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1. Introduction
The contamination of heavy metals has spread widely across the environment, wreaking havoc on humans and the environment causing risks to the human race and hazard for the environment. A few hazardous Heavy metals (such as As, Pb, Cd, and Hg) relates to metabolic and other organic capacities as inconsequential. Certain metals, like Zn, Fe, Cr (III), etc., are important to carry metabolic cycles, including hemeproteins (like cytochrome p450) and catalysts. They are related to biota metabolism [1]. Despite the fact that metals like Nickel is an essential part of urease, it poses a significant health hazard for the human populations [1, 2] Accordingly, food and soil, crop/vegetable frameworks have given an exemplary illustration of the biodiverse ecosystem communications in the climate. For food the basic source of yield is the soil, but it is prone to contamination by heavy metals from various origins (e.g., energy-serious enterprises, for example, nuclear energy stations and coal mine shafts, and chloro-soluble base synthetic ventures, like goldmines, purifying, electroplating, materials, calfskin, and e-squander handling) and nonpoint sources (e.g., soil/residue disintegration, farming spillover, and open cargo stockpiling). Notwithstanding their human wellbeing suggestions, Heavy metals unfavorably influences soil biota through microbial cycles [3]. For instance, restorative plants utilized for customary human medical care ought to be analyzed for Heavy metals tainting to forestall unfavorable impacts. When exposed to near refining or other modern environments, a variety of restorative species of plants have been found to cause bioaccumulation of various heavy metals (e.g., Cd, As, Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Fe) [4, 5]. Both anthropogenic and natural sources release heavy metals into the environment. They can penetrate soils and groundwater, bioaccumulate in food webs, and harm biota because they are highly reactive and typically toxic at low quantities. The biotic effects of necessary and non-essential heavy metals are often highly distinct, and vary depending on the exact metal involved. This paper aims to provide a global overview of significant metal sources in agro-environments that are equivalent to the various anthropogenic activities and cycles [6]. This also includes details about heavy metals contamination in soil environments where food crops are grown in fully occupied main-lands. Moreover, ecological and lives of humans in these subsystems are needed to be discussed to aid in the understanding of the physiological/atomic systems which constitutes to the uptake of Heavy metals in the crops [7]. By suffocating or reducing the passage of metallic poisons from soil to food crops, management strategies are inextricably linked to human well-being government aid (soil-crop frameworks).
2. Heavy metal contamination
Natural contamination of these heavy metals is a significant environmental issue due to its negative impacts all over the world. Because of rapidly increasing horticultural and metal enterprises, improper rubbish removal, manures, and pesticides, organic wastes that are being disposed of in water bodies, land soil, and the environment. A few metals have an effect on natural capacities and development, while others collect in at least one organ, creating a variety of real illnesses such as cancer. Each metal’s toxicological and pharmacokinetics cycles in humans are depicted. In general, environmental auditing can tell us the effects of heavy metal bioaccumulation in the human body with context to biochemical and physiological changes, as well as the severe illnesses occurring from their exposure.
Climate is an environmental factor in which people, plants, beings, minute living beings. It comprises land, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere component. Earth is a framework that is characterized by the four pillars, the living organisms (biosphere), the atmosphere (air), the lithosphere (land) and water (hydrosphere) which are all employed in a combination. Natural toxins, just like contaminations, are synthetic substances that are available at more elevated levels than in any segment of the climate [8, 9, 10]. During the most recent years, the process of industrialization has developed at a rapid phase. This manner has expanded the interest for abuse of the Earth’s regular assets which is a growing concern ecological contamination [11]. A few poisons, such as inorganic particles, natural toxins, organometallic substances, vaporous poisons, radioactive substances and nano-based materials, have actually poisoned the climate [12, 13].
Heavy metals have existed on earth since the existence of earth. Because of an amazing increment in the usage of substantial metals which brought about a fast-approaching flood of metallic substances in both the earthbound climate and the oceanic climate [12]. The Heavy metal contamination has occurred due to anthropogenic activities, primarily due to metal mining, purification, foundries, and other metal-based ventures, as well as metal draining from various sources such as landfills, squander dumps, discharge, animals and chicken fertilizer, overflows, cars, and roadworks [7]. The usage of Heavy Metals (Heavy metals) in the industries like agriculture, pesticides, insect poisons, manures etc., has been an optional wellspring of heavy metal contamination. Eruptions from volcanoes, consumption of metals, from the environment are all examples of natural events that might increase heavy metal contamination. This contamination can travel from soil and water causing soil breakdown, and land degradation, which are all examples of natural factors that might increase heavy metal contamination [14].
3. Source of heavy metal in irrigation water
Heavy metals are commonly found in the environment as a result of substrate erosion. These naturally occurring heavy metals are generally in forms that are inaccessible to plant roots [15]. However, due to a rise in human activities that release more biologically accessible forms of heavy metals into the environment, this has altered in recent years [16] Agriculture is one of the most major human activity that contributes to heavy metals being released into the environment [17]. Using wastewater to irrigate agricultural soils resulted in considerably greater amounts of heavy metals in the edible parts of the crops produced on these soils, according to [18]. Heavy metals may be present in factory wastewater, which build over time in soil deposits along waste water routes as well as in creatures that live near them. Human exposure to polluted wastewater is common, especially in densely populated metropolitan areas or when wastewater is utilized for agricultural purposes.
Multiple businesses (textile, dyeing, garment, pharmaceutical, ceramic, paint, packing, etc.) dump untreated wastewater into neighboring canals, causing heavy metal pollution in irrigation water in Bangladesh’s Gazipur District. Due to wastewater discharge from businesses, it was found that the surface water and soil of the industrial region in Dhaka and Gazipur District are significantly contaminated with Zn, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Cd. Farmers irrigate their crops with polluted water, resulting in heavy metal pollution in the district’s veggies. Vegetables are polluted with high amounts of Cr, Zn, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, and Cd in the industrial region of the Dhaka Export Processing Zone (DEPZ). The majority of these veggies are sold at Dhaka’s wholesale market and are consumed by a large number of people [19, 20, 21]. (Table 1) demonstrate the concentrations of heavy metals (mg L−1) in effluent-contaminated water for irrigation within the DEPZ in Dhaka, Bangladesh [21].
Values
Lead
Chromium
Cadmium
Safe limit
0.5
0.1
0.01
Mean
0.21
0.43
0.06
Median
0.19
0.43
0.04
Min
0.14
0.29
0.02
Max
0.30
0.53
0.08
SD
0.05
0.08
0.04
Table 1.
Concentrations of heavy metals (mg L−1) in effluent-contaminated water [21].
3.1 Source of heavy metal in agricultural soil
Heavy metals and metalloids may be accumulated in soils as a result of discharges from rapidly expanding modern regions, mine tailings, removal of high metal squanders, leaded gas and paints, land use of composts, animal excrement, sewage slop, pesticides, wastewater water system, coal burning buildups, petrochemical spillage, and environmental statements [22, 23]. Frequently recognized heavy metals like Lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), and nickel (Ni) are the pollutants. Soils are a significant sink for heavy metals delivered into the climate by recently referenced anthropogenic exercises, and dissimilar to regular unfamiliar substances that are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide by microbial movement, most metals do not go through microbial or compound degradation, and their complete obsession in soils goes on for quite a while after discharge [24, 25]. Regardless, changes in their substance structure (speciation) and bioavailability are conceivable. The presence of harmful metals in soil can keep regular pollutants from biodegrading appropriately [26]. Significant metal contamination of soil can jeopardize individuals and the organic framework through: direct ingestion or contact with spoiled soil, the normal lifestyle (soil–plant-human or soil–plant–animal-human), drinking defiled ground water, decline in food quality (security and appeal) because of phytotoxicity, and reduction in land usability for agrarian creation because of phytotoxicity [27]. The adequate security and rebuilding of heavy metal-tainted soil biological systems need their depiction and repair. At both the public and global levels, current legislation on natural insurance and general well-being is based on data that describes the compound qualities of ecological wonders, particularly those that exist in our developed way of life [28]. Risk assessment is a powerful logical tool that enables leaders to manage contaminated areas in a cost-effective manner while protecting public and biological system health [29]. Heavy metals happen spontaneously in the soil environment as a result of pedogenetic cycles of parent material lasting at levels that are considered safe (1000 mg/kg-1) and occasionally hazardous (1000 mg/kg-1) [29]. In view of man’s exacerbation and acceleration of nature’s progressively happening geochemical example of metals, most soils in country and metropolitan regions may collect at any rate one of the heavy metals above described establishment regards adequately high to represent a danger to human wellbeing, plants, animals, organic frameworks, or other media [30]. Significant metals basically become toxins in soil conditions since (I) their paces of maturing through counterfeit cycles are quicker than normal ones, (ii) they are moved from mines to self-assertive regular regions with higher odds of direct receptiveness, and (iii) the metal unions in discarded things are tolerably high contrasted with those in get items. Critical metals in soil from anthropogenic sources will be more adaptable and henceforth bioavailable than those from pedogenic or lithogenic sources [30]. Metal-bearing solids in spoiled regions can emerge out of an assortment of anthropogenic sources, including metal mine tailings, expulsion of high metal wastes from inappropriately got landfills, leaded gas and poisonous paints, land utilization of fertilizer, creature feces, biosolids (sewage sludge), compost, pesticides, coal start developments, petrochemicals, and air contamination [31]. Fertilizer. Horticulture was the most important human effect on the land in general [32]. Plants require not just macronutrients but also essential micronutrients to build up and complete the lifecycle. Some soils are deficient in heavy metals which are necessary for solid plant development, and harvests might be supplemented with them as a soil development or foliar spray. Grain crops grown on Cu-deficient soils are treated with Cu on a regular basis as a soil expansion, and cereal and root crops may also be given Mn. In major cultivating frameworks, large volumes of compost are frequently applied to soils to provide adequate N, P, and K for crop development. Following measurements of heavy metals (e.g., Cd and Pb) as contaminants are present in the mixes utilized to supply these components [33] which may fundamentally extend their substance in the soil after being applied with compost. Cd and Pb, for example, have no recognized physiological effects. The use of some phosphatic composts accidentally introduces Cd and other potentially toxic components to the soil, such as F, Hg, and Pb [34]. Pesticides. In the past, a few common insecticides used widely in agribusiness and agriculture included significant metal centralizations. For example, in the recent past, around 10% of the synthetics used as insecticides and fungicides in the United Kingdom were based on intensities containing Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb, or Zn. Copper-containing fungicidal splashes like Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate) and copper oxychloride are examples of such pesticides [35]. For a long time, lead arsenate was used in natural product plantings to suppress parasitic microorganisms. In New Zealand and Australia, arsenic-containing compounds were additionally broadly used to control dairy cows ticks and banana bugs, woods have been saved with Cu, Cr, and As (CCA) plans, and there are currently various disregarded regions where soil groupings of these parts endlessly outperform establishment obsessions. The narrative of arsenic pollution, infiltration, and its impact on a variety of crops, foods, mushrooms, fruits, vegetables, sea animals, and fish and animal products is being revealed via ongoing research [36]. Such contamination may cause issues, particularly if areas are revamped for non-horticultural or agrarian reasons. Rather than excrements, the utilization of such materials has been more compelled, in light of indicated objections or yields. Biosolids and Manures. The inadvertent social affair of heavy metals and others in the soil is brought about by the utilization of different biosolids (e.g., creature composts, fertilizers, and civil sewage ooze). In agribusiness, some living thing squanders like chickens, dairy cattle, and pig waste products are commonly applied to harvests and fields as solids or slurries [37]. In spite of the way that most fertilizers are viewed as significant excrements, the Cu and Zn added to things down as improvement advertisers and advertisers in the pig and poultry businesses. Metal spoiling of the dirt may happen because of the fixings in poultry wellbeing items. Fertilizers made by creatures on such weight reduction regimens incorporate high centralizations of As, Cu, and Zn, which, whenever applied a few times to restricted spaces of land, can bring about significant development of these metals in the soil over the long haul. Biosolids (sewage slop) are essentially regular, amazing items that might be used subsequent to being given by wastewater treatment systems. Land utilization of biosolids materials is a typical procedure in numerous nations that consider the reuse of biosolids given by metropolitan populaces [38, 39, 40]. In view of its far and wide acknowledgment and authoritative significance, the expression sewage waste is utilized in an assortment of contexts [41]. In any case, the word biosolids is getting more utilized as a substitute for sewage overflow, since it is considered to better precisely portray the gainful properties inborn in sewage ooze. Most of the 5.6 million dry truck heaps of sewage waste utilized or unloaded in the United States are assessed to be land applied, and biosolids are utilized in provincial regions around the country. Over 30% of sewage ooze is utilized as manure in agriculture in the European social class [42]. The major urban expert in Australia gives around 1,75,000 tons of dry biosolids consistently, and most biosolids applied to agrarian land are presently utilized in arable managing circumstances where they might be united into the dirt. There’s likewise a great deal of buzz about the chance of enhancing soil biosolids with other regular assets like sawdust, straw, or nursery squander. There will be suggestions for metal polluting of soils if this inclination proceeds. Biosolids’ penchant to debase soils by eliminating substantial metals has started to worry about their use in agrarian activities. Significant metals are probably not going to be foundare Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn, and the metal obsessions are addressed by the nature and the force of the advanced development, similarly as the sort of connection used during the biosolids treatment [43]. Wastewater. The practise of dumping urban and mechanical wastewater and associated effluents on land dates back 400 years and is now commonplace in countless parts of the world [44]. Squander water has been estimated to cover 20 million hectares of fertile land throughout the world. Considerations suggest that horticulture depending on wastewater water systems contributes 50% of the vegetable supply to metropolitan regions in certain Asian and African cities. Ranchers, for the most part, are unconcerned with ecological benefits or risks, and are only interested in increasing their profits and benefits. Despite the fact that metal fixations in wastewater effluents are typically modest, a long-distance water system with such might eventually result in significant metal accumulation in the ground. Industrial Wastes and Metal Mining and Milling Cycles Mining and handling of metal assets, in mix with organizations, has given numerous nations the legacy of inescapable metal contamination transport in soil. Tailings are essentially released into customary dejections, including neighboring wetlands, bringing about expanded obsessions. Contamination of soil has come about because of far and wide Pb and zinc Zn metal mining and filtration, representing a danger to human and organic wellbeing. A significant number of the recuperation techniques utilized here are tedious and costly, and they will most likely be unable to reestablish soil utility. Bioavailability has been featured as a soil heavy metal natural danger to individuals. Retention of plant material filled in (normal hierarchy) or quick ingestion (oral bioavailability) of contaminated soil are instances of assimilation courses. Various materials are created by an assortment of organizations, including material, tanning, petrochemicals from unplanned oil spills or the utilization of oil-based items, pesticides, and medication workplaces, and they assume a critical part in the arrangement as shown in (Figure 1). Despite the way that some appear on shore, few have agrarian or officer administration benefits. Moreover, a few are conceivably perilous in light of the fact that to the presence of huge metals (Cr, Pb, and Zn) or poisonous normal mixes, and are simply applied to arrive on uncommon events, if by any means. Others are insufficient in plant supplements or do not have the capacity to shape soil [32].
Figure 1.
Source of heavy metal contamination.
4. Heavy metal uptake and bioaccumulation in food crops
For groundwater and plants, soil serves as both a source and a sink for the presence of Heavy metals [45]. These toxicants get accumulated in the land soil and has become a serious concern as a result of fast advances the agricultural and industrial sectors [46]. Crops are essential part of diet of individuals and are vital source of important nutritional components like minerals and vitamins [47, 48]. Crops grown on contaminated lands with Heavy Metals, these metals accumulate in the plants edible parts, which are then ingested by humans [49] Because heavy metals are resistant from degradation, and have long half-life periods, thus difficult to excrete out. Many metals are hazardous at low doses, Heavy metal poisoning is a major problem in crops [18, 45, 50, 51]. Long-term exposure to heavy metal contaminated crops can result in a variety of health problems, including bone thinning, skin problems, improper endocrine gland function, blood pressure, neoplastic growth, impairment of sexual characteristics, asthma and other respiratory issues, heart diseases, and brain impairments [52, 53]. Heavy metal contamination in crops is a concern worldwide that leads to toxidromes and a variety of illnesses in humans, flora and fauna, when polluted soils and food crops are consumed.
4.1 Metal uptake and transportation pathways
Ingestion and amassing of substantial metals in plant tissues rely on temperature, dampness, natural matter, pH, and supplement accessibility [54]. Heavy metal amassing moreover depends upon plant species, while the viability of plants in engaging metals is directed by either plant take-up or soil-to-plant move factors of the metals [22]. Brought lead step up in soils, for instance, may diminish soil convenience, while very low lead obsession may stifle some fundamental plant capacities like photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption, bringing about destructive indications like dull green leaves, shrinking of more prepared leaves, ruined foliage, and hearty hued short roots, among others [55]. Huge metals are possibly unsafe, causing chlorosis, helpless plant development, and low yield, and they might be joined by decreased enhancement take-up, issues in plant absorption, and a diminished ability to fix subatomic nitrogen in leguminous plants. [56]. Because of exercises like mineral burrowing, metal transportation, decontaminating and refining, and expulsion of tailings and waste waters around mines, mining and filtering occupations are significant reasons for weighty metal polluting in the environment [57, 58]. Disinfecting of water and soil, phytotoxicity, soil crumbling, and likely dangers to human wellbeing are a portion of the negative normal effects of unnecessary hefty metals tossed about mine and purifying locales [48, 59, 60]. Critical metal pollution of cultivating soils and yields in mining zones has been viewed as an uncommon normal risk [61, 62, 63]. Heavy metal take-up by roots from debased soils and surface water, just as immediate exchange of toxins from the climate on plant surfaces, can bring about critical metal defilement of plants [23]. Lead and Cd are suspected malignancy causing synthetics and have been connected to the etiology of an assortment of sicknesses, including cardiovascular, renal, blood, apprehensive, and bone illnesses [64]. Notwithstanding the way that Zn and Cu are fundamental segments, their exorbitant focus in food and feed plants is of incredible concern attributable to their harmfulness to people and living things [65]. Development of yields for human or trained being utilization may possibly prompt the take-up and amassing of these metals in consumable plant leaves, representing a danger to human and living thing wellbeing (Figure 2) [66, 67]. Unnecessary dietary gathering of heavy metals like Cd and Pb in the human body may bring about genuine clinical issues [68]. For the greater part, dietary induction is the dominating method of receptiveness, regardless of the way that in profoundly contaminated regions, internal breath can assume a significant part [69]. The significant channel of human receptiveness to generous metals is the soil-to-manage trade of heavy metals. The developing human populace has started an interest for more food [23]. Pesticides, manures, fertilizers, composts, and wastewater have all been utilized all the more frequently in the water framework accordingly [70]. Food crops developed on metal-drained soil can ingest and gather metals in critical amounts to influence food quality and wellbeing [71]. Most nations have given genuine thought to the control of hefty metals in food crops because of soil pollution in country regions [72].
Figure 2.
Heavy metal uptake and transportation to food chain.
Plants retain fundamental and pointless segments from the soil dependent on fixing inclination and molecule explicit take-up, or by means of scattering [73]. Root assumes a critical part in the take-up of metal particles. Due to the presence of cellulose, gelatin, and glycoproteins, which go about as express molecule exchangers, (TEs) adsorb on the root surface in a cationic setuFp with a negative cell divider [74]. The cations (Zn2+, Mn2+, Cd2+, Fe2+, Pb2+, Ni2+) are open at the root surface and effectively gathered into the root apoplast [75]. In the wake of being accumulated in the root apoplast, the cations are either held in the root cells or moved radially to the root stele and packed into the xylem and phloem tissues in one of two different ways: apoplastic/reserved transportation or sym-plastic/powerful transportation [76]. The scattering of metal particles in the root cell through the earth plan causes disengaged transportation, while the unique transportation of metal particles happens through the plasma layer, which is hindered by different carriers or transporters [77]. The xylem sap is coordinated upwards by the incident stream, where TEs are moved to the aeronautical tissues. In the event that no redistribution happens, TEs will assemble in photosynthetically powerful leaves. The phloem, another vascular tissue, revamps and supplements the results of photosynthesis across the entire plant body, between the sources and sinks. The scattering of metal particles in the root cell through the earth course of action causes separated transportation, while the powerful transportation of metal particles happens through the plasma layer, which is hindered by different carriers or transporters [77]. The xylem sap is coordinated upwards by the occurrence stream, where TEs are moved to the aeronautical tissues. On the off chance that no redistribution happens, TEs will assemble in photosynthetically powerful leaves. The phloem, another vascular tissue, reworks and supplements the results of photosynthesis across the entire plant body, between the sources and sinks. TEs can be moved from senescing leaves to sinks through the phloem (e.g., creating vegetative parts and creating regular items). Before the xylem sap comes to the mesophyll cells, TEs can likewise relocate to the phloem [78]. Phloem transport comprises of (I) apoplastic stacking into both accomplice cells and sifter parts, just as (ii) unloading at the objective sink tissues [79]. A few metal-limiting mixes, including as nicotianamine and phytochelatins, were demonstrated to be reasonable for shipping TEs in the phloem [80]. Each progression requires a staggering cooperation of chelating designs and metal transporters that influence metal accumulation speed [80]. Metal chelators are connected to a few phases of micronutrient take-up, inside vehicle, and sequestration in the cytosol and subcellular compartments [80]. Metal take-up and remobilization from intracellular compartments into the cytosol is worked with by the ZIP, NRAMP, yellow stripe (YS), and copper transporter (COPT) families, while heavy metal-delivery ATPases (Heavy metalAs), the cation (CDF) family, the cation exchanger (CAX) family, and the multi-drug and destructive compound ejection (MATE) family, just as the plant cadmium resistance [80].
4.2 Metal stress tolerance mechanisms
Heavy metal toxicity causes a wide range of physiological and biochemical changes, and plants must evolve and/or adopt a variety of methods to deal with the detrimental effects of heavy metal toxicity. Plants react through several mechanisms to external stimuli including toxicity to heavy metals. These include (i) external stress stimulus sensing, (ii) signal transduction and signal transmission into the cell and (iii) appropriate actions are taken to offset the negative effects of stress stimuli by modulating the cell’s physiological, biochemical, and molecular status. (Singh et.al 2016). Generous metals can instigate DNA strand breakage, nuclear crosslinking, adjustments in innate materials, oxidative pressing factor and harm from ROS and free extremists, just as helpful and hidden layer disintegrating, all of which increment heavymetal phyto-openness and cutoff reap plant growth. Every one of those biochemical, physiological, and genetic changes in plants are indivisibly associated with human prosperity and the advanced lifestyle. Heavy metals likewise produce uncommon physiological changes and opposing impacts at numerous periods of improvement, especially germination and seedlings. Heavy metals antagonistically affect the synthetics and protein profiles engaged with germination (e.g., destructive phosphatases, proteases, and - amylases). Heavy metals, for instance, diminished starch content, restricted enhancement levels, hampered chloroplast PSII, and provoked the declaration of warmth daze proteins and proline [81, 82]. The impacts of substantial metals have been focused on rice [83, 84] as per seed advancement of food yields, and Cd is likely the most considered poison [85]. Regardless of this, restricted examination has zeroed in on multi-metal toxicity in food crops [82, 84]. Co was demonstrated to be the most inconvenient to cauliflower (B. oleracea) as far as hostile effects on biomass and physiological exercises (e.g., foliar Fe, chlorophylls a, b, protein, and catalase action) [86, 87]. Those metals moreover obstructed the development of major parts (e.g., P, S, Mn, and Zn) from the roots to the shoots, with Cr showing the least phytotoxicity [87]. Metal transporters/chelators, for example, phyto-siderophores, are utilized to ship heavy metals and metalloids into the cells of food crops [88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. heavy metals and metalloids produce oxidative pressing factor in plants by changing cysteine over to diminished glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) (the extent of GSH/GSSG = oxidative pressing factor or ROS age) [90] and shaping phytochelatins [90, 94]. Saltiness stress can likewise influence the measure of heavy metal pollution in food crops, just as their physiological and biochemical properties [95]. Metal contamination diminished the biomass and chlorophyll substance of explicit vegetables (most strikingly water spinach, trailed by amaranth, leaf mustard, Chinese sprouting cabbage, green capsicum, and tomato); on the other hand, the level of peroxidase, known to be an adversary of oxidative protein, at first extended at low assemblies of the metallic pollutants [87]. With an expansion in heavy metal focuses, tomato, the food least contaminated by metals, turned out to be progressively powerless against pungent pressure [87]. Key cycles in the ability to convey heavy metals incorporate phytochelation and immobilization by lignocellulose and different portions of plants, just as the limit of metals in the vacuole [87].
5. Toxicity in food crops
Yields collect essential TE groups in both appealing and unpalatable portions. When compared to other crops, verdant greens collect large groups of TEs from contaminated soil [96]. Crops absorb Heavy metals from contaminated land and by barometrically measuring particle matter from a variety of origins. Heavy metals are absorbed from the roots and then transported to the various cells of the crops [96]. They are transported to many parts of the plant by multiple channels, resulting in degradation of the developmental characteristics of crops due to change in the metabolic, physiological and biochemical activities of crops [97, 98]. Presence of these harmful components in the harvests can present poisonous indications that has serious outcomes (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Heavy metal toxicity in food crops.
5.1 Adverse impacts on plant health
The immediate impacts of TEs can cause catalyst inhibition of cytoplasm and underlying oxidative pressure can cause cell damage [99]. Plant is affected in a roundabout way by substituting important nutrients. TEs are present in variety of crops and its associated parts or even the entire plant [80]. Plant roots may easily absorb TEs and transport them to the edible portion of the plant [100] High convergence of TEs present in the soil has a number of unfavorable effects on crops and, subsequently, human health [80, 101]. Heavy metals like Cd and Pb in crops are not essential, and when they are present in large amounts they accumulate in the crops, it disturbs ingestion and transportation system, disrupting opposition potential, electron move framework, photosynthesis, breath, digestion, enzymatic action, development, and propagation [102]. The presence of the heavy metal also indicated various effects on the crops. Effect of Pb. Cr, Hg and Cd were studied on maize tomato, garlic, rice, and reduced shoot length, reduced nutrient uptake, decrease germination percentage and lower plant protein content was reported by [103].
6. Transportation via the food chain and occurrence in human food
Anthropogenic and natural sources are major supply for heavy metals in the surroundings. Heavy metals contaminate land and leach out to waterbodies, show their effect by persisting in the food cycle, have antagonistic effects on biota since they are very responsive and toxic at low concentrations [104, 105]. Toxic metals gets accumulated by plants from roots. Heavy metal travels through the water stream by apoplast to the internal cells (endodermis). This endodermis function as a protective layer for Heavy metal movement. The casparian strip prevents water stream and the Heavy metal enters the symplastic phase. Heavy metal transportation (in low concentrations) through root to APP have accounted for of immobilization by contrarily charged gelatins inside the root cell divider [106, 107]. Insoluble Heavy metal salts hasten in intercellular spaces of root cells [107, 108]. Essentially, Heavy metal amassing in plasma layers of root cells [107, 109] or in rhizodermal vacuoles and cortical cells of roots. Significant segment of Heavy metal is discharged from internal cells (endodermis) during the detoxification process by the plant. Foundations of hyper accumulator species break up metals in soil [110], increment metal take-up and movement, and make hyper accumulator species to endure higher Heavy metal particles focuses. Other detoxifying components include specific metal take-up, discharge, ligand binding, all contribute to Heavy metal resistance. The transfer of Heavy metal from lower part of plant to upper (root-shoot) is aided by xylem, which is most likely supported by occurrence [111]. On mesquite plants [106], demonstrated X-beam planning and observed high Heavy metal statements in xylem and phloem cells. It was found that Heavy metal traveled to the leaf from the vascular stream via apoplastic pathway [75]. In xylem, Heavy metal can frame edifices with amino/natural acids [112]. In any case, inorganic Heavy metal can likewise be moved. Movement (i.e., Heavy metal present in aeronautical parts/driving roots) can be executed for understanding level of Heavy metal movement [110, 112, 113, 114]. Notwithstanding, the admission of Heavy metal tainted plants has been a significant openness to people and creature [113, 114, 115]. Consumable/wild plants developed/filled nearby phosphate businesses can be Heavy metal bio-pointers of harmful metals [113]. Occupants and laborers of these businesses/regions might be presented to Heavy metal tainting.
The degree of toxicity of TEs in people relies upon every day admission through utilization of different sorts of vegetables [41, 97, 116, 117]. To understand the human health vulnerabilities from TEs when they consume crops, existing data records, and boundaries are used. Target hazard quotient (THQ), daily dietary intake of metals (DDI), hazard index (HI), daily intake of metals (DIM), and health risk index are among the items on the list (HRI). The THQ list is used to assess the health risks by toxic elements by giving a proper information on metal content from land (soil) and plants [118].
7. Hazardous effects of crops containing heavy metals on health of humans
Heavy metal contaminating eateries has a progression bearing unfavorable consequences for the health of humans because of their pervasive and refractory nature. Unnecessary metals have the capacity to bypass preventive mechanisms like compartmentalization, homeostasis, cellular failure, oxidative breakdown, and ship, resulting in toxic and fatal consequences. The significant manifestations of TEs harmfulness in people are scholarly handicap in youngsters, CNS problems, dementia and sadness in grown-ups, a sleeping disorder, kidney and liver sicknesses, passionate shakiness, and vision unsettling influences [119, 120], expanded the dreariness and death rate. Metal toxicants cause oxidative stress in individuals, which is described by: a) expanded creation of Reactive Oxygen Species/Reactive Nitrogen Species (ROS/RNS) b) exhaustion/debasement of internal enemy of oxidant and free-revolutionary scroungers c) restraint/decrease in digestion and catalysts identified with decontamination process. In spite of the fact that toxicity arising from unexpected or word related openness to generous quantities of metals normally influences organ frameworks, seriousness of the harmfulness relies upon the kind and type of the TEs, openness course and duration and, likewise by person’s defenselessness [120, 121].
Harmful substances (metals) ingested in the course of debased crops can result in a variety of long-term illnesses as shown in (Figure 4). TEs consumption in polluted eatables might degrade several important nutrients of the body. This depletion is also linked to decreased malnutritional abilities, immunological defenses, hampered psychosocial resources, intrauterine development impediment, and increased threat of upper GI cancer [122]. Extreme sensitivity to Cd may amplify pneumonic effects. Subchronic inward Cd breath might also have a negative influence on the kidneys. Moreover Lead (Pb) toxic has been linked to the Brain/CNS and the GIT in both adolescents and adults [123], the impact may be severe or long-term. Stomach discomfort, desiring trouble, joint pain, pipedreams migraine, hypertension, fatigue, renal brokenness, restlessness, and vertigo are all symptoms of intense Pb openness [124]. Pb over time can cause allergic reactions, chemical imbalances, birth defects, CNS damage, renal damage, solid shortcoming, loss of mobility, psychosis, malnutrition, in severe cases death [125].
Figure 4.
Heavy metal hazardous effect on human health.
Increased centralization of Zn causes disability development and proliferation. Examples include Cr (Cr+3 and Cr+6 effects) which are hazardous to both flora and fauna followed by threats to humans as well [126]. Minimum concentrations of As can lead to irregular heartbeats, low levels of blood plasma proteins, discomfort, nausea and heaving, pricking sensations in upper and lower limbs, accompanied with vein damage. Chronic exposures of As may result in heart disease, high blood pressure, internal cancerous infestations, mental issues, infection of vascular system, aspiratory illness, acne, and Diabetes. Ongoing arsenicosis may cause permanent alterations in major body-organ systems, thus increasing high mortality rate [127].
8. Strategies for food safety regulation and mitigation of the health hazards
Many studies have been conducted on the uptake, collection, and elimination of TEs in model plants at the research facility scale by a few scientists. Despite this, few investigations are conducted in the field in a straightforward manner. As a result, there is a need to look into the gaps in terms of the practicality of ways to reduce TEs in daily food sources and in high-need food items, similarly drinking water which is an essential component in the prevention and elimination of Heavy metals. There have been many advances in molecular biology and biotechnology applications of a few plant and animal species, the altered/controlled ingestion of harmful components, as well as categorizing these components into non-consumable parts, but it is still not fully accomplished [128]. As a result, more unified vegetables-based initiatives are predicted to boost the production of toxic component-free palatable plant parts. Quality exchange/change in articulation of particular receptor/chemical/component carrier may also be used to effectively regulate the retention of hazardous components in vegetable yields. The adjustment of exudates of rootsgives a powerful measure to stifle harmful components in soil. This process canprovide forestalling of the passage of TEs into the jungle. Endeavors can promptly begin in those harvests on which denselyspread population depends for food. One main consideration is the absence of subsidizing [129], with the goal that the consumer sector is fundamental to produce successful financing for TEs research. TEs tainting by and by exists in regular assets, yet, whenever kept up beneath as far as possible, long haul biological system imperativeness can be kept up without influencing the natural way of life.
Ranchers should be educated about the dangers of using excessive amounts of compost and other synthetics, as well as the natural hazards of flooding crops in various water bodies (wastewater, sewage, and mechanical water) so as to balance the requirement for vegetables growth with low TE levels. Ability to manage environmental sources, like soil and water, helps maintaining sustainability for crops cultivation. The information gathered should include wastewater quality indexing data to support for aquatic system water testing at rural areas to establish public health. Capable organizations should complete general wellbeing schooling inside the utilization region to teach people in general the possible impacts of unpredictable waste usage risks and the wellbeing perils related to the use of vegetables developed using untreated/contaminated. It should be capable of measuring TEs contamination & supplement stacking of aquatic system and soils to secure wellbeing, both [130] of ranchers and buyers. Considering the expected harmfulness, diligent nature and combined conduct just as the utilization organic materials and vegetables, it is essential to test the breakdown of food materials to guarantee the number of impurities concerning modern day issues. Standard overview and observing projects of the grouping of TEs in food items have been done for quite a long time in the vast majority of the created nations and similar practices ought to be carried out in agricultural nations.
9. Conclusion
Natural impurities, food handling and safety, and health of humans are inter-connected. The presence of Heavy metals in the climate has increased altogether in late many years. Wellsprings of Heavy metal in crops can change in the creating and created world. Heavy metal exchange from ground soil to trim frameworks is unpredictable and requires complex components. Synergistic harmfulness of metals in food crops is also a major metal poisoning and contamination issue. The human wellbeing hazards have been broadly explored on a worldwide scale, however a couple of those works have utilized appropriate epidemiological techniques. To forestall wellbeing chances, existing remediation alternatives center around lessening the convergence of hefty metals in soil and the natural way of life. Fast and precise planning of soil contamination is expected to forestall the exchange of metallic toxins into the natural pecking order and to figure reasonable remediation techniques. Eco-attainable mechanical advancements, for example, nano-devices and the consciousness of ranchers could support neighborhood economies and vocations with certain monetary assurances.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding statement
None.
\n',keywords:"assimilation, crops, health, heavy metals exposure, soil, toxicity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80088.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80088.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80088",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80088",totalDownloads:97,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 27th 2021",dateReviewed:"December 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"January 18th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 17th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Food security is a major concern that requires sustained advancement both statistically and on the basis of Qualitative assessment. In recent years, antagonistic impacts of unforeseen toxins have impacted the quality of crops and have created a burden on human lives. Heavy metals (e.g., Hg, As, Pb, Cd, and Cr) can affect humans, adding to dreariness and in severe cases even death. It additionally investigates the conceivable geological routes of heavy metals in the surrounding subsystems. The top-to-the-bottom conversation is additionally offered on physiological/atomic movement systems engaged with the take-up of metallic foreign substances inside food crops. At long last, the board procedures are proposed to recapture maintainability in soil–food subsystems. This paper reflects the contamination of the food crops with heavy metals, the way of transport of heavy metal to food crops, degree of toxicity after consumption and the strategies to maintain the problem.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80088",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80088",signatures:"Vanisree C.R., Mahipal Singh Sankhla, Prashant Singh, Ekta B. Jadhav, Rohit Kumar Verma, Kumud Kant Awasthi, Garima Awasthi and Varad Nagar",book:{id:"11120",type:"book",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam Saleh and Prof. Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-526-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-525-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-527-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Heavy metal contamination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Source of heavy metal in irrigation water",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Source of heavy metal in agricultural soil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Heavy metal uptake and bioaccumulation in food crops",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Metal uptake and transportation pathways",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Metal stress tolerance mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Toxicity in food crops",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Adverse impacts on plant health",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Transportation via the food chain and occurrence in human food",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Hazardous effects of crops containing heavy metals on health of humans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Strategies for food safety regulation and mitigation of the health hazards",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"9. 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Interdisciplinary Toxicology. 2014;7(2):60'},{id:"B125",body:'Martin S, Griswold W. Human health effects of heavy metals. Environmental Science and Technology Briefs for Citizens. 2009;15:1-6'},{id:"B126",body:'Monalisa M, Kumar PH. Effect of ionic and chelate assisted hexavalent chromium on mung bean seedlings (Vigna radiata L. wilczek. var k-851) during seedling growth. Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry. 2013;9(2)'},{id:"B127",body:'Mazumder DG. Chronic arsenic toxicity & human health. Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2008;128(4):436-447'},{id:"B128",body:'Sankhla MS, Kumar R, Prasad L. Variation of chromium concentration in Yamuna River (Delhi) water due to change in temperature and humidity. Journal of Seybold Report ISSN NO. 2020;1533:9211'},{id:"B129",body:'Mosa KA et al. Potential biotechnological strategies for the cleanup of heavy metals and metalloids. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2016;7:303'},{id:"B130",body:'Verma N et al. Green filter development: An innovative technique for removal of heavy metals from water. ARC Journal of Forensic Science. 2020;5(1):7-12'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vanisree C.R.",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Forensic Science, Sage University, India
Department of Forensic Science, Vivekananda Global University, India
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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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