline in a silica matrix is described by Lührmann (1985). The sorbent was used in the sorption of Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), Fe(III), Cr(III), Mn(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) and Hg(II) at pH from 4 to 6. It was shown that the sorption capacity varies in the range from 0.2 to 0.7 mM /g, and the partition coefficients from 1×103 to 9×104. Ryan and Weber showed (1985) that this type of sorbent has better sorption properties with respect to Cu(II) than Chelex 100 with the iminodiacetate functional groups. Th sorbents based on 8-hydroxyquinoline can be used, e.g. for concentration of the trace metal ions Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cr(III) from sea water (Pyell & Stork, 1992).
Recently the attention has been paid to the ion exchangers with the amino- or iminoacids groups. The presence of two carboxyl groups and the tertiary nitrogen atom provides strong preference for chromium(III) and copper(II) (Marhol & Cheng, 1974). Therefore, for the commercial chelating ion exchangers such as Chelex 100, Dowex A 1, CR-20, Lewatit TP 207, Lewatit TP 208, Purolite S 930, Amberlite IRC 748 (formely Amberlite IRC 718) or Wofatit MC-50 the sorption process of metal ions proceeds according to the order: Cr3+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ > Cd2+ > Fe2+ > Mn2+ > Ca2+ >> Na+. This type of ion exchangers also exhibis high affinity for Hg(II) and Sb(V) ions. It should be noted that depending on the pH value they may occur in the following forms (Zainol & Nicol. 2009a):
At pH <2.0 the nitrogen atom and the two carboxylic groups are protonated. In this case the chelating ion exchanger with the iminodiacetic functional groups behaves as a weakly basic anion exchanger. At pH ~ 12, the nitrogen atom and the two carboxylic groups undergo deprotonation – the ion exchanger behaves as a typical weakly acidic cation exchanger. For pH medium values, the iminodiacetic resin behaves as an amphoteric ion exchanger. The iminodiacetate groups provide electron pairs so that the binding force for the alkaline earth metals is 5000 times as large as that for alkali metals like Ca(II), which react with divalent metals to form a stable coordination covalent bond. Therefore, the affinity series determined for the iminodiacetic ion exchanger can be presented in the order:
Amberlite IRC 748 in the K(I) form was also used for removal of Ca(II), Mg(II) from the potassium chromate solution (Yua et al. 2009). The optimum pH obtained for Ca(II) and Mg(II) adsorption onto Amberlite IRC 748 from the potassium chromate solution is 9.8 and 9.5, respectively. It was also noted that an increase of temperature and resin dosage resulted in their higher adsorption and the equilibrium conditions were attained within 480 min. The experimental data were relatively well interpreted by the Langmuir isotherm and the monolayer adsorption capacities of Ca(II) and Mg(II) were equal to 47.21 mg/g and 27.70 mg/g, respectively. This is of great importance because manufacturing of chromium trioxide by electrolyzing chromate salts, as a green process with the zero emission of waste, is studied widely now (Li et. al 2006). It should be also pointed out that separation factors between Mg(II) and Ca(II) and other divalent metal ions on an iminodiacetate resin are much smaller than those expected from the stability constants of their IDA complexes in solutions. Such phenomena were qualitatively described as the ‘polymer effect’ or operation of ion exchange as well as complexation reactions. Pesavento et al. (1993) gave a quantitative explanation for these anomalies on the basis of the Gibbs-Donnan model. Ca(II) and Mg(II) ions are adsorbed forming the R(Hida)2M complexes in acidic media and R(ida)M in neutral and alkaline systems whereas Ni(II) or Cu(II) etc. forms the R(ida)M complexes:
Commercially available chelating resins with the iminodiacetate functional group (Amberlite IRC 748, Lewatit TP 207, Lewatit TP 208, Purolite S 930, Lewatit MonoPlus TP 207) have been evaluated for their suitability for the adsorption of Ni(II) and other metal ions (Al(III), Ca(II), Co(II), Cr(III), Cu(II), Fe(II/III), Mg(II), Mn(II) and Zn(II)) from the tailings of a pressure acid leach process for nickel laterites. The Amberlite IRC 748 and TP MonoPlus 207 resins were found to be the most suitable in terms of loading capacity for nickel and kinetics of adsorption. Although all the five resins studied have the same functional groups their performance is not identical. The observed differences are possibly caused by variations in the synthesis procedure which results in variations in the structure of the matrix, degree of cross linking, density of functional groups, proportion of iminodiacetate groups and also the particle size (Zainol & Nicol, 2009a)
Additionally, the research carried out by Biesuz et al. (1998) shows that in the case of Ni(II) and Cd(II) sorption the structure of formed complexes is different. Ni(II) forms complexes of R(ida)M type, whereas Cd(II) R(idaH)2M. However, in the paper by Zagorodni & Muhammed (1999) it was stated that the complexes R(Hida)2M should be extremely weak or even impossible. The adsorption equilibrium of Ni(II), Co(II), Mn(II) and Mg(II) on Amberlite IRC 748 has been discussed in (Zainol & Nicol, 2009b). The resin proves to have high selectivity for Ni(II) and Co(II) which suggests that these metals can be easily separated from Mg(II) and Mn(II) at pH 4 and 5. The following order of selectivity of the resin was also found: Ni(II) > Co(II) > Mn(II) > Mg(II).
The kinetics of Cd(II) sorption from separate solutions and from the mixtures with the nonionic surfactant Lutensol AO-10 (oxyethylated alkohols) in the hydrogen form of chelating iminodiacetic ion exchanger has also been investigated (Kaušpėdieniė et al. 2003). It was stated that the sorption of Cd(II) from separate solutions and from the mixture with AO-10 is controlled by the intraparticle diffusion in acidic (pH 5) and alkaline media (pH 7.6). The presence of AO-10 leads to a decrease in the rate of intraparticle diffusion. The iminodiacetate resin has a large collective adsorption with Cr(III) ion. The Cr(III) form bearing waste water can be removed at any pH in the range 3-6 at 2h of the phase contact time. Therefore for treatment of leather tanning, electroplating, textile and dyeing waste water the application of this resin is economical (Gode & Pehlivan, 2003)
Adsorption of trivalent metal ions on iminodiacetate resins was not studied as extensively as that of divalent metal ions. The known selectivity order of trivalent metal ions on an iminodiacetate resin can be presented as: Sc3+ > Ga3+ > In3+ > Fe3+ > Y3+ > La3+ > Al3+ (Yuchi et al. 1997).
Also since the end of the 1960s fibrous adsorbents with the iminodiacetic acid groups have been studied. For example, the capacity of a commercially available iminodiacetic acid fiber named Ionex IDA-Na was established to be 0.9-1.1 mmol/g for Cu(II). The fibrous materials containing iminodiacetate groups were developed by the group of Jyo et al. (2004). Although the metal ion selectivity of the present fiber was close to that of iminodiacetic acid resins, the metal adsorption rate of chloromethylstyrene-grafted polyethylene coated polypropylene filamentary fiber is much higher than that of commercially available granular exchangers of this type having cross-linked polystyrene matrices. In the column mode adsorption of Cu(II), breakthrough capacities of Cu(II) were independent of the flow rates of feeds up to 200-300/h. The main reasons for the extremely fast adsorption rate of sorbent can be ascribed to the diameter of the fiber being much less than those of the resins as well as to the fact that the functional groups were introduced onto non cross linked grafted polymer chains. Their chemical and physical stabilities are comparable to those of commercially available iminodiacetic acid resins.
Among various types of ion exchangers with the acidic ligands, those having phosphonate functionality are of particular interest since they are selective towards heavy metal cations. Development of this type of ion exchangers started in the late 1940s with phosphorylation of poly(vinyl alcohol) using various phosphorylating agents (Trochimczuk & Streat, 1999; Trochimczuk 2000). Besides phosphate, phosphinic and phosphonic resins, containing –OPO(OH)2, –PO(OH) and -PO(OH)2 functional groups, respectively, they also contain methylenediphosphonate, ethylenediphosphonate and carboxyethyl phosphonate ones (Marhol et al. 1974;
Kabay, 1998a; Ogata et al. 2006). In all cases they display good selectivity towards metal ions even at very low pH (except for ethylenediphosphonate and carboxyl containing resins, being less acidic, more selective at the pH value from 1 to 2).
Chelating ion exchangers with the phosphonic functional groups are characterized by extremely high selectivity towards Th(IV) and U(IV,VI) as well as Cu(II), Cd(II), Zn(II), Ni(II), Ag(I), Au(III) and Fe(III) ions. Commercially available resins containing the phosphonic groups are Diaion CRP200 and Diphonix® Resin. In the case of Diphonix® Resin besides the diphosphonic functional groups in the structure of the ion exchanger, there are also carboxylic and sulphonic functional groups whose presence determines better hydrophilic properties. Diphonix® Resin as well as Diphonix A with the functional phopshonic and ammonium (type 1) or pyridyne (type 2) groups have been of significant interest lately (Chiarizia et al. 1993; Horwitz et al. 1993; Chiarizia et al. 1994; Chiarizia et al. 1996, Alexandratos, 2009). Diphonix® Resin was developed by the Argonne National Laboratory and University of Tennessee. It is synthesized by a patented process involving copolymerization of tetraalkylvinylidene diphosphonate with styrene, divinylbenzene, and acrylonitrile followed by sulphonation with concentrated sulphuric acid. Finding a method for effective copolymerization of vinylidene-1,1-diphosphonate (VDPA) ester was a major achievement because of the steric hindrance imposed on the vinylidene group by the diphosphonate group. This difficulty was overcome by using another relatively small monomer, acrylonitrile, as a carrier to induce polymerization of vinylidene-1,1-diphosphonate (Horwitz et al. 1994; Horwitz, et al. 1995). The protonation constants of Diphonix Resin® which are pK1 and pK2 < 2.5 pK3=7.24 and pK4=10.46 appear almost equal to the protonation constants of the starting material VDPA which are pK1=1.27, pK2 = 2.41, pK3=6.67 and pK4=10.04 (Nash et al. 1994).
In the past few years there were many publications on the separation of lanthanides and actinides on the chelating resins with the phosphonic groups. Lanthanides in minerals occur in small amounts, usually in the form of mixtures, often isomorphic, so that their extraction and separation create many problems. To this end also Diphonix® Resin can be used especially at low pH. It is characterized by high affinity for U(VI), Pu(IV), Np(IV), Th(IV), Am(III) and Eu(III). It was found that from 1 M HNO3 solutions the distribution coefficient of Diphonix® Resin for U(VI) ions is 70,000 compared to 900 for sulphinic acid resin (Alexandratos, 2007) and the recovery coefficient for Eu(III) under the same conditions is 98.3, whereas for the sulphonic acid resin 44.9 (Ripperger & Alexandratos, 1999). In the paper by Phillips et al. it was demonstrated that Diphonix Resin® can be successfully used for removal of uranium from the solutions of pH > 5 including high concentration of NO3- ions as it is less sensitive to interference by such ions as carbonates, nitrates(V), sulphates(VI), Fe(III), Ca(II) and Na(I) (Philips et al. 2008). It can be also used for removal of V(V), Cr(III), Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Hg(II) and Pb(II) form waters and waste waters; V(V), Cr(III), Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Hg(II) and Pb(II) from drinking water; Mn(II), Co(II) and Ni(II) from waste waters of the oil industry; Cr(III) from acidic solutions, Fe(III) from the solutions containing complexing agents in the process of removing scale and radionuclides from radioactive waste waters. Smolik et al. (2009) investigated separation of zirconium(IV) from hafnium(IV) sulphuric acid solutions on Diphonix Resin®. It was found that the best medium for separation of hafnium(IV) and zirconium(IV) is 0.5 M sulphuric acid. A decrease in temperature lowers the degree of metals separation, while lower flow rates through the column increases zirconium(IV) from hafnium(IV) separation. Recent studies have shown that Diphonix Resin® can also be used for removal of Cd(II) and Cr(III) from the phosphoric acid solutions through column tests. Kabay et al. (1998b) found that the acid concentration strongly determines the resin behaviour with respect to the sorption/elution of Cd(II) and Cr(III). In the paper by Cavaco et al. it was pointed but that Diphonix Resin® has strong affinity for Cr(III) ions and high selectivity towards Fe(III) and Ni(II) (Cavaco et al. 2009). The mechanism of sorption on Diphonix Resin® can be written as (Hajiev et al. 1989):
R−(PO3H2)22- + M2+ ⇄ R−(PO3H2)2-→M2+\n\t\t\t
where: R is the resin matrix.
However, according to the literature, Diphonix Resin® has the best selectivity for transition metals such as Fe(III), Cu(II) and Ni(II) over Cr(III). High affinity of Diphonix Resin® for Fe(III) compared to the mono- and divalent ions e.g. Ca(II) was reported in several papers. Owing to its very good separation capability, Diphonix Resin® was also applied in the project FENIX Iron Control System to remove iron from the spent copper electrolyte in Western Metals Copper Ltd. (Queensland, Australia). In this plant, copper(I) sulphate(VI) was used as a reducing agent at the reaction temperature of 85 °C to increase the elution of Fe(III):
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6HR ⇄ 2Fe(R)3 + 3H2SO4
CuSO4 + Cu ⇄ Cu2SO4
2Fe(R)3 + 3H2SO4 + Cu2SO4 ⇄ 2FeSO4 + 2CuSO4 + 6HR
where: R is the resin matrix.
In the paper by Lee & Nicol (2007) it was proved that sorption capacities of Diphonix Resin® for Fe(III) and Co(II) ions in the sulphate(VI) system at pH 2 are equal to 130 mg/g and 90 mg/g, respectively.
The obvious disadvantage of this ion exchanger is therefore the fact that it is difficult to remove Fe(III) ions. To this end 1-hydroxyethane-1,1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP) is used. In the case of Cr(III), Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Hg(II), Sn(II) and Pb(II) ions 2M H2SO4 can be also applied.
In the group of chelating ion exchangers containing phosphonic and aminophosphonic functionalities the resins with aminoalkylphosphonic functional groups, such as Duolite C-467, Duolite ES-467, Lewatit OC 1060, Purolite S 940, Purolite S 950 and Chelite P occupy a significant position. In the sorption of heavy metal ions on this kind of chelating ion exchangers the following affinity series is obtained: Pb2+ > Cu2+ > UO22+, Zn2+, Al3+ >Mg2+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Cd2+ > Ni2+ > Co2+ > Na+ > Ba2+. These ion exchangers as well as the previously mentioned phosphonic ones exhibit poor affinity for Ca(II) and Mg(II). The effectiveness of sorption of the above mentioned metal ions, however, decreases with the decreasing pH. It is worth mentioning that depending on pH value, the aminoalkylphosphonic groups may occur in the following forms:
and therefore the selectivity of metal ions sorption depends on the degree of ionization of phosphonic groups. In the case of acidic solutions due to protonation of the nitrogen atom of aminophosphonic group there are formed combinations with the following structure:
One of the most favourable modes of chelation of the phosphonic acid group is the formation of a four-membered ring through determination of two P-OH groups.
Additionally, in the case of the aminoalkylphosphonic groups, due to the fact that between the aromatic ring of the matrix and the nitrogen atom there is also presented the alkyl group, the increase of the electron density on the nitrogen atom of the amino group is expected. It affects the growth of its protonation. Therefore, this preferred zwitterion form can be as follows:
However, the possibility of coordination of the secondary nitrogen atom at lower pH seems to be impossible with respect to its protonated nature and also for steric reasons. Therefore the only potential donor and binding sites of Duolite ES-467 are the oxygen atoms of the phosphonic groups at lower pH values. The chelating, aminomethylphosphonic functional group is also potentially a tridentate ligand having two bonding sites at a phosphonic acid groups and one coordination site at the secondary nitrogen atom (Kertman, 1997; Nesterenko et al. 1999). Formation of a four membered ring through bonding of one of the OH groups and coordination of the oxygen atom has also been reported. These structures are presented below:
Chelating ion exchangers with the aminoalkylphosphonic functional groups, like picolylamine resins - Dowex M 4195 exhibits moderate selectivity for Cu(II) over Fe(III) in the acidic sulphate(VI) solutions compared to the iminodiacetic acid resins which show no or limited selectivity depending on pH. The stability constants for divalent metal ions with aminomethylphosphonic acid have been found in the order: Ca2+ < Mg2+ < Co2+ < Ni2+ < Cu2+ > Zn2+ (Sahni et al. 1985). In the paper by Milling and West (1984), it was found that Duolite ES-467 possesses a higher capacity for copper(II) ions compared to nickel(II) and iron(III) and that the capacity decreases with the decreasing pH and metal ion concentration in the solution.
Besides Duolite ES-467, Purolite S 950 has been proved to have a high affinity for various heavy metal ions and it is successfully applied in metallurgical and wastewater treatment processes. In the paper by Koivula et al. (2000) Purolite S-950 was used for purification of effluents from metal plating industry containing Zn(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) ions. Among others, it was stated that Purolite S-950 showed lower sorption capacity equal to 1.2 eq/dm3 for zinc chloride compared to zinc solutions containing KCl and NH4Cl (1.3 eq/dm3). Under analogous conditions the sorption capacity for Cd(II) was 1.1 eq/dm3. Recovery of Ni(II) and Co(II) from organic acid complexes using Purolite S 950 was also studied by Deepatana & Valix (2006). They found that sorption capacities for nickel sulphate(VI) for Dowex M4195 (94.51 mg/g), Amberlite IRC 748 (125.03 mg/g) and Ionac SR-5 (79.26 mg/g) are much higher than those for Purolite S-950 in the case of sorption of Ni(II) complexes with citric acid (18.42 mg/g), malic acid (14.45 mg/g) and lactic acid (19.42 mg/g) mainly due to the steric hindrance. For Co(II) ions analogous results were obtained (citric (5.39 mg/g for citric acid; 7.54 mg/g for malic acid and 10.48 mg/g for lactic acid). The elution efficiencies of these complexes from Purolite S-950 resins were high (82–98%) therefore it would appear that the adsorption process involves weak interactions. However, in the case of the sorption of Cu(II) and Zn(II) ions from the sulphate solutions at pH 1.9 on the aminomethylphosphonic resin Lewatit R 252K and the iminodiacetic resin Lewatit TP 207 it was found that separation factors were much lower for Lewatit R 252K (83.0 at 10 oC and 30.0 at 80 oC) than for Lewatit TP 207 (1.67 at 10 oC and 1.4 at 80 oC) (Muraviev et al. 1995).
Selective ion exchange resins also include chelating ion exchangers containing N-methyl (polyhydroxohexyl)amine functional groups also called methylglucamine. Commercially available ion exchangers of this type are: Amberlite IRA 743, Duolite ES-371, Diaion CRB 02, Dowex BSR 1, Purolite S 108 and Purolite S110.
These ion exchangers show high selectivity for boron (in the form of trioxyboric acid H3BO3) (Alexandratos, 2007; Alexandratos, 2009). The boron sorption process proceeds according to the scheme:
Besides boron the following components of waste water should be also taken into account: Na(I), K(I), Ca(II), Mg(II), Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, CO32- and effects should be also considered. Ion exchangers of this type can be used in the removal of Cr(VI) and As(V) (Dambies et al. 2004; Gandhi et al. 2010) although the mechanism of sorption of chromate ions(VI) involves both electrostatic interactions with the protonate amino group and the reduction of Cr(Vl) to Cr(III):
As for arsenate removal the process should be conducted from aqueous solutions at neutral pH. The percent removal of arsenate from the aqueous solution of 100 mg/ dm3 arsenate and 560 mg/dm3 sulphate on NMDG resin is 99% and the reaction is unaffected by the presence of phosphate ions and the solution pH above 9.0, indicating that it can be regenerated with the alkaline solution. It was determined that the key variable in its selectivity is that the resin has to be protonated prior to contact with the aqueous solution (Alexandratos, 2007).
The ion exchange resins with the bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (bpa) functional groups also known as bispicolylamine are capable of selective sorption of transition metals, particularly Cu(II) ions due to the presence of donor atoms (nitrogen atoms) which are capable of coordination reaction with Cu(II). Due to this fact, such chelating ion exchange resins can combine ion exchange and complexing reactions and then exhibit high selectivity for metal ions. Dowex M 4195 possessing such functional groups is commercially available. It was synthesized in the early 1970s by Dow Chemical Co. and formerly known as Dowex XFS-4195 or DOW 3N. Also two others: Dowex M4196 (formerly Dowex XFS-4196) N-(2-hydroxyethyl)picolylamine or Dowex XFS-43084 (DOW 2N) with N-(2-hydroxypropyl)picolylamine were recognized (Jones & Pyper, 1979; Grinstead, 1984).
Bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (bpa) is an uncharged tridentate ligand having the ability to form charged complexes with most divalent metals. The 1:1 complexes with the metal ions of [M(bpa)]2+ type are stable (Hirayama & Umehara, 1996). Based on the pKa values of bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (pK1=0.5, pK2=2.2, pK3=3.4), it can be stated that at low pH values three nitrogen atoms would be protonated, while in the middle range of pH only one. For instance, Cu(II) ions (the coordination number is equal to 4) with the bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine group and water molecule coordinate to it giving a square planar structure. In the next stage the H2O molecule can be replaced by the anion, which is able to coordinate Cu(II) by a ligand exchange reaction:
R−N(bpa)2 + H+ ⇄ R−NH+(bpa)2
2R−HN+(bpa)2 + M2+ ⇄ [R−HN+(bpa)2]2→M2+\n\t\t\t
The complexes formed in the resin phase possess the following structure:
The obtained complex ion exchanger provides a new mode for the recognition of ions in the chromatographic analysis. Dowex M-4195 is a weak base ion exchanger and 1 M H2SO4 is in the protonated form (pKa = 3.2). It is also resistant to osmotic shock. Diniz et al. (2000, 2002, 2005) showed that the affinity series of metal ions determined in the one-component system for Dowex M 4195 is as follows: Cu(II) > Ni(II) > Co(II) > Pb(II) > Fe(III) > Mn(II) and it is slightly different from that in the multicomponent system: Cu(II) > Ni(II) > Pb(II) > Fe(III) > Co(II) > Mn(II). The affinity of the transition metal cations for Dowex M 4195 in most cases was in agreement with the Irving-Williams order (Irving and Williams, 1953): Fe(II) < Co(II) < Fe(III) < Ni(II) < Cu(II) > Zn(II). It can be used for purification of chloride solutions after leaching of Mn(II) containing trace amounts of Co(II), Pb(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II). It can be also used for gold recovery (Tuzen, 2008).
On a commercial scale Dowex M 4195 has been used, among others, for separation of Ni(II) ions in the presence of Co(II) at INCO’s Port Colborne refinery in Canada and Zambia Chambishi Cobalt Plant (Diniz et al. 2005) for purifying cobalt electrolytes. The efficiency of sorption of both ions is affected not only by pH, but by also by the concentration of sulphate(VI) ions and temperature. It is worth mentioning that separation of the twin pair Co(II)-Ni(II) is one of the most difficult tasks in inorganic chemistry. Contrary to Lewatit TP 207 and Amberlite IRC 718 with the iminodiacetate functional groups, Dowex M-4195 is characterized by the maximum sorption capacity towards Cu(II) ions in the pH range 1-4 (Melling and West, 1984). The sorption process can be presented in the following reaction:
RHn + Cu2+ ⇄ R–Cu2+ + nH+
where: R is the resin matrix, n is the stoichiometric ratio, for n≠2 the SO42- ions sorption occurs.
Partial washing out of copper(II) ions proceeds by means of 4M H2SO4, whereas the total one by means of NH3 H2O. In the case of sorption of Cu(II) ions sorption in the presence of Fe(III) ions, the ion exchange mechanism must be assumed. Sorption of both ions is affected not only by pH, but also by concentration of sulphate(VI) ions and temperature. Fe(III) ions sorption increases significantly with the temperature rise from 293 K to 303 K, whereas it does not change for Cu(II) ions.
The ion exchangers with the picolylamine functional groups can be the basis for obtaining the polymeric ligand exchanger (PLE) with the structure presented above (Zhao et al. 1998; Kołodyńska 2009c):
Such kind of ion exchanger consists of the cross linked polystyrene-divinylbenzene matrix, covalently attached bispicolylamine functional groups and Lewis acid cations (such as Cu2+, Ni2+, Fe3+, Co2+ according to the series: Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Fe3+ > Co2+) coordinated to the functional groups and without neutralization of their positive charge so that the anion exchanger is obtained. It is expected to show high affinity not only for phosphates(V) HPO42-, arsenate(V) HAsO42- and chromate(VI) CrO42- ions but also oxalates ox2-, perchlorates ClO4-, tartaric acid as well as simultaneous and selective removal of heavy metal and chromate ions (contrary to other ion exchangers) (Saygi et al. 2008; Dimick, 2008; Du et al. 2008). It was found that for phosphates(V) HPO42- removal, the sorption efficiency is much higher than that for the strongly basic macroporous anion exchanger Amberlite IRA 958 and proceeds according to the reaction:
R–M2+(2Cl-) + HPO42- ⇄ R–M2+(HPO42-) + 2Cl-
The desorption process can be written as follows:
R–M2+(HPO42-) + 2Cl- + H+ ⇄ R–M2+(2Cl-) + H2PO4-
R–M2+(HPO42-) + 2Cl- ⇄ R–M2+(2Cl-) + HPO42-
Four chelating ion exchange polymeric resins were tested to remove Ni(II) and Co(II) from synthetic solutions on the commercially available ion exchangers Dowex M4195, Amberlite IRC 748, Ionac SR-5 and Purolite S930. Among the selected resins, Dowex M4195 showed the best results for Ni(II) and Co(II) selective sorption from acid liquors in the whole pH range and with small influence of other elements. Even at pH 1 Dowex M4195 was the most effective (Mendes & Martins, 2004).
In the group of ion exchangers with the thiol functional groups (Chelite S, Duolite ES-465, Imac GT 73) Imac TMR resin is very important. It is the macroporous ion exchanger with the PS-DVB matrix, which besides the thiol ones, also possesses the sulphone groups. Imac TMR is used for selective sorption of Hg(II) ions from the process solutions as well as Ag(I), Au(III), Pt(IV) and Pd(II). The sorption process of Hg(II) with the saline solution proceeds according to the reaction:
Dowex Retardion 11A8 is an example of a very interesting ion exchanger of the type ‘snake in a cage’ with the quaternary ammonium and carboxylic functional groups (amphotheric resin) (Dybczyński, 1987). It is produced by polymerizing acrylic acid monomer inside an anion exchange resin. Polyacrylic chains are (snake) alternate with the PS-DVB matrix (cage) and therefore they are trapped inside the cross linked ion exchange resin and cannot diffuse out. As a result, cationic and anionic sites are so closely associated that they partially neutralize their electric charges. Mobile ions, such as chlorides, nitrates(V) are attracted and retained on these unique sites until they are eluted with hot water.
Dowex Retardion 11A8 can be used for selective separation of Cd(II) ions in the presence of other heavy metal ions (Samczyński & Dybczyński, 2002). Cd(II) ions are sorbed from 2 M HCI and 2 M NH4OH with 0.1 M NH4Cl systems according to the reactions:
The impregnated resins obtained by physically loaded organic reagents on a solid inert support material such as Amberlite XAD resins are an attractive material for separation and preconcentration of heavy metal ions (Prabhakaran & Subramanian, 2003). They are characterized by good porosity, uniform pore size distribution, high surface area as a chemical homogeneous, non-ionic structure. For instance, it was found that Amberlite XAD-2 functionalized with dithiocarbamate ligand, 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulphonic acid (chromotropic acid), 2(2-thiazolylazo)-
In general, sorption selectivity of a resin can be affected by both sorbate-sorbent and sorbate-solvent interactions. It has been well recognized that resin matrix and functional groups can strongly affect ion exchange capacity and selectivity. Therefore in the presented paper the chelating ion exchangers Diphonix Resin® containing diphosphonic, sulphonic and carboxylic acid groups and Dowex M 4195 with the bis(2-pyridylmethyl) amine functional group were used for the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Co(II), Pb(II) complexes with Baypure CX 100 (IDS) and Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) complexes with Trilon M (MGDA). The presence of the sulphonic functional groups determines better hydrophilic properties of Diphonix Resin® compared to the traditional monofunctional ion exchangers.
In the paper the results of the sorption of heavy metal ions such as Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) in the presence of the complexing agents of a new generation Baypure CX 100 (IDS) and Trilon M (MGDA) on commercially available chelating ion exchangers are presented.
The essential physicochemical properties of these chelating agents are given in Table 1.
The chelating ion exchange resins Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® were tested. Their short characteristics are presented in Table 2.
Structure | ||
Form supplied | liquid | liquid |
Molecular weight | 337.1 | 271.0 |
Appearance | colourless to light yellow | clear yellowish |
pH | 10.3-11.4 | 11.0 |
Density [g mL-1] | 1.32-1.35 g/mL | 1.31 g/mL |
Solubility in H2O | in any ratio | in any ratio |
Solubility in NaOH | in any ratio | in any ratio |
Biodegradability [%] | "/> 80% | "/> 68% |
Termal stability | in any range | in any range |
Physicochemical properties of IDA and MGDA.
Matrix | PS-DVB | PS-DVB |
Structure | macroporous | gel |
Functional groups | bis(2-pyridylmethyl) amine bis-picolylamine | diphosphonic sulphonic carboxylic |
Commercial form | weak base, partially H2SO4 salt | H+ |
Appearance | brown to green, opaque | beige, opaque |
Total capacity | 1.3 [eq/dm3] | 5,6 [mol/kg] |
Moisture content | 40-60 % | 58.3 % |
Bead size | 0.300-1.200 [mm] | 0.074-0.150 [mm] |
Density | 0.67 [g/cm3] | 1.05-1.11 [g/cm3] |
Max temp. range | 353 K | 313 K |
Operating pH range | 2 – 6 | 0 – 12 |
Physicochemical properties of Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin®.
Before the experiments, the resins were washed with hydrochloric acid (0.1 M) or sulphuric acid (0.5 M) to remove impurities from their synthesis. After pre-treatment they were washed with deionised water.
The solutions of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with Baypure CX 100 and Trilon M with the desirable concentrations were prepared by mixing appropriate metal chlorides or nitrates with the complexing agents solutions, respectively. For the studies the obtained solutions were used without pH adjustment. The pH values of the solutions of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS were as follows: 6.7, 6.5, 69 and 7.3, respectively. For the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with MGDA these values were equal to 8.3, 9.8, 10.5 and 10.4. The other chemicals used were of analytical grade.
In batch experiments, 50 cm3 of sample solution and ion exchanger (0.5 g) were put into a conical flask and shaken at different time intervals using the laboratory shaker Elpin type 357, (Elpin-Plus, Poland). After the pH of solutions was stabilized and equilibrated, the ion exchangers were filtered. The experiments were conducted in three parallel series. The reproducibility of the measurements was within 5%. Adsorption isotherms were obtained with different initial concentrations varying from 1×10-3 M to 2.5 ×10-2 M of metal ions and ligands while keeping the constant amount of resins at room temperature (295 K). The equilibrium between the solid and liquid phases was modelled by the Langmuir and Freundlich equations as presented earlier (Kołodyńska, 2010a; Kołodyńska 2010b; Kołodyńska 2010c). Kinetic studies were carried out at different time intervals varying from 1 to 120 min keeping the constant amount of resins at room temperature (295 K). The shaking speed was 180 rpm to maintain resin particles in suspension.
The amount of heavy metal complexes sorbed onto the resins was calculated by the difference between the amounts added and already present in the solution and that left in the solution after equilibrium.
The pH values were measured with a PHM 84 pH meter (Radiometer, Copenhagen) with the glass REF 451 and calomel pHG 201-8 electrodes. The concentrations of heavy metals were measured with the AAS spectrometer Spectra 240 FS (Varian, Australia).
As for the removal of toxic metal ions many different methods are available. Among them, the most commonly used are ion exchange, adsorption, reduction and precipitation. In many cases, the environmentally most compatible and cost-effective solutions include combination of two or more of these processes. From different waste waters those containing heavy metal ions and complexing agents require special attention.
For over fifty years synthetic chelating agents from the group of aminopolycarboxylic acids (APCAs) have been the basis in many technological processes. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) are the best known traditional complexing agents. They are commonly applied in many branches of industry forming stable, water soluble complexes with various metal cations or as a masking agent. Nowadays there are a number of alternative products on the market which claim to be as effective as EDTA and NTA. Among them, IDS and MGDA should be listed.
Iminodisuccinic acid (IDS) also known as Baypure CX 100 is a medium-strong chelator consisting of: iminodisuccinic acid sodium salt > 32%, aspartic acid sodium salt < 7%, fumaric acid sodium salt < 3.5 %, hydroxysuccinic acid < 0.9 %, maleic acid sodium salt < 0.9 % (IDS Na-salz, 1998; Vasilev et al. 1996; Vasilev et al. 1998; Reinecke et al. 2000, Kołodyńska et al. 2009; Kołodyńska, 2009a). Iminodisuccinic acid sodium salt can form quintuple-bonded complexes with metal ions. In this case, complexing occurs via the nitrogen and all four carboxyl groups. As a result of the octahedric structure of the complete complex, a water molecule is required for the sixth coordination point (Kołodyńska, 2009b). In the paper by Hyvönen it was found that for low pH conditions (less than 3), the tendency for M(II)/M(III) ions to form complexes with IDS may be assumed as: Cu(II)>Fe(III)>Zn(II)>Mn(II), whereas for pH >7 it can be as follows: Cu(II)>Zn(II)> Mn(II)>Fe(III) (Hyvönen et al. 2003; Hyvönen & Aksela, 2010). IDS is able to replace EDTA when rather moderate chelating agents are sufficient for masking alkaline earth or heavy metal ions. As a substitute for EDTA it is used in a variety of applications, including detergent formulations, corrosion inhibitors, production of pulp and paper, textiles, ceramics, photochemical processes, and as trace nutrient fertilizers in agriculture.
Methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA) was patented by BASF and marketed under the brand name Trilon M. The active ingredient contained in Trilon M is the trisodium salt of methylglycinediacetic acid. The acid dissociation constants pKa of MGDA are as follows: pK1=1.6, pK2=2.5 pK3=10.5 (Jachuła et al. 2011; Jachuła et al. 2012). The most important property of Trilon M is the ability to form complexes (MGDA is a tetradentate chelating ligand where chelation involves three carboxylate groups and nitrogen atom) with metal ions, soluble in water in the large pH range 2-13. These complexes remain stable, especially in alkaline media and even at temperatures of up to 373 K. It is worth mentioning that MGDA chelating capacity was investigated by Tandy et al. (2004) in soil washing. It was found that 89-100% of MGDA can be degraded in 14 days, 90% of EDDS in 20 days while no EDTA was degraded in 30 days.
Fig. 5a-b shows the comparison of the logarithmic stability constants (log K) for the complexes of IDS and MGDA and selected metal ions with the stability constants for EDTA.
a-b. Comparison of conditional stability constants values of some complexes of metals with EDTA and IDS (a) as well as EDTA and MGDA (b).
A high or moderately high value for log K of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) and first of all Fe(III) with IDS and MGDA indicates that these chelating agents have a high affinity for particular metal ions and they provide a preliminary indication of whether the chelating agent is suitable for the specific application.
As these complexing agents are widely applied, removal of their complexes with heavy metals is essential, especially when typical chemical precipitation methods are ineffective, even if solutions with high metal concentrations are treated. Therefore, more advanced techniques are required for cleaning up such contaminants and retardation of heavy metal ions mobility. Among these, the ion exchange with application of selective resins appears to be a more promising method for the treatment of such solutions.
Generally, chelating properties and selectivity of ion exchangers have been enhanced by: (i) immobilization of ligands with multiple coordinating sites such as bifunctional polymers or polyfunctional polymers possessing different functional groups, (ii) immobilization of low molecular weight complexing agents, (iii) by preparation of ion imprinted polymers (IIP), (iv) preparation of reactive ion exchangers (RIEX), (vi) immobilization of specific donor groups through application of Pearson’s hard soft acid base theory, (vii) immobilization of macrocycles e.g. crown ethers, calixarenes, resorcinarenes etc. These approaches correspond to both chelating ion exchangers Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin®. Additionally, their sorption selectivity can be affected by sorbate-sorbent and sorbate-solvent interactions. It has been well recognized that the resin matrix and the functional groups can strongly affect ion exchange capacity and selectivity (Clifford & Weber, 1983; Barron & Fritz, 1984; Li et al. 1998). Therefore, in the case of chelating ion exchangers, where the formation of coordination bonds is the basis of the sorption process, besides the parameters related to physicochemical properties of the resins, the effect of the presence of complexing agents should be also taken into account.
In the presence of the complexing agents, IDS and MGDA, there are formed:
M2+ + Hnidsn-4 ⇄ [M(Hnids)]n-2 where n=1,2,3
and
M2+ + Hnmgdan-3 ⇄ [M(Hnmgda)]n-2, where n=1,2.
Therefore using selective chelating ion exchangers the sorption effectiveness will be dependent on the decomposition of neutral or anionic species of [MH2L], [MHL]- and [ML]2- type, where L=ids4-, mgda3-. Additionally, the ‘sieve effect’ is also important (Kołodyńska, 2010b; Kołodyńska 2010c; Kołodyńska 2011). In the case of the chelating resin Dowex M 4195 possessing the bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (bpa) functional groups, depending on the pH value the mechanism of sorption can be as presented earlier. Additionally, the ionic interaction mechanism between the protonated amines and the anionic complexes of the [ML]2- and [ML]- is also possible (Kołodyńska 2011). Therefore, appropriate reactions can be as follows:
2R−HN+(bpa)2 Cl- + [ML]2- ⇄ [R−HN+(bpa)2]2[ML]2- + 2Cl-\n\t\t\t
R−HN+(bpa)2 Cl- + [MHL]- ⇄ [R−HN+(bpa)2][MHL]- + Cl-\n\t\t\t
or
R−HN+(bpa)2 Cl- + [ML]- ⇄ [R−HN+(bpa)2][ML]- + Cl-\n\t\t\t
where: R is the Dowex M 4195 skeleton (PS-DVB), L is the ids4- or mgda3- ligand.
The analogous mechanism of sorption in the case of Diphonix chelating ion exchanger should be considered.
Kinetic studies
For the kinetic data, a simple kinetic analysis was performed using the pseudo first order and the pseudo second order equations:
where: qe is the amount of metal complexes sorbed at equilibrium (for the pseudo first order model also denoted as q1 and q2 for the pseudo second order model) (mg/g), qt is the amount of metal complexes sorbed at time t (mg/g), k1, k2 are the equilibrium rate constants (1/min), respectively.
The sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS on Dowex M 4195 in the M(II)-L=1:1 system is presented in Fig.6a. The analogous data for the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with MGDA sorption on Dowex M 4195 are presented in Fig.6b and for Diphonix Resin® in Figs.6c and 6d.
a-b. The effect of the phase contact time on the sorption capacities of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS on Dowex M 4195 (a) and Diphonix Resin® (c) as well as the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with MGDA on Dowex M 4195 (b) and Diphonix Resin® (d) (c0 1×10-3 mol/dm3, shaking speed 180 rpm, shaking time 1-120 min, room temperature).
The straight lines of t/qt vs. t suggest the applicability of the pseudo second kinetic model to determine the qe, k2 and h parameters (from the intercept and the slope of the plots). These kinetic parameters are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
It was shown that the equilibrium was reached very quickly. More than 90% of metal ions were bound to Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® within 10-20 min of the phase contact time and therefore a slight increase until a plateau was reached after about 2 h was observed. The values of the theoretical qe for the studied resins were in good agreement with those obtained experimentally (qe,exp). On Dowex M 4195 about 95 %, 100 %, 99 % and
Cu(II)-IDS=1:1 | 5.63 | 5.61 | 1.012 | 5.789 | 0.9987 |
Zn(II)-IDS=1:1 | 5.91 | 5.88 | 1.007 | 4.897 | 0.9988 |
Cd(II)-IDS=1:1 | 9.81 | 9.89 | 0.987 | 12.456 | 0.9999 |
Pb(II)-IDS=1:1 | 19.10 | 19.00 | 0.845 | 16.789 | 0.9992 |
Cu(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 6.05 | 5.98 | 2.335 | 9.237 | 0.9999 |
Zn(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 4.17 | 4.03 | 1.017 | 16.783 | 0.9996 |
Cd(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 12.55 | 12.23 | 0.924 | 10.123 | 0.9999 |
Pb(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 17.77 | 17.46 | 0.688 | 7.525 | 0.9999 |
The pseudo second order kinetic parameters for the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS and MGDA on Dowex M 4195.
Cu(II)-IDS=1:1 | 6.12 | 6.21 | 2.211 | 10.207 | 0.9999 |
Zn(II)-IDS=1:1 | 6.01 | 6.09 | 1.345 | 7.123 | 0.9991 |
Cd(II)-IDS=1:1 | 10.21 | 10.11 | 0.988 | 23.434 | 0.9999 |
Pb(II)-IDS=1:1 | 20.39 | 20.26 | 0.876 | 37.551 | 0.9998 |
Cu(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 5.66 | 5.61 | 3.469 | 11.111 | 0.9999 |
Zn(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 4.48 | 4.48 | 2.395 | 48.077 | 0.9999 |
Cd(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 10.23 | 10.24 | 0.024 | 2.475 | 0.9999 |
Pb(II)-MGDA=1:1 | 18.94 | 18.93 | 0.188 | 67.568 | 0.9999 |
The pseudo second order kinetic parameters for the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS and MGDA on Diphonix Resin®.
97.5 % of the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS and 94 %, 98 %, 96 % and 95 % complexes with MGDA are sorbed at this time, respectively. On Diphonix Resin® for the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS and MGDA the adequate values are as follows: 94 %, 89 %, 97 % and 98 % as well as 97 %, 86 %, 99 % and 96 %. These results indicate that the sorption process of metal ions in the presence of IDS and MGDA on Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® followed a pseudo second order kinetics, which meant that both the external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion together were involved in the sorption process. The correlation coefficients (R2) obtained for the pseudo second order kinetic model are in the range 0.9991 -1.000 for all metal complexes. The pseudo first order parameters were not shown because the correlation coefficients for this model are low (0.7438-0.8745 for the IDS complexes and 0.919-0.986 for the MGDA complexes on Diphonix Resin®.
The breakthrough curves for Cu(II) ions in the presence of MGDA on Dowex M4195 from single metal ion solutions of a concentration 1x10–3 M are shown in Fig. 7. Typical ’S’ shaped curves were obtained in the experiments. Analogous results were obtained on Diphonix Resin®. It should be mentioned the UV exposition does not have a significant effect on the decomposition of the complexes in the resin phase.
The breakthrough curves of Cu(II) complexes with MGDA on Dowex M 4195 without and with UV exposition (c0 1×10-3 mol/dm3, bed volume 10 cm3, flow rate 0.6 cm3/min)
It is well known that the particle size of ion exchange resins influences the time required to establish equilibrium conditions and two types of diffusion must be considered in an ion exchange equilibrium e.g. the film diffusion (the movement of ions from a surrounding solution to the surface of an ion exchange particle) and the internal diffusion (the movement of ions from the surface to the interior of an ion exchange particle). Film diffusion is usually the controlling reaction in dilute solutions whereas the internal diffusion is controlling in more concentrated solutions. The particle size of an ion exchange resin affects both the film diffusion and the internal diffusion (Kołodyńska, 2011).
According to the manufacturer data the particle size of Dowex M 4195 is 0.300-1.200 mm. However, Diphonix Resin® available on the commercial scale is in the range 0.30-0.85 mm, 0.15-0.30 mm and 0.075-0.15 mm.
In the presented paper Diphonix Resin® with the particle size 0.075-0.150 mm was used to study the sorption process of Cu(II), Zn(II), CdII) and Pb(II) in the presence of IDS and MGDA. In the paper by Cavaco et al. (2009) it was found that for the range 0.15-0.30 mm, 50 % of the particles have diameters less than 0.223 mm. As follows from the obtained results, the bead size of the used chelating ion exchangers has also approximately the Gaussian distribution (Fig. 8 a-b). It was found that with the increase of bead dimensions, the volume fractions of disc-similar beads decrease and the beads are more spherical (Kołodyńska, 2011).
A decrease in the particle size thus shortens the time required for equilibration of particle size and pore characteristics have an effect on equilibrium concentration and influence sorption kinetics. Therefore this factor is essential, especially when the sorption of metal complexes, not metal ions is taken into account. In the case of large complexes the sieve effect is observed.
Kinetic sorption experiments were also carried out with the increased complexes concentrations from 1×10-3 mol/dm3 to 2×10-2 mol/dm3 and these results were presented in
a-b. Comparison of the distribution of the bead size of Dowex M 4195 (a) and Diphonix Resin® (b) based on the Zingg classification.
(Kołodyńska, 2011). It was found that with an increase of metal complexes concentrations a continuous increase in the amount adsorbed per unit mass of ion exchanger was observed till the equilibrium was achieved. For the pseudo second order kinetic model, the rate k2 values decrease with the increasing initial concentrations, while h increases.
The effect of pH was studied for the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) in the M(II)-IDS=1:1 and M(II)-MGDA=1:1 systems at the pH varied from 2 to 12. The optimal sorption range of the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with IDS practically does not change in the pH range from 4 to 10 both on Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® whereas, at high pH values, decrease in removal efficiency is observed. In the case of the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes with MGDA a slight decrease in sorption efficiency with the increasing pH was also shown.
The Langmuir equation was applicable to the homogeneous adsorption system, while the Freundlich equation was the non-empirical one employed to describe the heterogeneous systems and was not restricted to the formation of the monolayer. The well-known Langmuir equation was represented as:
where: qe is the equilibrium M(II) ions concentration on the ion exchanger, (mg/g), ce is the equilibrium M(II) ions concentration in solution (mg/dm3), q0 is the monolayer capacity of ion exchanger (mg/g), b is the Langmuir adsorption constant (L/g) related to the free energy of adsorption.
The values of q0 and b were calculated from the slope and the intercept of the linear plots ce/qe vs. ce. On the other hand, the Freundlich equation was represented as:
where: KF and 1/n are the Freundlich constants corresponding to the adsorption capacity and the adsorption intensity.
The plot of ln qe vs. ln ce was employed to generate the intercept KF and the slope 1/n.
The exemplary results presented in Fig.9a-b indicate that for the studied range of concentration of Cu(II) complexes with MGDA (1×10-3 M - 2×10-2 M) the sorption capacity of Dowex 4195 and Diphonix Resin® increases.
a-b. The effect of the concentration on the sorption capacities of Cu(II) complexes with MGDA on Dowex M 4195 (a) and Diphonix (b) (c0 1×10-3 -20x10-3 mol/dm3, shaking speed 180 rpm, shaking time 1-120 min, room temperature).
The experimental data obtained for the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) in the presence of IDS and MGDA on Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® were well represented by the Langmuir isotherm model (Table 5). The correlation coefficients of the linear plot of ce/qe vs. ce obtained from them were high, ranging from 0.9512 to 0.9999 (Kołodyńska, 2011). The highest values of the Langmuir parameter q0 were obtained in the case of Pb(II)
0.023 | 0.9876 | 9.54 | 3.21 | 0.9865 | |||
0.046 | 0.9923 | 6.23 | 2.45 | 0.9456 | |||
0.008 | 0.9998 | 4.23 | 4.58 | 0.9687 | |||
0.012 | 0.9989 | 1.23 | 5.69 | 0.9623 | |||
0.026 | 0.9932 | 12.48 | 4.23 | 0.9758 | |||
0.052 | 0.9983 | 7.56 | 3.69 | 0.9823 | |||
0.061 | 0.9996 | 6.23 | 6.11 | 0.9877 | |||
0.042 | 0.9999 | 2.48 | 9.25 | 0.9837 |
The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm parameter values for the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions in the presence of IDS and MGDA on Dowex M4195.
complexes with IDS and MGDA on Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin®. They are equal to 121.58 mg/g and 97.64 mg/g on Dowex M 4195 and 112.37 mg/g and 100.20 mg/g on Diphonix Resin®, respectively.
For the studied systems regeneration tests were conducted using HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 and NaCl at 1M and 2M concentrations. Based on the series of five experiments using known amounts of Cu(II) complexes with IDS and MGDA sorbed, it was established that the overall recoveries of Cu(II) eluted from Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® by 2M HCl and H2SO4 were above 98 %, suggesting that the recovery is quantitative.
The presence of biodegradable complexing agents of a new generation that is IDS and MGDA affects the sorption process of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions on Dowex M4195 and Diphonix Resin®. The effectiveness of sorption depends on the type of complexes and their stability that facilitates their decomposition in the resin phase. The batch equilibrium was relatively fast and reached equilibrium after about 10-20 min of the contact. The experimental data have been analyzed using the Langmuir and Freundlich models. The sorption of studied metal ions in the presence of IDS and MGDA Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® followed the pseudo second order kinetics. As follows from the experiment pH does not have a significant effect on the sorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions in the presence of IDS and MGDA on the chelating ion exchanger under consideration. The affinity of the above analyzed heavy metal complexes with IDS and MGDA Dowex M 4195 and Diphonix Resin® were found to be as follows: Pb(II) > Cd(II) > Cu(II) > Zn(II) for IDS and MGDA. The studied complexing agents can be proposed as alternative chelating agents to EDTA or NTA for the removal of heavy metal ions from waters and wastewaters.
Disturbance has been defined as “a change in conditions which interferes with the normal functioning of a biological system” [1]. A “disturbed habitat” is an ecological concept indicating a temporary change in environmental conditions, which causes a pronounced change in the ecosystem. Disturbances can be human-caused or natural. Human disturbances include plowing, digging, construction activities, mowing, spraying weed-killing chemicals, clearing land for a garden, burning, severe livestock overgrazing, and so on. Natural disturbances include lightning strikes and fire; temperature changes, strong winds, ice storms, and tornadoes that topple or damage trees, heavy rain, flooding, hail, and erosion; and drought and earthquakes. The existence of relationships between the changes in the environment and health is well known, and it has been documented by numerous scientific studies conducted over the past half century within all animal species and humans. Moreover, it has become generally accepted that poor health conditions can produce behavioral alterations and consequently affect the quality and safety of animal products.
\nIn the recent years, consumers paid a great attention to the health and welfare of reared animal species. In 2007, in the article 13 of the Lisbon Treaty [2], the European Union has recognized animals as “sentient beings,” capable of feeling pleasure and pain. The OIE code recognizes the “Five Freedoms” as valuable guidance in farm animal welfare/health [3]. The Five Freedoms concept analyzes the main domains related to the raising and handling of animals like feeding/nutrition, housing, health, and behavior, and it is used by various animal welfare standards to assess the animals’ conditions. They were formulated in the early 1990s and are now well recognized as highly influential in the animal welfare arena. However, a marked increase in scientific understanding over the last two decades shows that the Five Freedoms do not capture, either in the specifics or the generality of their expression, the breadth and depth of current knowledge of the biological processes that are germane to understanding animal welfare and to guiding its management [4].
\nIn fact, welfare criteria and parameters vary among and within species and depend directly on human utilitarian interests about them. The establishment and governance of animal care procedures impact directly on welfare of every managed species and should be carried out with “human care,” thus anticipating and precisely estimating the resources to be provided to the animals by humans.
\nAdvocacy groups often claim that animals in human care “only” deserve a good life “worth living.” For animals to have “lives worth living,” it is necessary, overall, to minimize their negative experiences and at the same time to provide them with opportunities to have positive experiences. To ensure this, during the last 10–20 years, national and international regulations or codes of welfare have increasingly included provisions that extend the welfare management focus to include elements well beyond the basic survival needs of farm animals [4].
\nStressing factors due to an unsuitable habitat may produce behavioral, biochemical, and endocrine modifications in all the individuals that may be monitored by a series of well-known stress indicators such as the hematological profile, adrenal hormones (cortisol and its metabolites), acute-phase proteins, and d-ROMs. Biochemical modifications may lead to morphological alterations clinically manifested or not.
\nThis chapter will discuss the pathological modifications affecting farm, zoo, and wild animals due to “disturbed habitat” addressing specific critical points (Figure 1) detected in standard breeding systems (Figure 2) for farm animals and species living in natural/semi-natural habitat for zoo/wild animals. Sections have been organized according to the following division: farm animals (cattle and small ruminants, pigs, equine species, poultry, and fish), zoo, and wild species.
\nMain critical points for animal welfare.
Intensive livestock farming: (A) cattle, (B) pig, (C) horses, and (D) poultry.
Ruminants belong to the order Cetartiodactyla, which encompasses numerous species, and only a minority has been domesticated including cattle, sheep, and goats. Although these are suited to different habitats, in intensive farming systems, domestication has led to exposure to different stressors potentially responsible of pathologies.
\nFor centuries, cattle have been grown in a traditional manner, within small farms, mainly grazing. Since the second half of the nineteenth century, the continuous demand of protein products and the availability of grains and protein sources to low costs led to an intensive, highly specialized production system, where animals are “adapted” to meet the constraints caused by their housing conditions and the management practices [5], thus restricting their natural behaviors. Furthermore, individual selection for enhanced production traits has placed an even greater metabolic demand on these animals.
\nThe microenvironment experienced by cattle in houses, on open feedlots or at pasture is determined by the
The
As far as
Furthermore, the welfare of any animal clearly depends on the provision of sufficient food to supply principally energy (Net Energy [NE]), proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins, which are essential for the functions of life (maintenance, growth, activity, and reproduction). Failure to provide sufficient NE and optimal amounts of specific nutrients can lead to severe loss of body condition, infertility, and severe metabolic disorders. Growing beef cattle, housed, yarded or on feedlots, and presented with high energy and low fiber rations
(A) Beef cattle—abomasitis due to improper nutrition. (B) Beef cattle—heart. Arteriosclerotic alterations: diffuse intimal hyperplasia (*), medial smooth muscle cells reoriented and with disseminated vacuolar degeneration of the cytoplasm, moderate medial hypertrophy/hyperplasia (**). Histological section stained with H & E. Original magnification 20×. (C) Goat—udder. Traumatic teat injuries caused by milking. (D) Pig—lung. Pulmonary sequestration due to
For all the reasons stated above, the authors hypothesize that the stress related to the intensive livestock farming could also represent a mechanotransduction-promoting factor of subclinical pathological changes such as
Basically, the major farming systems of small ruminants are those based on pasture (extensive-grazing), the indoor ones (intensive-industrial), and the semi-intensive. The negative impact of intensification of breeding systems can be observed at several levels and is very similar to what has been discussed above for the cattle. However, limited studies on the small ruminant welfare have been carried out, since they are considered very rustic animals able to cope with prohibitive environmental conditions and inadequate management practices, without harming their welfare and productive performances. This aspect has been overrated for many years considering that also in sheep and goats, stress can impair growth rate, wool growth, and feed conversion efficiency, also leading to the development of multi-factorial diseases such as
The
The
With regard to
As seen above for cattle,
Genetic selection in domestic pigs has been widely exploited in order to achieve specific phenotypic characteristics. Many pigs are raised in intensive conditions and thus strongly conditioned by the environment where they live. Moreover, even free-ranging domestic pigs and wild boars may be strongly influenced by human activities. Several signs of suffering in swine have been described and they can be quantified using animal-based measures (ABMs) [11, 12]. Furthermore, researches on pig welfare and ABMs led to the identification of “iceberg indicators” such as body injuries and ear and tail lesions. These indicators can be a proxy of “disturbed habitat” which is strongly influenced by microclimate and/or management.
Equine meat consumption depends on cultural and traditional customs. Since it is a niche product, scientific community has made little efforts to define the main factors responsible for a “disturbed habitat” in this category. Equine breeds specifically selected for meat production do not exist and genetic selection focused more upon preserving and improving traits related to horses’ morphology and performance. Therefore, although equines’ domestication dates back to 5000 years ago, these species still retain the ancestral characteristics of their progenitors and feral equine populations can provide information about many aspects of equine behavior (e.g., social and foraging behavior). Considering the most important
Equines reared for meat production are housed in conditions that markedly differ from those in which they evolved. As a consequence, those animals attempt to adapt to the conditions in which they are kept performing functionless and repetitive activity known as
Bedding is an essential component in the
Regarding the equines’ opportunity to perform normal behaviors, it is important to guarantee an adequate space allowance to prevent aggressive reactions that might lead to stress competition for resources and for hierarchy establishment with consequent
Equines are grazing herbivores adapted to eating a forage-based diet. In nature, horses and donkeys spend about 16 hours per day foraging over wide distances, and this is essential for the health of their gastrointestinal tract and for their behavioral needs. On the contrary, equines in the breeding farms are fed high-energy, low-fiber concentrates, and this lack of foraging opportunity along with the high amount of concentrate feedstuff has been directly linked to the onset of
(A) Horse—gastric ulcer due to improper nutrition. (B) Chicken—footpad dermatitis. (C) Chicken—ascites. (D) Sea bream (
The concept of “disturbed habitat” in poultry farming can be almost entirely related to the continuously increasing production levels of the breeding programs, which are focused on increasing the growth rates and decreasing the feed conversion ratios of the animals. These
With regard to the
Management defects related to
The selection procedures focused on a high growth rate may cause specific diseases of the energy-supplying organs (in particular the intestine and the liver), as a result of the developing imbalances between oxygen supply and oxygen requirement. In particular,
Fish class is the biggest and the most differentiated among vertebrates. Fishes are adapted to different extreme situations as their evolutional success depends on their ability to thrive in a variable medium: water. One of the most remarkable examples of the strict connection between fishes and water is the fishes’ inability to regulate their internal temperature (ectothermic animals). Nowadays aquaculture is one of the more sustainable and economically favorable sources of animal protein. Studies on the effect and pathological results of the fishes’ “disturbed habitat” are well known due to common compromised (naive) situations. Considering wild habitats, we must sentence that they are strongly impacted by human activity (pollution, overfishing, and introduction of non-indigenous organisms), and this makes it difficult to define what is to be considered normal, not normal, or sub-normal for fishes in a specific situation. In farmed animals, the effect of “disturbed habitat” can sometimes become more evident and dramatic than into the wild [27]. Moreover, the severity of a given disease is dependent on the intricate interaction of numerous variables of the host, the pathogen, and the environment, among which the environment is the less-known factor [28]. In addition, early signs of suffering in fishes are difficult to relate to a specific disease by inexperienced staff. Commonly, acute stressed fishes show color changes because the melanin pigmentation in skin is under neuroendocrine control in fish and it is thus affected by hormones such as epinephrine involved in the first step of stress reaction. If a stress factor persists for a longer time, other hormones, such as cortisol, become dominant (chronic stress). The chronic stress induces immunodeficiency that causes a higher incidence of opportunistic disease outbreaks. Despite the difficulties explained above, in the following section, we will focus on the main stress factors that can impact fish welfare.
\nAmong
The
The literature merges concepts and definitions of modern zoos and aquaria as “centers for education and conservation.” In this sense, their animals are considered as “ambassador guests” or even stakeholders of the zoological institutions. Husbandry procedures impact directly on the welfare of every managed animal species and should be carried out with “human care” regardless of the context, artificial, semi-natural, or wild; this highlights the importance of precise estimation of the resources provided to the animals, by humans.
\nBut, is this always the case? Advocacy groups often claim that animals would only live a good life “worth living,” if they were left into the wild. In reply to this controversy stands the extremely relevant anthropic detrimental influence on the environment and a precise definition of “ex situ” as: “conditions under which individuals are spatially restricted with respect to their natural spatial patterns or those of their progeny, are removed from many of their natural ecological processes and are managed on some level by humans” [33].
\nThis concept has created a lot of confusion in the years, on whether the artificial environment could really provide excellent welfare conditions, to be evaluated directly on each individual. Welfare indicators in fact, vary among and within species, and depend directly on human interests and uses of them. This is particularly true for nondomestic species where individual case relevance is rare, fragmented, and often requiring comparison with their wild counterpart.
\nFor this reason, modern zoological institutions tend to mimic the irreplaceable wildlife observations and provide the animals with environmental resources extrapolated from previous
Zoo and aquarium “artificial habitat” construction takes into consideration the preparation of controlled microclimate systems [35]. For example, indoor air temperature, ventilation, and filtered aeration prevent transmission of
Health affects the animal’s welfare and the quality of its life. Veterinary programs address general and specific issues such as nutrition, reproduction, and management of geriatric individuals.
Wildlife is also strongly influenced by human impact on the environment, only from a different perspective. The correlation between “disturbed habitat” and pathology is in fact not always clear, nor evident for wild animals: disease and death are in fact processes of the normal circle of life, and can be considered as unnatural problems only when caused by human interference. As stated by the World Association of Zoo and Aquaria in Caring for wildlife (2015) [38]: “we affect animals by destroying their habitats, polluting their environment, introducing invasive species into their ecological systems, building structures in flight-paths, tilling the land, cutting trees, driving cars, burning fuel, and on and on….”
\nAn increased food demand, an intensification, and mechanization in agriculture, including use of chemical products, led to a widespread decline in farmland biodiversity and remarkable change of landscapes and habitats. The use of pesticides facilitates farmers’ work, thus menaces the environment and its living creatures. In the European rice fields, the butterfly
The effects of climate warming are recognized by everyone and lead to desertification in many countries, provoke unprecedented disastrous events, and affect ecosystems and species survival around the world, including our own. Glaciers melting at an increasing speed directly affect polar bears (
Invasive species became a very relevant problem [41]: the gray squirrel (
Artificial lights can affect plant’s photosynthesis, circadian rhythm, visual perception, and spatial orientation and can disorient many nocturnal species. Preys around lamps attract bats that also become more detectable by birds of prey. New road constructions are welcomed with enthusiasm, but they fragment habitats and represent insuperable dangerous barriers for crossing animals.
\nCoexistence between domestic and wild species can spread
Overexploitation of natural resources is a worldwide-recognized problem and animal collectors have a huge impact on biodiversity. Oriental medicine utilizes parts of wild animals (tigers, rhinos, sharks, seahorses, etc.). The indiscriminate fishing of the totoaba, a very popular fish, whose swim bladder represents an unremarkable black market value, has brought the small cetacean vaquita on the verge of extinction.
\nFinally, in the last decades, humans developed new types of sports and touristic attractions with animal direct contact and experience. As an example, ski mountaineering, a dangerous and exciting popular sport in the Alps, can be lethal for alpine animals, such as the black grouse (
In 1915, Cannon defined stress as a “perturbation of the homeostasis, the coordinated physiological process which maintains a steady state in the organism” [44]. A persistent stress condition may result in psychological and physiological pathology. From the perspective of domestic/wild animals, these pathologies may occur at a clinical or subclinical level and may manifest as altered behavior, decreased immune protection that impacts disease susceptibility, or altered metabolism that impacts either growth, production, or a combination of these responses.
\nThis chapter represents a non-exhaustive list including only a few examples of scientific evidence that farm animals or wildlife face multiple threats related to stressing factors/habitat disturbance, by direct or indirect human impact on the environment. While it is clear that we have been the major cause of these dramatic changes, we are also growing a generalized protective conscience towards natural resources. A virtuous search for new technologies and alternative human behavioral changes is now mandatory to minimize our impact and foster our survival on this planet [45, 46].
\nIn this contest, animal welfare relates to more than merely the physical health of an individual. Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives [47]. An animal is in a good state of welfare if it is in an appropriate social context, healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behavior, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and, ultimately, humane slaughter. Animal welfare refers to the state of the animal and protecting an animal’s welfare means providing for its physical and mental needs [8].
\nIn recent years, a great and growing attention is paid to the aspects of health and welfare of reared animal species. For farm animals, the initiative of people to care about the welfare of farm animals is based on their moral attitude and concern for the right and wrong treatment of animals, with presumed opposition to overexploitation and/or cruelty towards animals [48]. There is also growing concern for many consumers in Europe about farm animal welfare since it is becoming increasingly recognized as an important attribute of food safety and quality [48, 49]. To enhance animal welfare, a first essential step is to help animals to cope with their environment. Two different approaches can be used: firstly we propose to adapt the environment to the animals by improving management practices and housing conditions. This approach requires the active involvement of all stakeholders: veterinarians, behaviorists, animal scientists, the industrial farming sector, the food processing and supply chain, and consumers of animal-derived products. Secondly, we can create rearing conditions that better “prepare” animals for the environment in which they will be kept in later stages of their life.
\nAlso for zoo animals, as habitats and ecosystems become increasingly altered and populations evermore impacted by human activities, a growing number of species will require some form of management of both individuals and populations to ensure their survival. Zoo and aquaria aim to fulfill this role. Whereas zoos and aquariums of the past were places where animals were “displayed” for the pleasure of visitors, today’s zoos and aquariums are centers for conservation. They must ensure that the conditions for animals in their care are the best that can be delivered, providing environments that focus on the animals’ physical and behavioral needs. To accomplish this, it is necessary to make sure that animal care staff have relevant scientific training and expertise, developing and maintaining a staff culture that practices regular reporting and monitoring of animals’ behavior and health, employing veterinarians, biologists, welfare scientists, and behavioral experts, introducing different enrichments that provide challenges, choices, and comfort to animals to maximize their psychological health. In fact, the major features of animal welfare that are relevant to zoos and aquariums merge the following aspects: meeting animals’ basic survival needs for food, shelter, health, and safety and enhance their welfare above this survival minimum by increasing opportunities for animals to have positive experiences, focused, for example, on their comfort, pleasure, interest, and confidence. Although visitors’ direct impact on animal welfare is limited, their expectations have risen sharply and support the zoo and aquarium commitment to keep animals healthy and engaged, by also utilizing environmental enrichment skills [38].
\nTo conclude, considering the enormous number of animals whose life conditions are affected by human habits, all possible efforts can and must be made to improve their status in order to ban welfare-compromising procedures and practices as soon as possible.
\nThe authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression"},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/53837",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"53837"},fullPath:"/profiles/53837",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()