Tree-type theory analysis process.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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As the most safe, environmentally friendly and energy-saving oil and gas transmission method, pipelines have been widely constructed around the world. Compared with other methods of transportation, its safety is the highest, but more serious accidents can also occur, causing the public and the government to pay close attention in recent years [1]. Therefore, a correct understanding of pipeline accidents, prediction, and prevention of pipeline accidents is the basis for ensuring the safe operation of pipelines [2]. However, research in this area is mostly concentrated in the fields of construction, processing, and manufacturing of traditional industries. The study of accident causes, prediction, and prevention for the pipeline industry is relatively rare, which severely restricts the perception of pipeline accidents and limits the pertinence of the prepared response measures. The lack of theoretical basis for integrity management with the main purpose of preventing accidents has weakened the effect of pipeline integrity management [3].
First, this chapter discusses the characteristics of accidents and quantitative description methods. It can help to understand accidents logically and avoid deviations or mistakes in the cognitive process of accidents. Then, based on the cognition of the characteristics of accident, the author introduced the concept of fragile assessment to quantify the state of the system. It provided a new accident assessment description model for the industry and made it possible to recognize the cause of the accident and more formulated [4].
Accident cause theory is the theoretical basis for recognizing accidents and preventing similar accidents from occurring again. The current accident causality theories have certain limitations; they cannot find full life cycle problems and achieve targeted prevention. With the development of technology, the basis for analyzing the causes of accidents has changed, for example, it is easier to obtain a lot of data. This chapter is based on the ability to obtain a large amount of data, the cognition of accident characteristics, the analysis conclusions and statistics of a large number of accident causes, etc., proposes a theory of systematically analyzing the causes of accidents. This theory analogizes the life of the tree to describe this set of the accident cause theory. It is a new set of system analysis methods to the analysis of accident causes [5].
In order to predict and prevent accidents, it needs to know the cause of the accident. The era of big data makes this possible. In the past few years, big data technology has developed rapidly and has been widely used. Based on in-line inspection data or/and global positioning system (GPS) data, it is easy to setup the data model and make all data in one big database. The big data makes “samples = all”; it has the conditions of system failure analysis supported by multiple angles, full life cycle, and multiple information sources [6, 7]. In future, the prediction of pipeline failure model analyzes the failure factors of fragilities on big data, and uses Bayesian survival method by accident cause theory to predict life, and proposes that corresponding prediction models will be the hot pot of the research.
The accident is an inevitable product of human industrial development and an important way in which the industry naturally chooses to eliminate it. It is also an important driving force for the industrial progress. In this chapter, leakage or certain economic losses of pipeline system as accidents or failure is defined. Many times accidents are described as failures and no distinction is made here. According to the pipeline accident statistics report [8, 9, 10, 11], the causes of pipeline accidents are manifold, and most of them are caused by multiple factors. The industry has done a lot of analysis on the causes of pipeline accidents. However, in order to raise awareness of pipeline accidents, it is necessary to understand the accident intrinsically.
The accident has the following characteristics:
Inevitability: the accident will inevitably happen. It can only prevent accidents to the greatest extent, but it cannot prevent accidents from happening.
Irreversibility: any accident is irreversible, so it is more advantageous to increase the prediction and judgment of the accident than to ignore it.
Unknown: never know what will happen, unexpected accidents may occur at any time.
High probability: before the accident did not happen there will be lots similar but unhappen events. The types of accidents that have generally occurred will occur several times. The opposite is the small probability. For some type of small number incidents, it should be considered whether it is a low probability accident.
Not predictable: before the accident did not happen, it was considered that a very serious forecast may not be recognized. When an accident occurs, it cannot predict its consequences immediately. Dangerous factors may be safety, and unnoticed factors are often prone to accidents.
Recognize deviations: accidents, whether large or small, should be treated equally, but usually only serious accidents will be given attention. Experiments have found that people’s ease of feeling about different risks is closely related to their emotional responses to these risks. Judgments and decisions can be influenced by emotions that happen without any awareness. The process of dealing with small accidents is feeling easy, after dealing with major accidents. The reverse order is feeling irritating, panicking, and easy to treat with mistakes. In fact, only focusing on major accidents is losing the chance of discovering problems from small accidents and avoiding major accidents. It is easy to occurrence of “probability neglect.” There is a potential habit of coping with small risks, either completely ignored or over-emphasized and without buffers. “Availability bias” also affects the understanding of the accident. Such as public opinion, personal experiences, etc. will increase the impression of events, so that the brain is more likely to think of these things, so that these things are more likely to happen, but the reality may not be the case, this is only everyone’s own understanding.
Tolerance is not uniform: the accident is unchanged, but the tolerance of the accident changes with time or place. When there is a need for war or survival, the tolerance for accidents rises; and when peace time and economic conditions are good, the tolerance for accidents decreases.
The simplicity and complexity of the cause: the cause for most of the accidents is very simple, but the process and factors that cause the accidents are very complicated.
Uncertainty of the cause. Many accident causes cannot be known. Perhaps, individual decisions are correct, but they do not determine that there will be no accidents.
The dichotomy of the accident: incidents include stages of occurrence and losses caused. For example, a pipeline leakage accident is divided into leakage and causes of loss. At the stage of occurrence, it includes leakage, diffusion, and explosion. The consequence phase is the serious loss caused by the formation of people, buildings, environments, etc. The first phase focuses on the direct cause of the leak, while the second phase analyzes the direct causes of serious consequences.
The ambiguity of accidents and affairs: an accident is an objectively occurring phenomenon that does not change; but as the situation changes, awareness and description of the accident will change accordingly. The level of awareness of accidents, response measures, and public opinion guidance determine the direction of affairs change.
The impetus of industrial progress: the accident will inevitably promote the improvement of management. Major accidents will become the turning point of cognition and management, and promote the improvement of technology and management level.
The above features are not all the features of the accident. With the deepening of the cognition of the accident, new features will continue to be recognized, and the existing features need to be further improved and supplemented. The characteristics of accidents are the essential attributes of accidents. However, this point is often overlooked, which leads to the deviation from the nature of accidents in analyzing and recognizing accidents, and results in erroneous analysis.
Whether or not all accidents should be investigated is the first problem in accident management decision-making. If this problem cannot be solved theoretically, it will result in unnecessary investigations and erroneous investigations, leading to erroneous management improvement measures.
If the occurrence of an accident is a low probability event or a random event, the causal explanation for it must be wrong. A small sample of the risk of error may be as high as 50%. In this case, if it is still handled according to the traditional high probability accident, it can easily cause greater losses [12]. The confirmation of the probability of an accident is the basis for deciding whether or not to conduct accident analysis and investigation. Therefore, the probability confirmation of the accident must be discussed before the accident investigation.
For random problems, the determination of the overall problem through a small number of accidents or random inspections is the key, which can be analyzed using the Larger Number Theorem. Bernoulli’s theorem of large number is: let
This theorem is a special case of Chebyshev’s Law of Large Numbers, which means that when n is large enough, the frequency of occurrence of event C will be almost close to the probability of its occurrence, that is, the stability of the frequency. However, frequency is not equal to probability. As the theoretical basis for estimating the truth from statistics, the Large Number Theorem states that if the statistical sample is large enough, then the frequency of things can be infinitely close to its theoretical probability, that is, its “nature.” It should be noted that “having a certain regularity” does not mean that a limited number of repeated trials will be taken, and the results obtained must have regularity. Even if a very large N is given, as long as n < N, it cannot be guaranteed. The frequency of occurrence of C is equal to the probability of its occurrence.
Generally, people misunderstand randomness as homogeneity: if something that has happened in the past has been uneven, it is mistakenly thought that things in the future will move toward “nearly uniform” direction. If an individual’s misoperation like tossing coins is random, then the misoperation is not necessarily an individual subjective behavior. It may be due to the lack of certain standard constraints. It should be prudent to determine whether it is a personal problem, small probability problem, standard management problem, or ubiquitously large probability problem. For example, in the analysis of pipeline welding defects, the determination of whether a welder’s welding problem or the welding quality of all pipeline construction management systems is a problem that needs to be clarified first.
If you decide to analyze the case, analyze it according to the law of small numbers. The law of small number is an important research result obtained by the Nobel Prize-winning behavior psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in his study of “gambler’s fallacy.” It means that because of the limited human cognition of things, its behavior often shows heuristic biases and there is a problem of “spud,” that is, the follow-up judgment result has a strong relationship with the starting point, and will be based on the observed several results to speculate on the later results, while ignoring the independence between each experiment.
The confirmation of the nature of the accident with small probabilities is the basis for deciding on the nature of the accident. If the survey is conducted without first determining whether it is a small probability event, there will be a significant impact of preemptive bias, leading to adverse consequences. Therefore, it should be judged first whether it is a small probability event. For a non-small probability event, a detailed accident investigation should be conducted and the improvement should be made based on the investigation results. In the investigation and analysis process, the investigation of the cause of the accident’s occurrence and consequences, as well as the investigation of the cause of the accident, must also be based on the judgment of the nature of the accident with large probability or small probability.
The law of small numbers holds that if the sample is not large enough, then it may manifest itself in various extreme situations, and these conditions may not be related to the nature of the sample. You cannot rely solely on the judging person’s own experience, and even add other people’s experience to make judgments about things. The personal experience is limited. It is not possible to apply individual cases and large-scale statistics should be conducted. At the same time, before summing up the rules based on the sample results, try to avoid the conclusion of “anchoring” first, that is, you cannot first set a conclusion that is acceptable in mind and then look for a sample that supports the conclusion.
Although there are many studies on the causes of accidents, there are few studies on how to quantify the possibility or status trend of accidents or failure. That is, there is little research on the quantitative assessment of the status of a system or object from the perspective of the probability of an accident when there is no accident or after an accident. Because risk is not measurable, the author tries to use the triad classifies, fragile, anti-fragile, and robust, proposed in the book anti-fragility, to quantify pipeline accidents or failures trend [13].
The concept of vulnerability is proposed by Keohane and Nye in “Power and Interdependence” [14]. It is mainly used to analyze the concept of international politics and assess the cost of changing the system of interdependence, that is, assess the severity of the consequences of violating or changing the rules. “Anti-fragile” believes that the triad classified of things is fragile, robust, and anti-fragile. Fragility is related to how a system suffers from the variability of its environment beyond a certain preset threshold, while anti-fragility refers to when it benefits from this variability—in a similar way to “vega” of an option or a nonlinear payoff, that is, its sensitivity to volatility or some similar measure of scale of a distribution [15]. That is, system becomes stronger or weaker after things such as fluctuations, pressure, etc., and other environmental or internal factors change. Specifically, fragile is a weak element in an object or system that may be exploited by the threat to cause damage. Once the fragility is successfully exploited, it may cause damage to the object or system. Fragile may exist in physical environment, organization, process, personnel, management, hardware, software and information, etc. Fragile refers to the trend of changes in things, such as volatility, randomness, pressure, etc. If an incident does not respond to volatility, randomness, and stress better, it means that the thing or system is vulnerable. A change trend that has no effect on the thing or system means that it is resilient or complete in response to fluctuations; if things exhibit greater flexibility in responding to fluctuations, an increase in benefits, or a decrease in damage, it means that the item is anti-fragile in response to fluctuations.
The fragile, anti-fragile, and toughness used to quantify the state of the accident system are only static physical states. The difference from traditional risk assessment is that the fragile is measurable, but the risk cannot be measured, and the measure of fragile is also different from risk prediction [13].
For oil and gas pipelines, in order to describe the trend of possible pipeline accidents, the entire system such as the physical state of the pipeline system and the management system can be described with the fragile, anti-fragile, and integrity. The choice of integrity instead of robust is based on the current state of the art of pipeline integrity management and assessment. Pipeline system fragile refers to the system that suffers from the fragility that may occur when pipeline internal and external factors change.
Fragility describes the possibility that a defect develops into an accident or an intact state develops into an accident. The anti-fragility of pipelines refers to changes in internal and external environmental factors, and even in the event of accidents, the pipeline’s emergency measures, integrity management, etc. have been strengthened. Anti-fragility describes the development of pipeline systems in the direction of accident prevention. Integrity refers to the physical state of the pipeline and its ability to withstand changes in various factors. Fragility and anti-fragility are the status of the pipeline system, and its comprehensive indicators reflect the possibility of accidents in the pipeline system. Integrity means that the physical state of the pipeline is intact and its ability to withstand changes in various factors is strong. Vulnerability and anti-vulnerability are the status of the pipeline system, and its comprehensive indicators reflect the possibility of accidents in the pipeline system.
Entropy increase includes both the external factors that cause fragility and the internal factors in the system itself, which can reduce the integrity of the system. The entropy increase of the pipeline system makes the status of the pipeline system worse, and accidents are more likely to occur. The increase in entropy is controlled through management upgrades and maintenance inputs. If the entropy increase of the pipeline system fails to receive sufficient attention, it may increase the negative anti-fragile index, that is, the increase in entropy is a normal phenomenon, and the phenomenon of “warm boiled frog” occurs.
In the presence of known fragilities or hazards in the system, when external factors change, the factors that cause the accident are called trigger factors. For factors that are flawed, but do not cause an accident under conditions of external factors, are not triggers. The accident can happen because there are multiple triggers, or it can be the last trigger. The triggering factors may be related to time or maybe timeless, which is the direct cause of the accident. The trigger factor may be that a known fragility factor develops into an accident, or is an unoccupied or unrecognized fragility factor.
Therefore, the state of an accident that may occur in the pipeline can be described by the following formula:
In the formula,
Since it is the fragility of the triggering factor that determines whether an accident occurs or not, the fragility probability
where
Because the fragility indicators of unknown factors cannot be identified and evaluated, the probability of an accident described by the fragility is generally equal to the maximum value of all known triggering vulnerabilities. F is a positive value. The larger the value is, the more fragile the physical state is and the more prone to accidents.
In the above model description, there will be two cases:
1. One of the known factors develops to an accident.
For example, assuming that a pipe has 10 conditions that can lead to the occurrence of cracks in the girth weld, the current girth weld has 9 known factors, and the existence of these 9 factors does not cause an accident. When one of these 9 factors changes, it causes an accident. This factor may be an internal or external factor. It may be that the weld crack defect grows to the extent that it cannot carry the normal operating pressure of the pipeline, or it may be that the geological displacement causes an increase in the external bending stress.
2. Unknown factors triggers to accident.
For example, among all the factors of the cause of the accident, the known factors of vulnerability did not change further, but the occurrence of unknown or missing triggers led to the accident. Supposing that a pipeline with 10 factors can cause cracks in the girth weld of a pipeline, the current girth weld has 9 factors condition, and if the tenth factor condition is met, such as the internal pressure rises due to misoperation as a trigger, an accident occurs.
Therefore, the probability of an accident is determined by the fragility factor that has the highest probability. When conducting risk management, you should focus on the most probable fragility factors, rather than assessing and managing every risk of the entire system.
When the triggering factor is timeless, traditional risk assessment may think that its risk is high, but its qualitative change from high-risk to accident may never happen, or it may happen at any time. Therefore, the probability that the triggering factor break determines the risk of the entire system, rather than judging and counting the risk based on experience, and more importantly, the fragility status determines the risk.
When the probability of fragility factors cannot be identified technically, it can be assumed that there are many existing fragility factors in the system. Once the conditions change, the probability of accident of both types is high. The “accounting rate” of factors corresponds to the probability of an accident.
Therefore, according to the accidental “tree-type” theory [5], it is assumed that the largest factor causing a certain type of pipeline accident is m, and the state is found to have k fragile factors. According to the occupation rate, the probability of occurrence of the accident is k/m.
Therefore, for a multi-factor i that may result in fragility, the fragility can be quantified using the following formula:
In the formula,
Assume that there may be 10 factors that may cause cracking of girth welds in a pipeline, including the lake of fusion, crack, repair welding, dead ends’ welding, etc. Through the risk identification, it was found that the weld has seven fragile factors such as crack, but the assessment results indicate that the pipeline can continue to be serviced under the existing pressure and other conditions. The triggering factor may be the growth of crack, or it may be the eighth or ninth newly added fragility, such as the external load caused by geological displacement, overpressure by misoperation. Under fragility conditions that cannot be clearly determined, it is believed that the higher the F value, the easier the break. When internal and external environments change, accidents are more likely to occur. Comprehensive calculation of F-values and consequences can give the risk of the pipeline system.
According to the definition of anti-fragility:
In the formula,
When the effect of management improvement is greater than the negative effect,
For oil and gas pipelines, its integrity is defined as:
where
Fragility describes the state of the pipeline system, which is only the physical state at a specific point in time. When the factor conditions change, the fragility will be changed. When conditions change independently of time, the fragility is also independent of time. Therefore, the fragility cannot be used to predict the probability of an accident. The likelihood of accidents is the degree of difficulty or likelihood of triggering. So the concept of fragility is different from that of the traditional pipeline accident.
In general, the ratio calculated from accident statistics is used as the probability of an accident, which is a calculation or statistic. Muhlbauer, in his newly published book in 2015, Pipeline Risk Assessment—The Definitive Approach and Its Role in Risk Management, believes that the most useful definition of probability is the level of trust [16], including engineering judgments, expert opinions, and potential risks that have been evaluated understanding of physical phenomena.
The traditional risk assessment is to use the experience and statistics of past accidents to predict the possibility of accidents occurring in the future, rather than describe the physical state of the system. This type of risk assessment method often fails to answer the question: “High-risk pipelines have not been involved in high-risk accidents for a long time,” which has seriously affected the degree of recognition and acceptance of risks by some public, engineers, and senior management personnel.
If we assess and describe the state of the system based on the fragility, we can more scientifically describe the system’s possible accidents, and more clearly reflect the process and possibility of the development of high-accident factors as accidents. If on this basis, combined with the consequences of accidents to comprehensively measure, it can reflect the state risk of the pipeline system, and the conditions and factors that lead to the establishment of an accident or risk will be clearer.
Fragility is not reliability. Reliability is generally an indicator for non-repairable systems. It is the ability to continuously provide normal use functions through parallel systems in the absence of faults or under fault conditions.
According to Mohitpour et al.’s Pipeline Operation and Maintenance: A Practical Approach, the reliability of the pipe system is considered to be the degree of reliability of the media to be safely transported through pipes within a given time [17]. Some pipeline operators calculate the reliability of a pipeline by using the total amount of time that a pipeline can deliver a certain amount of medium without failure during a certain period of time. It can be seen that the reliability assessment is an assessment of the integrated system such as process and system status, and the fragility is only a key factor of reliability.
In areas such as the oil and gas industry and the construction industry, accidents such as leaks and explosions of oil and gas pipelines, and the collapse of buildings and bridges often occur with serious consequences. In the face of accidents, people are always thinking about the causes of accidents. This has led to the theory of accident causes and has become the theoretical basis for understanding accidents [18].
The accident-causing theory promoted the recognition of the objective world and reduced the harm of accidents to humans, which is a direct reflection of human technological progress. The occurrence of an accident, especially the occurrence of a casualty accident, is random and accidental. It is caused by many factors, and there are intricate and complex relationships among various factors. The theory of accident cause is to find out the inevitability of the accident from the random and accidental accident, understand the law of the accident, and eliminate the accident in the bud.
At present, the more-recognized causality theory focuses on the analysis of the unstable conditions under the conditions of accidents, ignoring its historical background and causing a great deal of information loss. For this reason, based on the analysis of numerous accidents, a new theory of accident causation was proposed, and the core content and new criteria for analyzing the causes of accidents were systematically presented. Then, an accident failure analysis method was proposed based on this theory include analysis process and logic analysis model in order to be able to improve the drawbacks of the traditional theory, improve the cognition of the cause of the accident.
Due to the limitation of professional technology, the “tree-type” accident cause theory proposed below is mainly aimed at oil and gas pipelines and building structure accidents, but it also has reference value for the analysis of accident causes in other area.
Accident cause theory is the product of the development of productive forces to a certain stage, especially the change of production methods and the change of people’s status in the production process, causing changes in people’s safety concepts, resulting in different accident cause theory. With the continuous improvement of the level of production technology and the deepening awareness of accidents, the accident cause theory has also been continuously improved and developed, and has gradually become an important theoretical basis for understanding the accident process and preventing accidents [19]. To sum up, it mainly experienced three historical periods of single factor cause theory, two-factor cause theory and system cause theory.
The accidental cause theory is gradually developed in the process of modern industrial development. In its development process, Adams’ accident causal chain theory, trajectory intersection theory, human factor system theory and synthesis are the comprehensive theory. The difference in the core content of these theories reflects the continuous improvement of the depth of awareness of accidents. The theoretical analysis of comprehensive causes is the most scientific, and it comprehensively covers other theoretical contents.
The analysis of several current classical theory of cause of accidents has certain limitations and deficiencies. The core of the theory is mainly about insecure physical state of things and the unsafe behavior of people. Failed to grasp the true features and root causes of the accident. The effects of incentives on accidents were not taken into consideration, and the comprehensive role of multiple factors was not considered as the key to the accident. What is more important is that the comprehensive relationship between accidents and all aspects of the entire life cycle and the environment is not taken into account, and the possibility of technical ambiguity is not taken into consideration. Therefore, the problem cannot be fundamentally explained.
The traditional accident cause theory believes that an accident is caused by the cross between the unsafe state of the object and the unsafe behavior of the person. Obviously, it describes only an idealized simple concept. This theory cannot explain the situation in which the two are crossed without accidents. At the same time, it cannot explain the situation where the two do not exist or do not cross, but the accident still occurs. For this reason, the cause of the accident cannot be really identified only by the crossing of the trajectory.
The use of traditional theories to analyze accidents can easily cause certain causes of omissions in many aspects. In particular, the underlying causes of analysis are prone to large deviations. For example, in the building structure and pipeline industry, the occurrence of accidents is affected by many factors. It is necessary to consider all aspects of the life cycle such as planning, design, construction, and operation. Often, the unsafe physical state of things and people’s unsafe behavior are not fundamental to the accident. The traditional cause theories, therefore, are not recommended as the core of the accident causal analysis.
Before discussing the causal theory of the “tree-type” pipeline accident proposed in this paper, several basic definitions are discussed.
Root cause: it refers to the root cause of things or the most essential reason that causes things to change. It is the most important reason that plays a key role and determines the role of many things that cause things to change.
Indirect cause: it is a factor that cannot play a leading role. It only plays a role in the transfer.
The direct cause (usually also the inducement): it refers to the most direct promotion of the occurrence of things and the direct contact with the occurrence of accidents. It is the near-term surface expression that causes changes in the development of things. It does not go through intermediary or intermediary links. Generally, it is to analyze the closest factor in time relationship or logical relationship.
The principle of inevitability: the occurrence of an accident is inevitable; there is no accident that occurs as contingency; only the probability is different. With the increase in awareness of the causes of accidents, it can be seen that when certain conditions are met, accidents are inevitable and can be predicted and prevented.
Direct consequence: the direct consequence of an accident is structural failure, leakage or Destroyed of device etc. The failure includes failure of ontology function, failure of auxiliary facilities, etc., while the loss refers to the state of physical corrosion loss, structural protection loss, and other deviations from the original design requirements.
Indirect consequences: the indirect consequences of an accident are casualties, environmental pollution, or property damage.
Direct cause: if accidents occur due to inadequate or unfavorable changes in the natural environment, management (human), and nature (process, corrosion, and fatigue), this change can be considered as a direct and direct cause of the accident. Any factor may break the balance. There is no concept of quantity.
Indirect reasons: the insecure status of objects and human unsafe behaviors, and the factors that create the necessary conditions for accidents are indirect causes. The insecurity of things and the unsafe behavior of people should all be attributed to the management elements. It is just a direct manifestation of various kinds of missing in time coordinates, rather than the direct cause of the accident. It is an indirect cause. The intersection or non-intersection of the two may cause accidents, and the intersection between the two may not cause accidents. Whether or not the accident is affected by the amount of crossover, incentives, etc. Although accidents occur when the insecurity of things and people’s unsafe behaviors intersect, it does not mean that they are the root cause of the accident. The lack of deficiencies in each link of the entire life cycle or the inadequacy of reliability over time may add up to a certain extent, which may lead to accidents. If the absence of the latter link leads to the lack of the previous link, it may have a continuation effect. If the latter link corrects the lack of the previous link in a timely manner, the accident may be controlled in this link. There is no lack of a link itself cannot make up for the lack of upstream links, can only reduce the contribution rate to the accident. Designs or requirements based on a large number of preconditions and designs without loss of control are missing.
Quantification of indirect causes: the lack of various links (insecure state of matter, lack of management) varies according to external factors (administrative insecurity, natural environment, process change, etc.) under different conditions, and needs to be based on external conditions. Determine whether the absence will lead to an accident. Whether it is a single link or multiple links is the key to causing an accident. It is necessary to analyze the degree of lack of each single link, and the degree of influence of comprehensive factors and external incentives needs to be considered. The unsafe state of things and the unsafe behavior of human beings cannot be cut off, and it is impossible to eliminate them completely. It is also possible that the factors are considered to be in a state of safety and the accidents are caused by superposition.
Root causes: it refers to the nature and root causes of various factors. It is the system, mechanism, law, humanities, education, economy, standards, norms, management methods, assessment mechanism, and technical cognitive level that lead to the lack of the main body, lack of management, etc. The phenomenon is generated, which accumulates and develops into an accident. This is the root cause.
Quantification of root causes: different social factors, life cycle factors, and direct influence factors are the key to the possibility of an accident.
The unique characteristics of accidents: the types of accidents are different, and the number, distribution, severity, and external incentives of the links are different. It is necessary to perform logical analysis according to the actual situation.
The “tree-type” accident causation theory is based on the conditions of big data [6], combined with case analysis and verification, and proposes a new theory of accident causation. Its purpose is to grasp some potential laws of accidents are followed. The accidents that have occurred are tracked. The root causes and evolution of the accidents are studied and analyzed to understand the tendency and inherent laws of the accidents so as to find the potential or possibility of accidents in the future. Therefore, adopting corresponding measures to prevent or eliminate accidents and avoid “reproducing” accidents is a philosophy of accident-free [2].
According to the above arguments, the causes of accidents can be simulated using the logic of “tree-type” like the life of tree: accidents are just like a dead tree, broken branches, and other processes. When standards, norms, education, mechanisms, and other fundamental issues are similar to bad soil environmental impacts, the health of the tree determines its basic nature. Design, construction, and other aspects will affect the strength and ability of the entire tree. The various production processes of operations are similar to the leaves of trees, and play a role and contribution to the whole in the sunlight of management. If problems arise in management, the entire process will be affected, causing the trees to wither or be blown off in the breeze. Process changes and changes in the elements of the natural environment are the external environments in which trees live. Just as seasonal changes and wind and rain are the external influences on the health of trees, they are the external environments that a healthy body should bear. The changes are the internal defects that lead to the development of accidents. It is the direct cause. Based on the above, the “tree-type” simulation was conducted for the pipeline industry as Figure 1.
Tree-type simulation of pipeline accident cause theory.
The value mining of accidents is only the tip of the iceberg. A large amount of regular and valuable information has not been fully analyzed and identified, resulting in the loss of precious wealth. Under the conditions of big data, the awareness of accidents has changed and can be fully realized. Digging out the “long-tailed” factors that may cause accidents can also fully avoid the “survivors’ rule” [20].
The “tree-type” pipeline accident causation theory aims to reveal the relationship and laws between accidents and life cycle influencing factors, so as to feed back to each stage of the life cycle and prevent the repetition of similar events. According to the principle proposed by the basic arguments of the “tree-type” accident cause theory, the causal analysis was carried out in order as Table 1.
No. | Steps | Course analysis |
---|---|---|
1 | The principle of inevitability | Define the inevitability principle of accident analysis and confirm that it is a small probability event or a single event. |
2 | Direct consequence | Investigation to clarify the direct performance of the accident. |
3 | Indirect consequences | Investigate indirect performance and losses, such as casualties, property damage, etc. |
4 | Direct cause | Analyze the direct cause and find out the factors that break the balance. There may be multiple factors. |
5 | Indirect cause | Identify unsafe status of objects and unsafe behavior of people, analyze cross history and quantity, find data of full life cycle, analyze possible lacks of each link, and find indirect causes. |
6 | Quantification of indirect causes | Quantify the contribution of indirect causes to accidents. |
7 | Root causes | The various factors of the whole life cycle link to find out the root cause. |
8 | Quantification of root causes | Quantify different social factors, life cycle factors, and direct influence factors. |
9 | The unique characteristics of accidents | Analyze the uniqueness of various types of accidents according to the differences among various factors of different accidents. |
Tree-type theory analysis process.
The accident causation theory is the theoretical basis of the accident investigation When the accident investigation is conducted, data collection and analysis are performed according to the various factors and logic involved in the theory. So the pipeline big data era lets the full life cycle of “tree-type” theory to be operated. Under big data conditions, how to recognize pipeline accidents and risks gives a different point of view than traditional. The change of risk assessment under big data conditions is inevitable. The prediction of pipe girth accident model based on big data and “tree-type” theory is only an application example, and its conclusion has shown that this analysis method gives more reasonable conclusions [2]. It is easier to identify the cause of the accident and give suggestions for management improvement.
This theory is also the theoretical basis for risk identification and assessment. Under the conditions of big data, by analyzing the key factors leading to accidents, and calculating the ratios of potential factors and causes, the possibility of accidents can be calculated and the key factor of the mitigation can be given. Based on this idea, a new and systematic risk assessment model can be constructed.
On September, 2010, a gas pipeline operated by Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) ruptured under the suburb of San Bruno, California, USA. The rupture produced a crater about 72 feet long by 26 feet wide. The released natural gas ignited, resulting in a fire that destroyed 38 homes and damaged 70. Eight people were killed, many were injured, and many more were evacuated from the area [21]. Applying the tree-type theory to analyze the accident can more systematically identify the cause of the accident as Table 2.
No. | Steps | Course analysis | Tree-type |
---|---|---|---|
1 | The principle of inevitability | Define the inevitability principle of accident analysis and confirm that it is a small probability event or a single event. The dichotomy of an accident should be considered when analyzing the causes and consequences. | |
2 | Direct consequence | The rupture of the pipeline. | Dead or broken of the tree. |
3 | Indirect consequences | Casualties and property losses. | Broken tree brings other losses. |
4 | Direct cause | A pressure increase stemming from poorly planned electrical work at the Milpitas Terminal. | Decayed tree trunk breaks under strong wind. |
5 | Indirect cause | Inadequate quality assurance and quality control in 1956 during its Line 132 relocation project, which allowed the installation of a substandard and poorly welded pipe section with a visible seam weld flaw that, over time grew to a critical size, causing the pipeline to rupture. | The soil on which the tree grows and the growth environment is poor, results in the lack of robustness of the tree. |
6 | Quantification of indirect causes | If you quantify the contribution of each link to the accident, construction may be the most important factor. | Just as the tree has decayed in its trunk during its growth, the decayed trunk has the largest contribution to the breakage of the tree. |
7 | Root causes | It was inextricably linked with the social environment and technology limited at that time. Despite the fact that education, culture, and technology have been greatly improved over the past, there is no good technology of integrity management performance measurement lead weld defect grow to rupture. | The roots of the tree grow poorly in soil (social environment, culture, ideas, etc.) and lack of sunlight (laws, standards, regulations, etc.), causing them to grow into unhealthy and irregular trees such as rot. When the external environment changes, it is broken. The cause of the rot of its trunk is the root cause of the broken tree. |
8 | Quantification of root causes | In the pipeline’s life cycle, neglected construction quality, poor of integrity management plan and inspection during operations, and weak safety awareness are the reasons that inevitably lead to accidents and consequences are extremely serious. Quantify the contribution of each link to accidents, and the lack of safety awareness and supervision is the most important factor. | Quantitative analysis of the contribution of various aspects of the decay of the trunk, including soil problems, lack of sunlight and other factors. |
9 | The unique characteristics of accidents | There is only one San Bruno pipeline rupture accident in the world, but similar problems exist in other pipelines. The accident has its own unique cause, but it is also universal. Its occurrence is inevitable. |
Tree-type theory analysis process of San Bruno pipeline rupture.
A pigging stop occurred during a pigging operation for internal inspection of a pipeline: the first pig was parked at the elbow. After the analysis was performed using traditional analysis methods, specific improvement measures were implemented, but after restarting the operation, a second card stop accident occurred and the pigs stopped at the “t” section. According to the traditional accident analysis method, the root cause of the first pig stopping accident was analyzed. The pig cup was cracked by a 1.5 D (D-pipe diameter) elbow, causing the pig to lose its power and stop. The existing management problem is that there is no careful analysis of pipeline data, and the information obtained does not match the facts. According to the results of this analysis, the operator shortened the pig to enable the pig to pass through the low-rate elbow. However, due to the shortened length, the pig was passing through the tee because the length of the three-way flower hole was greater than the length of the pig. The tube device drives the distance between the cups before and after, losing power, and stopping. According to the traditional accident analysis method, it is believed that the current stoppage is due to the pigging device being too short. The reason for management is still that the pipe data is not carefully analyzed. The information obtained is inconsistent with the facts, and the management reason cannot be eliminated because of the history of the pipeline construction. As a result, the technology and management are not standardized during construction, and no comprehensive and accurate pipeline information can be obtained. If we continue to follow the traditional methods of accident analysis and treat similar problems, not only can we not really avoid the occurrence of accidents, but we also think that there are problems in management that have a greater impact on managers. Therefore, we should not simply think that there are problems with management.
According to the “tree-type” causal analysis method, the occurrence of a branch similar to the breakage of a branch, the common cause of multiple breakage of different causes is the irregular growth of branches, self-elimination in the natural environment, which is basically the root soil, trunk, etc. There are hidden dangers caused by the growth of irregular branches.
The direct consequence is that the pigs are stuck in the pipeline, causing minor production impacts. Increasing the pig pushing operation is an indirect consequence, similar to the breaking of the branches; the incentive is for the pigging effect, and the investment size is larger during the pigging process. The pig-cleaner exceeds the requirements that the pipeline can pass, just as the decaying branch naturally breaks due to an increase in its own weight when it grows up; the pipeline is in a state of such objects from construction to operation for a long time, but it cannot be simply defined as unsafe status.
The indirect reason for the first stop is that pigs are designed according to the passing capacity of 4 D, but the actual pipe elbows reach a minimum of 1.5 D. In the absence of a determination of the root cause, only the passing capacity of the pigs is improved. The length of the pig was shortened to enable it to pass through a 1.5 D elbow, but it stopped at the tee section again during the pigging process. The cause of this short pig stoppage was too low a ballast flow. The indirect reason was short of pig and the tee flower hole is too long, causing the pig to lose its power.
There are certain management problems in the two stops. Without the tee size data, there is no systematic assessment for it to be passable. However, the root cause of the management problem is that the pipeline data it is based on is inconsistent with the facts. It is a pipeline construction background such as the social environment, technical level, and standards that cause the irregular pipeline were the root causes of the stop.
The above case also show that the presence of elbows and tee features in the pipeline cannot simply be considered as an unsafe state of things, nor can pigging operations is regarded as unsafe acts of people, but still a stuck pig accident occurred. Through the use of the “tree-type” theory, a systematic analysis of the factors that caused the pig stop and find out the root causes can recognize that the two pig stop accidents are caused by historical reasons, and there are deviations in the pipeline data on which management is based. Only by implementing pigging operations in accordance with the most stringent pipeline data, gradually reassessing pipeline data, and making decisions based on real data, can effectively avoid the pig stoppage.
At the same time, in the principle of “tree-type” accidents, the understanding of “insecurity of things and unsafe behavior of people” is deepened, that is, both are variables that lead to accidents. When they appear crosswise, they may happen and also may not happen. Only by analyzing the historical background and conditions of the pipeline’s manufacturing, construction, etc., factors can the root cause of the accident to be identified. If the traditional accident analysis method is used, the root cause cannot be systematically and comprehensively analyzed, which may lead to the repetition of similar accidents.
The application of “tree-type” accident cause theory will raise the level of risk analysis and response at a higher level to mitigate risk and prevent accident. It is the key to the integrity management of oil and gas pipelines and building structures and technological progress, as well as the theoretical basis for achieving “prevention” [22]. At the same time, this theory systematically gives the core content of the analysis of the accidents causes. It can be widely applied to the cognition of industrial accidents such as building structures and oil and gas pressure pipelines. It can also build risk assessment methods based on this theory and is a risk assessment technology in the future as a new research way [23].
The occurrence of non-leakage accidents is the goal of pipeline operation. Research on accidents cause theory is the theoretical basis for accident prevention. A clear understanding of the nature of accidents is the basis for the analysis and management of accidents and it will help to improve the technical level of managing oil and gas pipelines. The author’s research raises the following awareness to help prevent pipeline accidents:
The essential feature of an accident is the clear recognition of the basis of the accident. In the analysis of accidents, inevitability, deviation, and dichotomy are all characteristics that are easily overlooked or forgotten. Accidents and events are often confused. This article lists only part of the characteristics of the accident. There will be other features that will be recognized, observed, and accepted gradually in the future.
After an accident, whether it is a low probability or high probability accident, or the nature of a random accident, is the basis for determining whether the accident needs to be investigated and analyzed. Cognition of accident samples is the basis for improving accident awareness. The characterization of the accident as a small probability event or a universal problem is the basis for making accident investigations and accountability. Accurate characterization can avoid incorrect conclusions due to incorrect investigation and analysis, and affect management improvement.
The quantitative description of an accident is different from the current traditional method of recording accident descriptions, and it is the theoretical basis for improving accident analysis and cognition. The concepts such as fragility are used to quantify the accident probability, and the differences from traditional risk assessment techniques are analyzed. This not only improves the level of awareness of accidents, but also has a certain guiding role in improving the direction of risk assessment techniques.
The author proposes to describe the possibility of system accidents with fragility, anti-fragility and integrity. This is the first time that the logical relationship and mathematical description of the accident analysis have been given, and it is believed that the fragility description is superior to the traditional risk assessment and can better reflect the system status and identify the key factors leading to the accident.
Traditional accident cause theory makes people pay more attention to the insecure state of the object and the unsafe behavior of the person, and treats the directly presented problem as a root cause. The “tree-type” accident cause theory gives a systematic analysis of the logic, ideas and methods of accident analysis. It is a comprehensive analysis of various factors, which helps to find the causes of accidents, and distinguishes between the direct causes and indirect causes are an effective supplement to the theory of accident causes.
Using the “tree-type” accident causality theory analysis method, it is easier to understand the logical relationship and process of the analysis of the causality of accidents. Based on the principles and processes proposed by the “tree-type” accident causation theory, the use of simulated logical relationships can be clearly understood the causes of accidents and avoid take indirect causes as root causes. The factors that lead to the accident, the logical relationship, and the contribution to the tree breakage that are analyzed using this method can fully identify the risk of the accident and how to control the risk, so as to effectively prevent it.
This chapter discusses that the cause of accident is an older and traditional research topic. The causes of accident and description methods of features, etc., are not the hot topics in recent years. However, the cause of the accident is the theoretical basis for pipeline integrity management. As the author discusses in the book “Research and Practice on Pipeline Integrity Management in the Eastern Pipeline Network” [3], the core of pipeline integrity management is accident prevention, so what is the accident, what causes accidents, and why accidents and other issues are the core of research and promotion of pipeline integrity technology. Only by clearly knowing the causes of accidents can we identify potential risks and assess their vulnerability. Therefore, the study of the theory of accidental causes is the theoretical basis for improving the integrity of pipelines. It is recommended that in-depth study be conducted. The consequences of pipeline accidents are great harm to environments and safety. With the large-scale application of high-pressure and high-grade steels pipe, scientific accident cause theories are needed to support and identify the causes of various accidents under new material and new process conditions. Protect and assessments the fragile of pipeline to address urgent pipeline operation needs.
In the future, it is necessary to continue to study the characteristics of accidents and improve the theory of accident causes. It will be a longer-term task to study how to use system fragility assessment instead of risk assessment based on big data. At present, the recognition of accident features, the causation theory, and the vulnerability assessment system based on big data are still incomplete, and its need to be improved. However, with the accumulation of big data, new methods such as quantitative accidents based on the use of fragility are available. These new technologies will be recognized and developed.
An automobile is a machine whose ultimate designed function is to transport men and goods. It is also called a motor car [1]. It is a self-propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its propulsion and is used for transporting passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, articulated vehicles, etc. It is also a transportation equipment unit which consists of a frame supporting the body and certain power developing and transmitting units which are further supported by tires and wheels through springs and axles [2]. An automobile is simply anything vehicular that has its own power source and it is mobile. Eckermann, [3] ascertained that the first automobile, i.e., steam powered, was first built in 1769 by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, but the first powered gasoline was developed by Karl Benz in 1885 through manufacturing processes [4]. Most automobiles today are propelled by internal combustion engines. Tremendous growth has occurred in the automobile industry, after the designing of internal combustion engines. Today, the automobile industry plays a crucial role in the social, economic, and industrial growth of any country. Automobiles offer very advantageous help to man such as movement of people and goods to their places of interest (such as city to city, city to the hinter land, church or religious activities, markets, schools, tourist sites, cross borders of countries, etc.). Sports cars are for sporting activities, sometimes for other personal interest, luxury, and entertainment. Increasing the number of automobiles on any country road means increased traffic-related problem such as road congestion, increase in ambient air temperature due to engine heating and exhausts combustion, delayed time of movement, and traffic emission pollution. Gaseous pollutants from automobiles such as carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), sulfur (IV) oxide (SO2), and nitrogen (IV) dioxide (NO2) and particulate aerosols were reported in Nigeria above ambient level [5].
\nAnother emerging problem associated with automobile transportation is the ever-increasing automobile waste, for the fact that large volumes of aging vehicles are imported into Nigeria, coupled with lack of adequate legislation on life span of vehicles to be imported into Nigeria. It become an all comers affair, and the effect is that aged, rickety, worn-out automobiles dot the Nigerian environment [6, 7, 8]. Climatic factors such as acidic rain, moisture (dew) and sun act on them as they corrode, degrade and decompose to release toxic chemicals into the environment. This in addition to others constitutes environmental and public health issue.
\nRajput [2] and Kirpal [9] classified automobiles based on the following factors:
\nAutomobiles can be classified based on the load or their capacity. The heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV), which carries heavy materials, possesses large mass and is bigger in size. Examples are tractor, heavy-duty trucks, etc. They also have light transport vehicle (LTV) or light motor vehicle (LMV) which carries light things and is less in size (e.g., car).
\nAutomobiles could be two-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., scooter, motorcycle), three-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., auto rickshaw), four-wheeler vehicle (FWV) (e.g., car, jeep, trucks, busses, etc.), six-wheeler vehicle (SWV), and more depending on the carrier design.
\nIn this category, we have petrol vehicles, diesel vehicle, electric vehicle, which use battery to drive (forklift, battery truck and electric car), steam vehicle (e.g., steam engine boat), and gas vehicle (i.e., vehicles that use liquefied petroleum gas and compressed natural gas).
\nThey can be classified based on the purpose they serve, i.e., it could be passenger-designed vehicles, goods designed vehicles, and special-purpose vehicle (such as armored car, ambulance, etc.).
\nAutomobiles could be: (i) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, whose gear ratios have to be changed manually while driving (e.g., car with five gears). (ii) Semiautomatic transmission system: Some automobiles are designed in such a way that facilitates manual gear ratios changing with a clutch pedal. (iii) Automatic transmission system: Automobiles with automatic transmission do not require gears to be changed manually, but they are capable of changing gear ratios automatically as they move.
\nThey could be (i) left-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the left hand), (ii) right-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the right hand), and (iii) fluid drive (vehicles that employ torque converter (e.g., fluid flywheel)).
\nAutomobiles can be classified based on the type of suspension system designed with it. We have three types of suspensions. They include:
The independent suspension—it allows the wheels to rise and fall on their own vertically without affecting the opposite wheels, e.g., swing axle, multi-link suspension, trailing arm, etc. [10].
Dependent suspension—it has a beam (a simple cart axle) or driven axle that holds the wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle e.g., beam axle, De Dion axle [11].
Semi-dependent system—in this case, the motion of one wheel does not affect the position of the other, but they are not rigidly attached to each other, e.g., a twist-beam rear suspension [12].
Since the seventeenth century, several attempts have been made to design and construct a practical operative automobile. To achieve the purpose of making a vehicle move, various constituents’ materials combine to form an automobile. There are six major components of an automobile. They include the following:
\nThis includes the chassis which supports the engine, wheels, body, braking system, steering, etc. It is the main mounting support for all components including the various parts of the body of a car. It deals with the static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion [2]. Other parts of the body includes the bonnet (hood), bumper, cowl screen, deck lid, fender, header panel, radiator core support, grille, roof rack, rims and hubcap, spoiler, fuel tank door, trunk, door, door seal, door handle, door latch and hinge, door water shield, tire; central locking, window motor, window seal, windscreen, sunroof glass, fuel tank, horn, trunk accessory, and wing mirror and glass.
\nThe main function of transmission system is to transfer power from engine to rear wheel via gearbox to obtain the various gear ratios [13]. The speed and torque of the wheels change in relation to the speed and torque of the engine due to the gears in the transmission. They include clutch assembly (clutch lining, clutch disk, clutch fork, clutch plate, clutch cable, clutch fan, clutch hose, clutch shaft, clutch spring and clutch pedal) [14], gear assembly (i.e., gear pump, gear ring, gear shift lever knob, gear couplings and gear box, which contains the idler gear, knuckle, master cylinder, bearings, counter or output shaft, pinion, and gear set), propeller or drive shaft, rear axle shaft, trans-axle housing, differential set (i.e., spider gears, differential seal, pinions, differential flange and differential clutch), speedometer, transmission set (i.e., transmission gear, transmission seal and transmission spring), flywheel ring gear [1], shift valve, speed reducer or governor and wheel and torque converter [9].
\nThis part of the automobile is designed as an engine. It is a device which converts chemical energy from fuel through combustion with air (inside a combustion chamber) into mechanical energy with the use of other components in the engine. The internal engine supplies the power which is delivered by the transmission system to the wheels through the clutch or fluid coupling [2]. The system is subdivided into three parts:
The engine components, which includes engine the block [15], engine shake damper, vibration absorber, fan belt, gudgeon pin, piston (i.e., piston pins, crank pin, piston pin brush, and piston ring), engine valve, harmonic balancer, accessory belt, petrol engine, camshaft assembly (i.e., camshaft bearing, camshaft fastener, camshaft locking plate, camshaft push rods, and camshaft phase variator), air duct, connecting rod (i.e., connecting rod bearings and bolt), crankshaft [9], crank case, crank pulley, crankshaft oil seal, distributor, drive belt, cylinder head (attached with cylinder head gasket and cylinder head cover parts), rocker arm, rocker arm cover, starter motor (starter pinions and rings), air blower, turbo charger and super charger, radiator parts (radiator, radiator gasket, radiator pressure cap, overflow tank, thermostat, radiator bolt), water tank parts (water tank, water pump, pump gasket, and water pipe), oil system (oil filter, oil pan, oil gasket, oil pipe, oil pump, and oil strainer) and valve springs and valve seal.
The exhaust system, which includes exhaust pipe, muffler (or silencer), exhaust manifold and exhaust manifold gasket, heat shield, exhaust clamp and bracket, exhaust flange gasket, catalytic converter, resonator and spacer rings.
The fuel system, which includes, air filter, carburetor, choke cable, fuel cap, fuel cell component, fuel distributor, fuel filter and fuel filter seal, fuel pump, fuel injector, fuel injector nozzle, fuel cooler, fuel pump and gasket, fuel pressure regulator, fuel rail, fuel intake manifold and gasket, fuel tank, throttle body and fuel water assembly [15].
It comprises of the suspension, steering, and brake systems. They are control arms or A-arms, shock absorber [16], axle, spindle, springs (air spring, leaf spring, parabolic spring, ball joint, rubber, and springs), tires [17], power steering assembly [18], steering arm, steering box, steering wheel, steering column assembly, steering shaft, steering rack (rack and pinion), kingpin, steering pump, strut, chamber arm, pan-hand rod, pit-man arm, stub axle, tie rod, tie bar, toe link, track rod, suspension link and bolt, idler arm, beam axle, swing axle, wheel alignment, trailing arm [19], automatic braking system, antilock braking system (ABS), brake fluid, brake lining, disk brake, drum brake, adjuster wheel, anchor, hydraulic fluid, hydraulic brake [20], inboard brake, vacuum brake booster, dual circuit brake system, metering and combination valves, wheel cylinder, wheel stud, brake roll, brake backing plate, brake rotor, brake lever (handle), brake piston, brake pump, brake shoe, brake hose, brake caliper pins and bracket and brake pad [21].
\nThis part of an automobile consists of all the electrical and electronic components and battery system. They include audio/video devices (i.e., antenna assembly and cable, radio media player, video player, tuner, speaker), voltage regulator, alternator, gauges [22] (such as ammeter, odometer, manometer, hydrometer, oil pressure gauge, speedometer, water temperature gauge, pressure gauge, fuel gauge, vacuum gauge, tire pressure gauge, etc.), thermostat, ignition box, ignition coil, sparking cable, distributor cap, electronic timing controller, calibrator, remote lock, engine compartment, starting system (starter solenoid, door switch, ignition switch, switch cover, glow plug, and starter motor) [23], lightning (spotlight, interior light and lamps, headlight, fog light, trafficators, turn-signal control, license plate lamp and bulbs), sensors (air bag sensor, coolant temperature sensor, throttle position sensor, crankshaft and camshaft position sensor, fuel pressure sensor and automatic transmission speed sensor), navigation/GPS navigation device system, central locking system, battery system (battery box, battery cable, battery control system, battery plate and battery cap), sulfuric acid and distilled water [22].
\nDash panels, secret compartment or trap, car seat, seat belt, seat cover, arm rest, bucket rest, head rest, carpet and floor materials, children and baby seat, and bench rest [24].
\nThese are minor accessories found in an automobile. They include air-condition system (air-conditioner clutch, compressor, hose, relay, valve, cooler, suction hose pipe, gas receiver, condenser filter, and cabin filters), bearings (i.e., grooved ball bearing, needle bearing, roller bearing, sleeve bearing, plain bearing, needle bearing, and wheel bearing), hose (fuel vapor hose, high-pressure hose, and radiator hose), adhesive tape and foil, air bag, speedometer cable, phone amount, rubber (extruded and molded), screw, nut (flange and hex nuts), fastener [25], split or cotter pin [26], rivet [25], draglink, dynamic seal, O-rings, shim, central console, glove compartment, washer, hood and trunk release cable and paint and sun visors [27].
\nThe automobile industry uses a tremendous number of materials to build cars, including iron, aluminum, plastics, steel, glass, rubber, petroleum products, copper, steel, etc. In all there are more than 6000 (>600) components of an automobile. These parts are used to create everything from the small parts such as dashboard needles and wiring to the big parts such as the engine block or the transmission gears. Due to the high demand of automobiles and technological advancement, suitable materials have been used for the production of automobile components that are durable and serve the purpose of the automobile. Some of the chemical components of the various automobile parts are tabulated below:
\nDue to poverty and the dire need to own vehicles for ease of movement, these aging vehicles still attract customers from Nigeria’s middle class and those at the lower rung of the economy [8]. Large numbers are taken to automobile workshop for repair and refurbishing. Automobile workshops are important considering public health issues because they are carried out in poor environmental settings coupled with lack of safety and hygienic lifestyle (eating with unwashed hand, wearing of dirty and contaminated workshop clothes for a long time, etc.) of workshop artisans, yet it is a beehive of activities because it has become the source of employment to several informal sector workers such as auto repair, servicing and refurbishing, auto parts scavenging, car wash, tire pumping and repair, auto-electrician, wheel balancing and alignment, oil sales and servicing, spare parts sales, water and food vendor, etc. [6, 7, 8]. Apart from esthetic pollution, automobile workshop contributes significantly to environmental and public health discourse. Several literatures have documented that pollutants such as heavy metals [41], benzene, nitrobenzene, gasoline fumes, exhaust gases, particulate matter, etc. are released by activities at auto workshops and automobile and have negatively affected surface and underground water and adjacent farmlands [42, 43, 44]. In major Nigerian cities, automobile workshops are in clusters along major roads comprising unregulated activities such as automechanics and panel beaters (car body work). Large expanse of would have been arable lands are occupied and polluted. Drainage system is blocked by waste generated from automobile workshops, heavy metals, waste oils, and noxious gases that are released into the environment, adjacent farmlands and food crops, which may possibly be contaminated by heavy metals and toxic substances. Exposed subjects at automobile workshops (auto technicians) are established to have high risk of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases [45].
\nImportation into Nigeria of second hand (“Belgium”) cars is second to none in Africa; therefore the Nigeria landscape is replete with many rickety and not road worthy, aging, and aged vehicles. Lack of spare parts and adequate technology makes repair and refurbishing of automobiles an uphill tax coupled with unfavorable weather condition such as high temperature (Nigeria been in the tropics), acidic rainfall and high relative humidity, acidic mist and aerosols [6, 7, 46, 47], unequaled and unprecedented high level road accident occasioned by poor road infrastructure and network, the net effect is that many vehicles are out of use and ultimately become waste. Recently wastes are regarded as “materials out of place” as against previous concept of “objects of non-usefulness.” Automobile wastes are sometimes regarded as bulky waste, which include waste generated from servicing vehicles, automobiles, motorized trucks, and related equipment; they are made up of waste battery, scrap metal, used motor oils and lubricants, hydraulic fluids, bottom sludge, old motor parts, greases, waste engine oil, paints, petrol and diesel, which are generated and disposed indiscriminately. Abandoned vehicles dot Nigerian environment (workshops, roads, institutions, homes etc.) where they are left to the vagaries of weather to decompose and release some toxic substances, documented in Table 1, into the environment (Figures 1 and 2).
\nS/N | Major parts of automobile | Chemical component | References |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Car body | Iron-carbon Al, Mg, silicon alloy, Al, Mg alloy | [28] |
2 | Chassis | Al, Mg, alloy | [29] |
3 | Bumper/trunk | Fiber glass composite or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, steel Al | [29] |
4 | Door panel | Carbon, Fe, steel, or Al | [30] |
5 | Window shields | Consist of glass made from Kevlar (poly-parc phenylene terephthalamide), K2O, MgO, Al2O3Polymethylmethacrylate | [30] |
6 | Rims | Alloy wheel rims consisting of Al/Mg | [29] |
7 | Radiator cores and tanks | Alloy of Cu, Zn, and steel | [30] |
8 | Tires and tubes | Elastomers, oils, resins, carbon black, steel cord and silica, contains natural and synthetic rubber (styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)) | [30] |
9 | Wheels | Al, Mg, Si, Cu | [30] |
10 | Glass | SiO2 | [30] |
11 | Sun visor | Made from substrates of polypropylene | [31] |
12 | Racks | Al alloys | [32] |
13 | Rivets | Al alloys, steel, Cu, Fe, Ni | [33] |
14 | Batter, battery case, plates, and connectors | Ni, Cd, Pb, HDPE | [22] |
15 | Pumps and valves | Cu, Co, Be, Al | [30] |
16 | Automotive exhaust system components | Cr, Ni, Si, Fe, Mn | [2] |
17 | Engine block | C, Si, Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cu, Mg | [29] |
18 | Engine bearings, bushings, valves | Fe, Cu, Sn, and Zn | [2] |
19 | Engine cylinder | Cast iron and Al alloy | [2] |
20 | Hubcap: also known as wheel cover | Plastics | [34] |
21 | Radiator | Aluminum sheets | [35] |
22 | Multi-suspension system | Forged from aluminum system | [32] |
23 | Cotter or spilt pin | Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Mg | [36] |
24 | Axles | Cr/Mo | [30] |
25 | Tie rod, pinion, and steering column | Stainless steel and Al | [32, 34, 37] |
26 | Steering arms | C, Fe, and Cr | [38, 39] |
27 | Suspension coils and springs | Fe, Mn, Si, P, V, Ni, Cr, Sn, Zn, Al, and C | [30] |
28 | Clutch assembly | Cu, Sn, and P | [30] |
29 | Gear assembly system | Cu, Zn, and steel | [25, 30, 40] |
30 | Crankshafts | Mn, Cr, Mo, Ni, Si, Co, V, Al | [30] |
Some chemical component of automobile parts.
Cd = cadmium, Fe = iron, C = carbon, Al = aluminum, Si = silicon, Mg = magnesium, Cu = copper, Zn = zinc, Co = cobalt, Be = beryllium, Ni = nickel, Cr = chromium, Mg = manganese, Sn = tin, Mo = molybdenum, V = vanadium, K2O = potassium oxide, MgO = magnesium oxide, SiO2 = silicon (IV) oxide. Alloy = a combination of two or more metals, steel = an alloy of iron and carbon, and HDPE = high-density polyethylene.
Decomposing automobile wastes along Awka portion of Enugu-Onitsha Federal Highway.
Decomposing automobile wastes at Nnamdi Azikiwe university, Awka works department.
Greenhouse gases are gases that are capable of absorbing infrared radiation emitted from the earth’s surface and reradiate them back to the earth surface.
\nThe major component chemicals of greenhouse gases (GHGs) include hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx—NO, NO2, N2O3, NO3), oxides of carbon (COx—CO, CO2), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2), photochemical oxidants and water vapor (H2O), ozone, and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) [48]. All these gases are in higher concentration released into the atmosphere by automobile emission and decomposing automobile waste irrespective of transportation mode [49]. Negative health effects associated with high concentrations of greenhouse gases already documented include asthma, respiratory distress, cancer, birth defects, low birth weight in children, genetic mutations and premature death [50, 51]. The resultant effect of higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the tropospheric region of the atmosphere is the increase in the air temperature. Anthropogenic activities destroying the ozone layer contributing to global warming stem from manmade compounds and chemicals with high global warming potentials (ozone layer destroyer) [52, 53]. Synergistic effect of global warming is much evidenced on melting of global ice stacks (glaciers), rise in sea level, and flooding of coastal regions. Three gaseous compounds (CO2, SO2, and NO2) emitted by automobiles are of the compounds known as acid anhydride of which SO2 and NO2 are outstanding for they significantly contribute to acid rain. Exposure to ambient concentrations of CO can have resultant formation of carboxyhemoglobin together with inhaled particles, which increase blood viscosity, thereby hampering oxygen delivery to the tissues [54]. A direct effect of gaseous emission by automobiles is acidic precipitation which affects terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with attendant public health implication as has been widely reported in Nigeria [46, 47, 55]. Depending on the soil in nature, acid rain affects the soil. Acidic precipitation dissolves organic matrix and mineral matter largely present in the soil, which are K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and anions (HCO3−, SO42−, Cl−, CO3−); these replaces the hydrogen of the acid rain and make the soil acidic. The pH of surface water may not change much due to acid rain because of the counterbalancing effect of water chemistry. Apart from acidic precipitation caused by SO2 and NO2 emitted from automobiles, minor concentration of SO2 in air causes respiratory tract problem, irritation, secretion of mucus, and death at increased level of 500 ppm. NO2 causes lung tissue inflammation at (50–100 ppm) exposure levels, bronchitis fibrosa obliterans (150–200 ppm) exposure, death (550 ppm) exposure [56]. Skin cancers and lesion, stomach ulcers, ocular congestion or corneal problems, and epithelial cell or leukocyte damage are possible health challenges associated with exposure to acid rain [55, 57]. The above chronicled facts show that emission from automobile transportation can synergize change in climate (alteration between balance in incoming and outgoing radiation elements over a period of time in the atmosphere leading to differed quality of air over time) [58] and that climate change is intricately weaved to human health.
\nFor the fact that automobiles are the most important vital means of transportation owing to their ubiquitous nature, portability, flexibility, comfort, and affordable cost (when compared with trains, ships, and airplanes), more and more people all over the world are purchasing vehicles for their personal, office, and company use. Some families have as much as two, three, four, etc. depending on their purchasing power. In Nigeria, the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) stated that there are more than seven [8] million vehicles on Nigeria road [59]. The automobiles are helpful to human population, and they can transport people and goods to places of need such as offices, markets, schools, sporting events, hospitals, leisure centers, etc. This is made possible by adequate road network interconnecting the cities and the rural communities. The inevitable effect is the numerous public health issues associated with automobile transportation. The use of premium motor spirit, diesel, paints, and other gaseous materials [45] has led to the increased pollution and negative health effect. Incomplete combustion of fuel due to lack of air, poor mixing of air with combustion gases, and low combustion temperature lead to particulate matter emission; the whole property is a function of operating condition of the engine, lubricant oil, fuel composition, and the gas filtering equipment [60]. Substances that can be emitted from automobile exhaust include CO, H2, CO2, H2O, hydrocarbons (CHn), volatile organic compound (VOCs), oxides of sulfur (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), soot [61], and metals such as vanadium, lead, nickel, cadmium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, lead, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, barium, etc. [60, 62]. Other possible constituents of automobile exhaust emission include benzenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. The list above is considered as the exhaust emission, while the evaporative emissions are the vapors of fuel which are released into the atmosphere unburnt. The car exhaust emission has a great deal of negative effect on the human health and the environment. Car exhaust pollutants cause coughing, breathing difficulties, eye irritation, and distress to the respiratory system (throat, lungs, and chest). Specifically, heavy metals such as lead cause an occupational potent widespread human and environmental toxicant produced by burning leaded fuel and can interferes with normal functioning of red blood cells, thus hampering important enzymes in the body, damages and shortens the lifespan of red blood cell and cause anemia. Serious exposure burden can cause renal dysfunction, fatigue, arthritis, birth defects, hallucination, psychosis, autism, etc. [63]. Severe exposures to cadmium cause tracheo-bronchitis, pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, contacting cadmium by inhaling of cadmium-laden smoke fast rack respiratory, kidney, liver and bone damage. The bone becomes tender (osteomalacia), depletion of mineral density (osteoporosis) which accentuate backbone and joint pain, thereby increasing the risk of fractures [64]. Irritation of the nose and throat, headaches, dizziness, body weakness, cough, chest pain, and chills are inflammatory symptoms. Cadmium and its compounds are also carcinogenic. Nickel, when in the body, can alter its chemical nature but cannot be destroyed, and its binding to form ligands and transportation throughout the body depicts nickel metabolism. Interference of nickel with zinc, manganese, magnesium, and calcium physiologically is regarded as its toxicity [65, 66]. Myocardial infarction, acute stroke, and burn injury are disease conditions linked with altered serum concentration and transport of nickel [67] inhaling automobile smoke laden with nickel can lead to high accumulation in the lungs, nasal septum, liver, and kidney [68]. Erythrocytes and leukocytes inhibited production, blood vessel damage, vomiting, irregular and abnormal heartbeat, which are caused by short-term exposure to reduced concentration of arsenic. Malfunctioning of cells, respiration, enzyme cell, and mitosis are caused by arsenic because it is a protoplasmic poison; the main effect is on the sulfhydryl group of cell [69]. Documented toxicological and health effect of manganese include decrease in semen quality [70] and Parkinsonism [71, 72]. For the fact that manganese is recognized to have different neuronal deficits such as learning disabilities, emotional liability, hallucination, compulsive behaviors, attention disorders, low fetal birth weight, and infant mortality [72, 73, 74], it is regarded as a potent toxin. The mucous membrane is the major target of inhaled hexavalent chromium or chromium-containing compounds, and then it synergizes asthmatic reaction, bronchial cancer, ulceration, and perforation of the nasal septum [75]. Although the human body for its physiological process requires copper in trace amount, increased exposure to copper through inhalation of automobile smokes/fumes will lead to copper toxicity such as early childhood liver cirrhosis (ECLC) and gastrointestinal symptoms [76]. The ubiquitous nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emanates from natural processes such as forest fires, oxidation of biogenic precursors, unburnt petroleum products and other anthropogenic factors, which are released into the environment [77]. PAHs are hazardous chemicals that negatively impair human health [78, 79]. Accordingly, automobile transportation is a veritable source of PAHs in the environment being an anthropogenic pollutant, and the urban atmosphere is laden with PAHs originating from incomplete combustion of fuel in the transportation engine [80]. PAHs being highly lipophilic and insoluble in water persist in the environment (air, water, and land), and many of its compound are known carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic to organism [81].
\nParticulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) are tiny suspended microscopic particles like dust, soot, ash, solid/liquid objects, gases, and aerosols that can originate from daily life activity. They can travel long distance in air been less dense than air. Those that originate from automobile/diesel engine exhaust may consist of complex mixture of organic molecules (conjugated and straight chain), incompletely burnt carbon, oxides of metals, acid anhydrides, and phosphate, nitrate, and sulfate group. The respiratory system is the major attack site of inhaled particulate matter. Penetration of inhaled airborne particles through the airways increases with the increasing reduction in particle size for those >0.5 μm [82]. The health effect from inhaled particulate matter may be affected by the site of deposition within the respiratory system. Deposited particles within the respiratory system are influenced by biological, physical, and chemical process which includes dissolution into body fluids with absorption by blood, migration into cells by phagocytosis, and movement with mucus and blood fluid [83]. Cancer, asthmatic allergies, inflammation, cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and mutagenic and teratogenic effects are health issues associated with particulate matter inhalation [84]. Bronchovascular disease has been reported among subjects exposed to welding aerosol [85]. Cancers of larynx, nasal cavities, and paranasal sinuses were established in subjects exposed to and inhaled chromate paints [86, 87]. Pollution keratoconjunctivitis (PKC) was reported among children in hydrocarbon processing in Niger Delta area of Nigeria [88]. Among automobiles, it is established that two-wheeled vehicles (motorcycles) emit more particulate matter into the ambient air than four-wheeled vehicles (cars) and therefore more polluting effect. This fact can be exacerbated in cities with high traffic gridlock (traffic congestion) as vehicular emission poses great threat to environmental and public health. The united nation (UN) 1998 report states that over 600 million people are exposed to hazardous effect of traffic-associated pollutants after 21 years; this figure must have increased.
\nHigh voluminous importation of aging and rickety automobiles with engines of questionable combustion efficiency, weak and deplorable road infrastructure, and high road accidents leading to automobile breakdown and favorable elements of weather (high temperature, acidic rain fall, dew, etc.), decomposition of automobiles, and release of toxic substances into the environment is inevitable, and this is coupled with toxic substances emitted by combustion of fuel/diesel during transportation. For the fact that Nigeria lacks adequate technology to deal with automobile waste, including recycling, there is a need to put in place, strengthen, and implement legislation regime so as to regulate the importation of automobiles into the country. Nigeria with a population of over 180 million people provides a large market for auto manufacturers. The government can negotiate with the manufacturers to establish a recycling plants, and this can remove large volume of auto-waste from the roads. The government can also assist the citizens to purchase new vehicles rather than fairly used ones through car loans. Adequate monitoring program by vehicle inspectorate officers to ensure road worthiness of vehicles. Tax incentives can be given to citizens who agree to limit car ownership to one. The government can also establish a comprehensive mass transportation network system that can convey large number of people on a daily basis. This can reduce the number of vehicles plying the road on a daily basis. Periodic air quality monitoring can be carried out to determine the levels of carbon (II) oxide, carbon (IV) oxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulate matter, etc. in the air. Alternatively, non-fuel means of transportation such as beast of burden, bicycles, and trucks can be resuscitated and can lead to a significant reduction in number of vehicles on the road, meaning a decrease in pollution level and minimal health risk. The conclusion is that automobile waste and automobile transportation have some negative effect on the environment and public health.
\nThe authors would like to thank the Federal Government of Nigeria, through its agency, the tertiary education trust fund (TETFund), for funding this research, covering 2016–2017 (merged) institutional-based research project (RP) intervention.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
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As a result, we identified adverse conditions that were an obstacle to the application of the original technique. We then adapted the technique to make it applicable in an OSS project. We can conclude that was not easy to recruit OSS users and developers to participate in technique application.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Lucrecia Llerena, Nancy Rodriguez, Mayra Llerena, John W. Castro\nand Silvia T. Acuña",authors:[{id:"231253",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lucrecia",middleName:null,surname:"Llerena",slug:"lucrecia-llerena",fullName:"Lucrecia Llerena"},{id:"231767",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"nancy-rodriguez",fullName:"Nancy Rodriguez"},{id:"231769",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"john-w.-castro",fullName:"John W. 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Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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