Some techniques used for the separation and isolation of antioxidant compounds and the analytical methods applied for their bioactivity evaluation.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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Her research interests are comparative literature, cultural and education studies, and cognitive and intermedial semiotics. In 2007 she established the Research Program Studies on Intermediality and Intercultural Mediation (SIIM), which has received funding from various sources for several projects. She is an external evaluator in various research programs of the European Commission and other national agencies (the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), etc.). She is also an editor of several journals in her research areas. She has served as the President of the European Society of Comparative Literature and Deputy Head of the English Department at Complutense.",institutionString:"Complutense University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Complutense University of Madrid",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"238",title:"Psycholinguistics",slug:"psycholinguistics"}],chapters:[{id:"72178",title:"Cognitive Semiotics and Conceptual Blend: A Case Study from The Crying of Lot 49",slug:"cognitive-semiotics-and-conceptual-blend-a-case-study-from-em-the-crying-of-lot-49-em-",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"302728",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Silvera-Roig",slug:"marta-silvera-roig",fullName:"Marta Silvera-Roig"}]},{id:"69940",title:"Semiotic Principles in Cognitive Neuroscience",slug:"semiotic-principles-in-cognitive-neuroscience",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"146731",title:"Dr.",name:"Edna",surname:"Andrews",slug:"edna-andrews",fullName:"Edna Andrews"}]},{id:"69515",title:"Analog, Embodiment, and Freedom",slug:"analog-embodiment-and-freedom",totalDownloads:375,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"308016",title:"Dr.",name:"Ted",surname:"Gemberling",slug:"ted-gemberling",fullName:"Ted Gemberling"}]},{id:"69023",title:"‘Evolutionary Stories’: Narratives as Evolutionary Tools to Describe and Analyse Animal Behaviour and Animal Signals",slug:"-evolutionary-stories-narratives-as-evolutionary-tools-to-describe-and-analyse-animal-behaviour-and-",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"305894",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Francescoli",slug:"gabriel-francescoli",fullName:"Gabriel Francescoli"}]},{id:"70557",title:"Assessment of Perception of Physical Environment in the Context of Cognitive Maps and Experiences",slug:"assessment-of-perception-of-physical-environment-in-the-context-of-cognitive-maps-and-experiences",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"311341",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkun",surname:"Alptekin",slug:"orkun-alptekin",fullName:"Orkun Alptekin"},{id:"311563",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Unver",slug:"hasan-unver",fullName:"Hasan Unver"}]},{id:"69692",title:"Semiotic Architecture of Viral Data",slug:"semiotic-architecture-of-viral-data",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"303983",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",surname:"Valle",slug:"berna-valle",fullName:"Berna Valle"},{id:"303984",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Chavarria",slug:"cesar-chavarria",fullName:"Cesar Chavarria"}]},{id:"70097",title:"Sources of Computer Metaphors for Visualization and Human-Computer Interaction",slug:"sources-of-computer-metaphors-for-visualization-and-human-computer-interaction",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"135209",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Averbukh",slug:"vladimir-averbukh",fullName:"Vladimir Averbukh"}]},{id:"70553",title:"The Biolinguistic Instantiation: Form to Meaning in Brain/Syllable Interactions",slug:"the-biolinguistic-instantiation-form-to-meaning-in-brain-syllable-interactions",totalDownloads:217,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"305735",title:"Dr.",name:"Noury",surname:"Bakrim",slug:"noury-bakrim",fullName:"Noury Bakrim"}]},{id:"70186",title:"Computational Model for the Construction of Cognitive Maps",slug:"computational-model-for-the-construction-of-cognitive-maps",totalDownloads:218,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[{id:"299703",title:"Dr.",name:"Larisa",surname:"Ismailova",slug:"larisa-ismailova",fullName:"Larisa Ismailova"},{id:"299704",title:"Prof.",name:"Viacheslav",surname:"Wolfengagen",slug:"viacheslav-wolfengagen",fullName:"Viacheslav Wolfengagen"},{id:"299711",title:"Mr.",name:"Sergey V.",surname:"Kosikov",slug:"sergey-v.-kosikov",fullName:"Sergey V. Kosikov"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56173",title:"Antioxidant Compounds Recovered from Food Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69124",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-recovered-from-food-wastes",body:'\nStatistics announced by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nation showed that approximately one-third of food produced for human consumption is wasted globally. These statistics indicated that even though the quantity of wastes differs between regions, all regions have major losses at production level. Fruits and vegetables, plus roots and tubers, have the highest wastage rates of any food. The same organization reported that a global quantitative loss and waste of root crops, fruits and vegetables per year is 40–50% [1]. The disposal of such amounts of wastes not only represents a challenge for the food processors, but it is a matter of crucial importance at international level due to both environmental pollution and economical aspects [2, 3]. Studies showed that plant-derived wastes should be reconsidered and regarded as renewable sources of valuable molecules which can be extracted, purified and valorized in different fields, including food industry, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and chemical industry and so on [4, 5]. For example, the search for efficient and nontoxic natural compounds with antioxidant activity has gained increased attention, especially due to the consumers’ awareness regarding the direct relation between food (diet) and health [6]. The introduction into the diet of the antioxidant compounds, like polyphenols, is an efficient way to combat the negative effects caused by the excess of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the body. The oxidative stress, caused by the ROS, is considered to be one of the main triggers of chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular or neurodegenerative disorders [7]. In the case of fruits and vegetables, usually a high amount of antioxidant compounds is found in peels, kernels or seeds, namely in parts that are removed during processing and become wastes [8–13]. Thus, these compounds could be extracted from fruit and vegetable wastes and reused in other food products, as functional ingredients able to confer some characteristic quality criteria and at the same time to exert human health benefits due to their antioxidant properties.
\nThe aim of this chapter is to emphasize existing studies on fruit and vegetable wastes regarding their potential as sources of bioactive compounds (antioxidants) with health-promoting benefits that can be exploited as functional ingredients.
\nNowadays, the growing interest of consumers toward the relation between the ingested food and the effects on health has led to an increase demand of foods without what they perceive harmful chemicals (e.g., synthetic preservatives, antioxidants, colorants) and with high nutritional and functional properties. This demand, in the scientific field, was translated by intensifying the research focused on finding new sources of bioactive molecules (antioxidants), optimizing the extraction and purification methods as well as developing innovative functional foods that promote health. In this conjuncture, the exploitation of food wastes (by-products) for the recovery and reuse of valuable bioactive compounds is one of the most sustainable approaches. Thus, efficient extraction techniques can be implemented for the separation and isolation of naturally occurring compounds with antioxidant characteristics from food wastes, such as polyphenols, carotenoids, glucosinolates, dietary fibers and so on.
\nThere is no universal method for the extraction of bioactive compounds, but in order for a method to be suitable it has to fulfil several requirements, including selectivity toward the analyte, high extraction yields, possibility of solvent recovery (e.g., environmental friendly) or using “green solvents,” maintaining the functionality of the recovered molecules, low-cost reagents, possibility to be implemented from laboratory scale to industrial scale and so on [14–17]. Among the classical methods used for the isolation of bioactive compounds, the most common ones are solid-liquid extraction (maceration), Soxhlet extraction and liquid-liquid extraction [18]. Depending on the type of matrix (fruit and vegetable waste) and on the type of compounds that are to be recovered, solvents with different polarities may be used (e.g., methanol, ethanol, methanol-water mixtures, water, acetone, ethyl-acetate and so on) [16, 19–21]. In the case of phenolic compounds such as flavonoids or proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins), improved extraction yields were noticed when the organic solvent was used in combination with water, while for the methoxylated compounds recovered from mango peels, a higher yield was achieved when less polar solvents such as acetone were used [16, 22]. Choosing the appropriate extraction solvent is of utmost importance, because it significantly influences the yield and the composition of the extract. Nevertheless, the enhancement of the extraction procedure may be also achieved by optimizing the sample-to-solvent ratio, extraction temperature and time, agitation degree and particle size [18, 23, 24]. Although conventional methods were optimized, there are still some limitations in their use mainly due to the high amount of solvent, time-consuming, difficulty to scaled-up. Thus, to overcome these limitations and in accordance with the “zero waste” desiderate, the current researches are focused on developing greener, sustainable and viable extraction processes. The modern extraction techniques comprise microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction (e.g., pressurized hot water extraction), enzyme-assisted extraction, supercritical CO2-based extraction and other emerging techniques [18, 25–27]. For maximum valorization, several integrated extraction systems were developed (e.g., biorefineries), in which the wastes are subjected to sequential extraction steps for the recovery of different classes of bioactive compounds which can be further used such as or as raw materials for value-added chemicals production [17, 28, 29]. Recently, a new integrated extraction-adsorption process has been developed for production of large quantities of extracts rich in antioxidants. This process was proposed for a selective recovery of antioxidants from black chokeberry wastes at pilot scale, by applying a scale-up factor of 50, but the results were similar to those obtained at laboratory scale [30].
\nThe identification and quantification of the recovered antioxidant compounds are generally achieved using high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and hyphenated techniques (e.g., LC-MS), in particular spectrophotometric methods (e.g., UV-VIS). The bioactivities of the antioxidant compounds are evaluated using methods for the assessment of their antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2’-azino-bis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)), inhibition of lipid oxidation (peroxide value, Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs)), antimicrobial activity, antiproliferative activity and so on. Table 1 summarizes some of the techniques generally used for the separation and isolation of antioxidant compounds as well as the analytical methods applied for their bioactivity evaluation.
\nWaste source | \nAntioxidant compounds | \nExtraction techniques | \nEvaluation methods | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Onion waste | \nPhenolics Flavonoids | \nSolid-liquid extraction | \nTotal phenolic content (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Total flavonols (HPLC) Antioxidant activity (FRAP) | \n[31] | \n
Apple pomace | \nPhenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nPhenolics (UV-VIS, HPLC) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP) | \n[32] | \n
Macadamia skin | \nPhenolics Flavonoids Proanthocyanidins | \nUltrasound-assisted extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Proanthocynidins (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, CUPRAC, FRAP) | \n[16] | \n
Potato peels | \nPhenolics Flavonoids Ferulic acid Chlorogenic acid | \nHydroalcoholic solution extraction | \nPhenolics (UV-VIS, HPLC) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, β-carotene bleaching assay) Lipid oxidation inhibiting potential (peroxide value, p-anisidine value, TOTOX, TBARs, conjugated dienes, volatile compounds) | \n[20] | \n
Phenolics | \nGreen ultrasound-assisted extraction | \nPhenolics (UV-VIS, LC-DAD-MS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, reducing power) | \n[24] | \n|
Phenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH) Antimicrobial activity (antibacterial and antifungal activity) | \n[21] | \n|
Pomegranate peels | \nPhenolics Flavonoids | \nSolvent extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH) | \n[33] | \n
Carotenoids | \nUltrasound assisted extraction | \nCarotenoid content (UV-VIS, HPLC) Antioxidant activity (DPPH) | \n[25] | \n|
Passion fruit rinds | \nPhenolics | \nEthanolic-water pressurized liquid extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Phenolic composition (UPLC-MS/MS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP, ORAC) | \n[34] | \n
Acerola peels and seeds | \nPhenolics | \nSequential solvent extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS) Lipid oxidation inhibiting potential (thiocyanate method, Schaal oven test) | \n[35] | \n
Mango seeds | \nPhenolics (tannins and proanthocyanidins) | \nMicrowave assisted extraction | \nLipid oxidation inhibiting potential (β-carotene bleaching assay) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS) Total phenolic content, tannins content and proanthocyanidine content (UV-VIS) | \n[22] | \n
Guava seeds and pomace | \nPhenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH) Antimicrobial activity (antibacterial and antifungal activity) | \n[21] | \n
Grape pomace | \nPhenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nPhenolics (UV-VIS, HPLC) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, peroxide value, rancimat method) | \n[36] | \n
Phenolics | \nSupercritical fluids extraction (CO2) Soxhlet extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) | \n[37] | \n|
Chestnut and hazelnut shells | \nPhenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nPhenolics (UV-VIS, HPLC) Antioxidant activity (FRAP) | \n[19] | \n
Hazelnut waste | \nPhenolics | \nSupercritical fluids extraction (CO2) Soxhlet extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) | \n[37] | \n
Spent filter coffee | \nPhenolics chlorogenates Flavonoids | \nGlycerol-based extraction | \nPhenolics (HPLC) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, ferric reducing power) | \n[17] | \n
Spent ground coffee | \nPhenolics | \nSupercritical fluids extraction (CO2) Soxhlet extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) | \n[37] | \n
Olive leaves and pomace | \nPhenolics | \nSolvent extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Total flavonoids (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH) Antimicrobial activity (antibacterial and antifungal activity) | \n[21] | \n
Broccoli leaves | \nGlucosinolates | \nMicrowaved assisted extraction | \nGlucosinolate composition (LC-DAD-ESI-MS) | \n[38] | \n
Tomato waste (skin and seeds) | \nCarotenoids (lycopene) | \nEnzyme and high pressure assisted extraction | \nTotal carotenoid content (UV-VIS) Lycopene content (HPLC) | \n[39] | \n
Carotenoids | \nUltrasound and manosonication assisted extraction | \nTotal carotenoid content (UV-VIS) Carotenoid composition (HPLC) | \n[40] | \n|
Artichoke waste (internal and external bracts) | \nPhenolics | \nUltrasound-assisted extraction and nanofiltration | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP) Chlorogenic acid content (HPLC) | \n[41] | \n
Immature fruits | \nPhenolics | \nReflux extraction (water) Pressurized hot water extraction | \nTotal phenolics (UV-VIS) Antioxidant activity (ORAC) Cell viability (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide MTT assay) | \n[27] | \n
Some techniques used for the separation and isolation of antioxidant compounds and the analytical methods applied for their bioactivity evaluation.
Blueberries, ribes, chokeberries, raspberries, and blackberries are used to obtain food products such as juices, jams, and jellies. A high amount of wastes are released during industry manufacturing of these fruits. Hence, valuable compounds from wastes, such as anthocyanins, phenolic acids, and flavonoids, could be successfully recovered and used for different industries.
\nSeed pomace, wastes of blackberry (Rubusfruticosus L.) and raspberry (Rubusidaeus L.), is generated in large quantities, being a good raw material for oil extraction. Besides linoleic (omega‐6) and α‐linolenic (omega‐3) (2–4:1 ratio) content, these oils are also rich in bioactive compounds, such as tocopherols, phenols, sterols, and carotenoids, which are known to exert antioxidant properties. Therefore, the composition of the oil resulted from blackberry and raspberry seed pomace proved to be stable despite a long-term frozen, due to the presence of natural antioxidants [42]. Consequently, these seed oils can be considered value-added products and could be used as functional or nutraceutical food products.
\nLeaves could also be a potential source of health-promoting compounds. Leaves and pomace of cranberry (Vacciniummacrocarpon L.) contained more polyphenols and exhibited higher antioxidant activity than fruit and juices. Therefore, leaves and pomace could be another excellent source for the production of foods with high health-promoting value [43].
\nAmong polyphenols, anthocyanins and ellagitannins from berries are known for their antitumor potential [44, 45]. A waste of black raspberry seeds applied on colon cancer HT-29 cells inhibited cellular proliferation and induced apoptosis, both through the extrinsic apoptotic pathway (activation of caspase 3, 8) and through intrinsic apoptotic pathway (activation of caspase 9 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)) [46].
\nThe apple waste generally refers to a heterogeneous mixture of peels, pomace, and seeds. Apple waste resulted after juice processing was tested on tumor colon HT29, HT115, and CaCo-2 cell lines. Results showed that waste compounds are able to confer protection against DNA damage, to improve barrier function and to inhibit cell invasion [47]. Comparing the inhibitory effects of nonextractable antioxidants with extractable antioxidants from a freeze-dried apple waste on HeLa, HepG2, and HT-29 human cancer cells, the nonextractable antioxidants were more efficient [48].
\nApple peel waste could also be an excellent source of natural antioxidants and bioactive compounds that may improve the human health [49]. Apple peel extract showed a significant dose response reduction in cell proliferation in the HT-29 colon cancer cells but not on MCF-7 breast cancer cells, from ten different extracts of fruits and berries which have been tested [50].
\nThe production of citrus fruits, the most widely cultivated fruits, is increasing every year due to a high market demand. Orange is the main citrus fruit that dominates the global customer requests. Unfortunately, 50–60% of the fruits including seed, peel and segment membrane resulted from juice production ends up as waste [51]. Among these wastes, citrus peel is the major constituent accounting 50% of the wet fruit mass. It contains flavonoids, carotenoids, polyphenols, ascorbic acids, pectin, dietary fibers and essential oils [52]. Orange (Citrus auranthium) flesh waste has a higher antioxidant activity than the peel. Although both of the extracts used in a study on human leukocytes showed protection against H2O2-induced DNA damage [53].
\nPomegranate fruit gained a lot of interest due to multiple beneficial effects on human health. A recent study demonstrated that the antioxidant potential of pomegranate extract is directly related to the phenolic content, whereas its antiproliferative activity is mainly attributed to ellagic acid [54]. The ability of ellagitanins from Punicagranatum L. to reduce breast MCF-7 and prostate LNCaP cancer cell proliferation was proved [55].
\nJuice industry underuses large amounts of passion fruit residues. The seeds of passion fruit are used for oil production, but the residue remained after the seed cold pressing (cake seed) still contains compounds of interest, like fatty acids and/or others polyphenols. Certainly, the antioxidant and the antimicrobial activities of passion fruit residue contribute to its adding value [56]. Similarly, the wastes of mango, peel and kernel contain a noteworthy amount of bioactive components such as xanthones (mangiferin), flavonoids, flavanols, and phenolic acids with therapeutic effects [57]. The Antidesma thwaitesianum Müll. Arg. fruit waste was tested on six human normal and cancer (COR-L23, A549, LS174T, PC-3, MCF7 and HeLa) cell lines. Interesting is that extracts of fresh fruits exhibited moderate cytotoxicity against human breast MCF7 cells, while the extract obtained by decocting the residue left after maceration of dried fruits showed the highest cytotoxicity on COR-L23 carcinoma lung cells [58]. The waste resulted from Myracrodruon urundeuva seeds, containing steroids, alkaloids and phenols, was twofold more cytotoxic on leukemia HL-60 line than on glioblastoma SF-295 and Sarcoma 180 cells [59]. All these data are strong evidence that exotic fruits wastes are a valuable source of antioxidants with potential health benefits.
\nIndustrialization of potatoes and tomatoes generates by-products rich in antioxidants. There are scientific evidences that wastes of potatoes and tomatoes could be used as natural antioxidant additives in the protection of vegetable oils, effectively limiting the oxidation of oils [60, 61]. The main antioxidant compounds that have been identified in potato waste were caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, para-hydroxybenzoic acid and gallic acid [62].
\nThe antioxidant and antiproliferative activity of tomato waste were strongly correlated with its concentration in β-carotene and lycopene [63]. The waste obtained during the production of tomato juice scavenged hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals and exerted anticancer properties, by inhibiting HeLa, MCF7 and MRC-5 tumor cell growth [64].
\nFruits, vegetables, and plant-derived wastes are commonly composed of peels, stems, seeds, kernels, shells, bran, and trimmings residues being a promising source of functional compounds due to their favorable nutritional and rheological properties. The most important bioactive compounds found in these types of wastes are fibers, phenolic compounds, vitamin E, C, carotenoids, and other antioxidants, which are found to have beneficial effects for human health. Trying to comply with the consumers’ demand for healthier products, the modern food industry is presently focused on one hand on designing and producing food products with bioactive ingredients—the so-called “functional foods” and “super foods”—for which health claims are made and on the other hand on finding suitable natural compounds that can replace the synthetic food additives (preservatives, antioxidants, colorants, aromas) [65]. Although a lot of investigations studied the antioxidant potentials of plant-derived wastes and by-products, the studies regarding their incorporation in food products are in early stages. Some examples of applications of recovered antioxidant compounds in foods are presented in the next paragraphs.
\nCarotenoids are a group of natural pigments beneficial for the health of humans due to their antioxidant properties but they are also used as food colorants. Most utilized in the food industry, for their antioxidant and coloring effect, are lycopene and β-carotene. These compounds, together with phytoene, phytofluene, lutein, ξ-carotene, γ-carotene and neurosporene, are found in tomato peel in considerable quantities. Besides the fact that the tomato peels contain up to five times more lycopene than the pulp, some studies also showed that the bioavailability of lycopene from processed tomato (submitted to heating and trituration) is greater than that from raw tomatoes [65–67]. Other fruit wastes (peels and seeds), sources of carotenoids, are avocado peel, banana peel, and mango peel. Carotenoids may be incorporated in different food products due to their antioxidant properties (improving the product shelf life), and colorant properties but also as nutritional constituents acting as precursor of vitamin A. Thus, some examples of products in which recovered carotenoids from wastes were incorporated include macaroni (nutritional, improving sensorial attributes before and after processing) [68], refined vegetable oils (antioxidant, increasing thermal stability) [69], and antioxidant edible films (improving shelf life) [9].
\nAnother big class of natural pigments is represented by the polyphenols. They have a high capacity of scavenging reactive oxygen species (e.g., free radicals), thus being suitable to be used in food products as antioxidants. There are many fruits and vegetable wastes from which polyphenols can be recovered (see Table 1). A recent study evaluated the use of a polyphenol-rich extract from olive oil waste to act as a natural antioxidant in lamb meat patties [70]. The results were promising, showing that the polyphenolic extract could improve the product shelf life by preventing the discoloration and oxidative processes. Adding antioxidants from potato peel extracts at concentrations ranging from 2.4 to 4.8 g/kg in minced horse mackerel had also positive impact on the product preservation. In the mackerel treated with polyphenolic extracts, the oxidation of proteins and lipids was prevented, considerably reducing peroxide value, tocopherol degradation, and generation of volatile secondary oxidation substances [71]. Similar results were obtained when polyphenolic extract from carob seeds peel was used as antioxidant in minced horse mackerel [72]. The polyphenolic extracts from potato peels were proved to have similar antioxidant capacity as the synthetic ones (butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)) when incorporated in sunflower and soybean. The inhibition of thermal degradation of the oils may be attributed to the main polyphenolic compounds identified in potato peel extract: chlorogenic and gallic acids [73]. Brewers\' spent grain—a by-product from brewing process—is a potentially valuable source of natural antioxidant compounds derived from the barley husk [74]. Ferulic acid, p-coumaric acids, and caffeic acid are in the highest concentrations, and they have been found with an excellent antioxidant potential, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities [75]. Brewers’ spent grain flour or extracts can be added in bakery products, like enhancing their nutritional value [76]. Grape pomace, the winery waste, is particularly rich in polyphenols. The polyphenolic extract from muscadine grape pomace was tested in vitro to evaluate its capability to reduce the acrylamide formation. Acrylamide, a human carcinogen is a by-product of Maillard reaction, formed during the thermal treatment in different starchy food products (e.g., bread, potato chips). The results showed that the grape polyphenols (especially fractions recovered from skin and seed) significantly reduced the acrylamide level (by 60.3%) in potato chip model, even though there was no significant correlation between polyphenol antioxidant capacity and their potential for acrylamide inhibition [77].
\nGrape pomace is also an important source of fibers. Dietary fibers are generally known as being a health-promoting component of a diet. The consumption of this kind of fibers is connected with prevention, amelioration, and reductions in risks associated with cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes [78]. Additionally, in the grape pomace, besides the dietary fiber, flavonoids are also present. The investigation of the antioxidant activity of flavonoids extracted from grape pomace has led to the elaboration of a new idea of antioxidant dietary fiber [79]. The presence of antioxidant compounds in the dietary fibers enhances their health benefits and their applications in pharmacological, cosmetic and food industries [80, 81]. Thus, for example, incorporating antioxidant dietary fibers into meat products could improve both their nutritional value and stability to oxidation. Grape pomace-added beef sausages (1% w/w) had a decreased rate of lipid oxidation and better sensorial attribute (taste and color) [82], while yogurt and salad dressings fortified with grape pomace likewise showed increased lipid oxidation stability without negatively influencing the consumers’ acceptance of the products [83]. Another source of antioxidant dietary fiber is the apple pomace. Obtained as a by-product after fruit processing, it is composed mainly of skin and pulp tissues which consist of pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, gums, and phenolic compounds [32]. Among phenolic compounds found in apple pomace, phlorizin is used as a basic structure for a new class of oral antidiabetic drugs [84]. Other health benefits of apple polyphenols are antioxidant, antihypertensive, anticancer, antidiabetic, and hypolipidemic activities, thus making them appropriate to be used as nutraceutical [29, 85]. Many dietary polyphenolic components derived from plants have more efficient antioxidant activity in vitro than vitamins E or C and thus have the ability to lead significantly to the protective results in vivo. Several studies consider that fruit and vegetable dietary fiber could have better nutritional properties due to the synergistic effect of associated bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and carotenoids [86, 87].
\nSome of the antioxidant compounds recovered from vegetable wastes are already valorized in food products that can be found on the market. Thus, for example, some of the patented applications of recovered antioxidants include: the “sugar syrup” extracted with solvent from citrus peels which is used as food natural sweetener (AU1983/0011308D); lycopene from tomato waste used as food antioxidant and supplement (PCT/EP2007/061923); proanthocyanidines from grape and cranberry seeds used as coloring additive in soy sauce (JP1998/0075070); polyphenols from grape pomace or seeds used in food supplements (WO/1999/030724); ellagic acid (40%) and punicalagin (40%) from pomegranate rind and seedcase residues used as food antioxidants (CN2010/1531940); hydroxytyrosol from olive leaves extract as natural antioxidant in food stuff (EP 1582512 A1); and bioactive silverskin extract from coffee silverskin with potential applications in cosmetic, nutrition and health (WO2013/004873) [88].
\nThe interest of the research community in finding new or nonconventional sources of antioxidants is triggered by the numerous scientific evidences regarding the health effects of the dietary intake of antioxidants. Thus, by fortifying food products with antioxidant compounds, a supplementation of the daily diet with bioactive compounds may be achieved, therefore helping the human body to fight against damaging factors.
\nThe key point for the recovery of natural compounds from fruits and vegetable wastes is to develop flexible strategies for each stage in which wastes are produced. Implementation of a modern technology by using green solvents and safer materials is strongly recommended. Obtaining purified active compounds is rather demanding for food industry and consumers, although this procedure involves an accurate safety assessment and long and sophisticated tests. From the laboratory scale and testing, the procedures used for the recovery of bioactive compounds are now facing the challenges for the scaled-up and further commercialization. The industrial recovery of antioxidants from food wastes, on one hand, is sustained by the numerous studies which have demonstrated their health benefits and, on the other hand, by the food companies which have foreseen the manifold applications of these bioactive compounds. Even though the scaled-up recovery processes may encounter some limitations (e.g., the variability in the composition of vegetable waste, waste collection and preservation method, purity of the isolated antioxidants, functionality of recovered antioxidants), with a proper management, a company could economically benefit by exploiting the recovered compounds to develop new functional food that meet the consumers not only organoleptic criteria but also their demand for healthier food products and at the same time addressing their concern for the environment [2, 6, 46, 48, 88].
\nTaking in consideration the health and food issues in the actual economical and environmental context, food wastes should no longer be regarded as a waste to be disposed but as a renewable source of valuable molecules that should be fully exploited. Still nowadays, despite their potential, food wastes remain often underexploited. So instead of the classical “waste to waste” perspective, new “waste to health” or “waste to food” perspectives should be considered especially because functional foods or nutraceuticals can be obtained by utilizing low-cost sources of bioactive compounds, ranging from antioxidants to dietary fibers, proteins, dietary lipids, natural colorants, or aroma compounds (e.g., essential oils). Health benefits of bioactive compounds from wastes will open up new research directions not only in functional food innovation but also in the medicine, pharmacy, or chemistry research fields.
\nThis work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNCSIS–UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2014-4-0842.
\nAyurveda is proven to be the ancient traditional way of treatment in India, which is fully based on philosophical, experimental and practical concepts. It includes the use of indigenous drugs which have been preferred by many pharmaceutical industries towards a novel strategy for natural drug discovery. Ayurvedic proven concepts signifies more on human health and disease that recommend the use of herbal enriched compounds as special diets. However, some herbal compounds may have toxicity besides their therapeutic potential if used improperly [1].
There are so many plants which are identified as poisonous and semi-poisonous in Ayurveda. Plants like Atsanabha (Aconitum species), nux-vomica, Acorus calamus, Semecarpus anacardium, Strychnos, Abrus precatorius etc., are the most known examples of toxic plants. These plants are known for their hidden medicinal values and broadly accepted by the Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine. These plants are still used in Indian system of development of medicine for treatment. Aconite, strychnine, β–asarone, bhilawanols, abrin are some of the toxic components present in these plants [2].
Shodhana is the purificatory measure used in Ayurveda to purify toxic medicinal plants (upavishadravyas), by various pharmaceutical procedures like soaking, rubbing and washing etc. with specific medias like gomutra (cow’s urine), godugdha (cow’s milk) etc. Poisonous plants are subjected to shodhanasanskara (purification process), before their therapeutic use. This process reduces toxicity of poisonous plant considerably and keeps it at required optimum level. Physico-chemical changes and reduction of the toxic chemicals from the poisonous plants like strychnine, brucine in kupilu and scopolamine in dhattura have been reported [3].
Bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium Linn; Anacardiaceae) fruit is one of the upavishadravyas (semi poisonous drugs). Its importance and utility is increasing day by day because of its therapeutic significance in many a diseases including cancer. Though the fruits of Bhallataka has many therapeutic values, pharmacies are scared to use this drug because of its irritant vesicating nature. If juice of Bhallataka (even in traces) comes in contact with body, produces severe daha (burning sensation), and Vrana (ulcer). When it comes in contact with face, it produces acute burning sensation with shotha (inflammation) and Visarpa (skin disease). The fruit contains tarry oil which causes contact dermatitis. Medically it is very well recognized as Urushiol induced contact dermatitis because the chemical Urushiol is responsible for dermatitis. If this vesicant nature is removed, the drug could be a good source for pharmaceutical industries in manufacturing many formulations containing Bhallataka as an ingredient [2, 4].
Ayurveda advocates bhallataka after shodhana (purificatory procedures). Though there are different shodhana methods mentioned in Ayurveda, the shodhana method mentioned in the text Rasamrutam was adopted and quoted in (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India) (API) and the Ayurvedic formularly of India (AFD). The procedure is soaking the fruits in cow’s urine, cow’s milk and rubbing it in brick powder [5]. It is reported that Rf values change in shodhita samples of Bhallataka when compared to raw bhallataka [3].
This is a native of India. It is known as bhallatak in India and “marking nut” by Europeans. Semecarpus anacardium plant (Figure 1) is widely available in sub-Himalayan province, tropical and central part of our country India. It is known as a deciduous tree; medium in size. Height of the tree is normally 12–15 m. Leaves are large and simple about 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. The color of bark is deep brown and is quite rough in structure. The flowers are dull greenish in color [6].
Semecarpus anacardium plant and its nuts.
Abundantly the plant is found in Odisha, Chittagong, central India and Northern Australia [7]. The color of fruit is black when ripe as well as smooth and shiny in texture (Figure 2). The fruit is generally categorized as toxic and the integral part of the fruit i.e. nut is about 1 inch long in size [8].
Semecarpus anacardium (Bhallatak) nuts.
The active principles present in S. anacardium Linn. are given in Table 1 and their structures are presented in Table 2. Bhilawanols, phenolic compounds, [9, 10] biflavonoids, sterols and glycosides [11] are proven to be the most significant components of S. anacardium Linn. An alkaloid, Bhilawanol, has been identified as isolated from oil and seeds of S. anacardium. Bhilawanol is a mixture of cis and trans isomers of urushiol. Bhilawanol is isolated from oil of nuts. It is a mixture of phenolic compounds like 1, 2-dihydroxy-3 (pentadecadienyl-8, 11) benzene and 1, 2- dihydroxy-3 (pentadecadienyl-8′, 11′) –benzene [10]. Bhilawanol on catalytic reduction absorbs one mole of hydrogen to give hydrourushiol (3-pentadecylcatechol) [12, 13]. When the phenolic compounds are exposed to the air, then they get oxidized to Quinones. When the oil is kept under nitrogenoxidation process can be prevented. Nut shells contain several biflavones [14], jeediflavanone [15, 16], semecarpuflavan and gulluflavone [17, 18, 19] (Table 1).
Phytoconstituents | Name |
---|---|
Glycoside | Anacardoside |
Alkaloid | Bhilawanol/urushiol |
Urshenol | |
Phenolic compounds | 1,2-dihydroxy-3 (penta decadienyl-8, 11) benzene |
1,2-dihydroxy-3 (penta decadienyl-8′, 11′) benzene | |
Bhilavanol A (monoenepentadecyl catechol I) | |
Bhilavanol B (dienepentadecyl catechol II) | |
Biflavonoids | Biflavones A, C, A1, A2 |
Tetrahydrorobustaflavone | |
Tetrahydromentoflavone | |
Jeediflavanone | |
Semicarpuflavonone | |
Galluflavone | |
Nallaflavanone | |
Semicarpetin | |
Anacarduflavanone | |
O-trimethylbiflavanone A1 | |
O-trimethylbiflavanone A2 | |
O-tetramethylbiflavanone A1 | |
O-hexamethylbichaleone A | |
O-dimethyl biflavanone B | |
O-heptamethylbichaleone B1 | |
O-hexamethylbichaleone B2 | |
O-tetramethylbiflavanone C | |
Other components | Anacardic acid |
Cardol | |
Catechol | |
Fixed oil | |
Anacardol | |
Anacardoside | |
Semecarpol | |
Oleic acid | |
Linoleic acid | |
Palmitic acid | |
Stearic acid | |
Arachidic acid |
Phytoconstituents present in Semecarpus anacardium.
Chemical formulae of the active principles of Semecarpus anacardium.
It has been reported for wide arena of ethno-pharmacological activities. Researchers have identified SA nuts extracts for potent pharmacological actions. Most of these studies are pre-clinical studies. Their clinical efficacy is yet to be reported. The list of health disorders against which Semecarpus anacardium has a potential to be used is given in Table 3. The possible mechanism of action is also described.
Potential use/activity | Efficacy proved in | Possible mechanism of action |
---|---|---|
Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic | Animal models (pre-clinical) | Inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX 1 and COX 2), inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokine production |
Anti-cancer (breast cancer, hepato cellular carcinoma, leukemia) | Cell lines and animal models (pre-clinical) | Cytotoxicity by inducing apoptosis following caspase 3 pathway |
Cardioprotective (anti atherogenic, lipid lowering) | Animal models (pre-clinical) | Anti-oxidant, decrease cholesterol, increase HDL |
Nootropic (memory enhancer) | Animal models (pre-clinical) | Inhibit acetylcholine esterase, increase cholinergic activity |
Hepatoprotective | Animal models (pre-clinical) | Anti-oxidant |
Anti-fungal and Anti-bacterial (Gram +ve, Gram −ve, tuberculosis) | Microbial culture (in-vitro) | Inhibit microbial growth |
Aphrodisiac (increase sex desire) in male but spermicidal | Animal models (pre-clinical) | Increase mounting and mating performance, cause spermatogenic arrest (decrease motility and density of sperm) |
Anthelmintic | Indian earthworm (Pheretima posthuma) | Muscle paralysis |
Potential uses of Semecarpus anacardium with possible mechanism of action.
There are reports of analgesic [20] and anti-inflammatory [21, 22] activity by Semecarpus anacardium. Biflavonoid like tetrahydroamentoflavone (THA) showed significant COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition in vitro. THA may be responsible for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity [23]. SA extracts were studied for their anti-inflammatory activities in vitro using synovial fluid and blood of healthy individuals and rheumatoid arthritis patients. SA inhibited proinflammatory cytokine production like IL-1 beta and IL-12P40 without affecting IL-6 and TNF-alpha production [24].
Nut extracts of Semecarpus anacardium showed efficacy against human breast cancer cell line (T47D) [25] and mammary carcinoma in rats [26]. It also showed efficacy against leukemic cells in mice [27]. SA extracts have energy restoration, tumor marker regulation and membrane stabilization effect against hepato-cellular carcinoma [28]. Semecarpus anacardium may have a protective as well as therapeutic contribution against Mitomycin-C induced mutagenicity [29]. Semecarpus anacardium showed significant cytotoxicity having LC50 29.5 μg in brine shrimp lethality test [30]. The mechanism of cytotoxicity is by inducing apoptosis following caspase 3 pathway [31].
S. anacardium nuts prevented isoproterenol (ISO) induced myocardial damage in rats [32]. S. anacardium (1 mg/100 g body weight) reduced serum cholesterol levels and raised HDL levels in rats fed with atherogenic diet [33]. The process of atherogenesis triggered by lipid peroxidation can be inhibited by Semecarpus anacardium [34].
Semecarpus anacardium effectively inhibits acetyl choline esterase which in turn prolongs the half-life of acetylcholine. Hence, SA has been shown to be useful in improving cognitive ability [35, 36, 37].
S. anacardium decreased the levels of the marker enzymes induced by lead acetate in liver [38]. This hepatoprotective action may be attributed to its anti-oxidant action [39].
The flavonoid present in S. anacardium showed antifungal activity at 400 mg/ml concentration [40]. Furthermore, the oil possessed anti-microbial activity against both Gram positive (B. subtilis, S. aureus) and Gram negative (P. vulgaris, E. coli) organisms [41]. The petroleum ether and aqueous extracts of SA inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella flexneri. However, chloroform and ethanol extracts showed inhibition against Bacillus licheniformis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa respectively [42]. The alcoholic extract of SA was found to be bactericidal against Gram positive (E. coli, S. Typhi and P. vulgaris) and Gram negative (S aureus and C diphtheria) strains [43]. Water extract showed potential with MIC 6.25 μg/ml against M. tuberculosis during in vitro bioassay [44].
Semecarpus anacardium significantly improved both mounting and mating performance of male mice [45]. However, there are reports of spermicidal activity including spermatogenic arrest in male rats. There is also decrease in density and motility of sperms [36, 46, 47].
Petroleum ether, chloroform extract of nuts of S. anacardium showed anthelmintic activities against adult Indian earthworm (Pheretima posthuma) [48].
Use of Bhallataka needs adequate precaution due to its extreme hot and sharp attributes. It should be kept away from pregnant women, old aged person and also children. Individual persons showing allergic reactions like rash, itching and swelling to it should avoid its use. Furthermore, it is highly recommended to keep away from direct exposure to sunlight, heat and extreme sex during the course of Bhallataka treatment. The oily portion of nut should be removed for its safe use which can lead to nephropathy. Fewer antidotes like coconut oil, coriander leaves pulp and ghee is useful in case of allergic reactions [51]. The traditional way of administration with peanut oil was proven to be safe up to 25 mg/kg/day for 9 day [52].
Bhallataka nut oil extracts in male albino rats is reported to decrease hemoglobin count as well as erythrocytes indicating anemia. It exhibited an alteration in kidney enzyme level leading to nephrotoxicity during acute and subchronic toxicity [53]. Hence, it is necessary to undertake Shodhana sanskara of Bhallataka with precaution before using it in medicine to avoid toxic effects of Ashuddha (impure) Bhallataka [54].
The process Shodhana, which is also known as detoxification or purification process signifies the conversion of any poisonous drug into beneficial, non-poisonous/nontoxic drug. Shodhana process involves sequential steps to purify and reduce the extreme toxicity levels/principles and also sometimes may result in enhancing the therapeutic efficacy. Shodhana is essential because higher concentrated chemicals may contribute towards adverse episodes on human body. There are 2 types of Shodhana i.e. Samanyashodhana and visheshshodhana which purifies toxic drugs. Furthermore, shodhana limits toxicity by removing the visible and invisible impurities, heterogeneous substances and toxic substances [55].
As per Ayurvedic texts shodhana can be done for SA nuts (Figure 3). The thalamus part of the fruit is removed with a steel knife. Then, the nuts are subjected to fresh cow urine daily for 7 days followed by cow milk daily for 7 days followed by rubbing thoroughly with brick powder for 3 days. During the treatment with cow urine and cow milk, the nuts are washed with water before adding fresh cow urine or milk. On the final day (18th day), the nuts are washed with hot water to remove the brick powder. This shodhana procedure is repeated three times [35, 56, 57, 58].
Flow chart of Shodhana of Semecarpus anacardium nuts.
Shodhana helps in conversion of toxic urushiol into nontoxic anacardol [56]. Our studies on GC-MS which elucidate the presence of anacardol derivative (Anacardol, tetrahydro-; retention time 51.538 in GC-MS) in shodhit extract and urushiol derivative in pre-shodhit extract (1,2-Benzenediol, 3-(8,11,14-pentadecatrienyl)-, (Z,Z)-, retention time 56.270 in GC-MS) further confirms that shodhana helps in removal of toxic principle urushiol [59].
Shodhana improves the yield in methanolic extract, but decreases the phenolic and flavonoid content [31]. Shodhana decreases cytotoxicity without affecting anticancer activity significantly. The reduction in cytotoxicity may be attributed to reduction in oxidative stress [59]. Shodhana of the nuts reduce nootropic activity [35]. So shodhana not only reduces toxicity but also alters its pharmacological activities.
Semecarpus anacardium is classified in Ayurveda under the category of toxic plants. There are reports of anti-inflammatory activity, anti-arthritic effect, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, anti- carcinogenic activity, hypoglycemic activity, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and hypolipidemic activity etc. shown by Semecarpus anacardium. Shodhana of nuts of Semecarpus anacardium can be done as per method given in Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India. Shodhana improves the yield, decreases the phenolic and flavonoid content; and converts toxic urushiol into nontoxic anacardol derivative thereby reducing toxicity. Shodhana not only reduces toxicity but also alters its pharmacological activities. Shodhana decreases cytotoxicity without affecting anticancer activity significantly. Shodhana also reduces nootropic activity.
The effect of Shodhana on other pharmacological activities of Semecarpus anacardium can be studied in future. This work can also be extended to other poisonous and semi poisonous plants for which shodhana method is described in Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India.
The authors are grateful to the Siksha O Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India, for providing necessary support and basic infrastructure to make this work successful. The authors also thank Mr. Tapas Ranjan Satapathy for secretarial help.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
API | The Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India |
SA | Semecarpus anacardium |
THA | tetrahydroamentoflavone |
COX-1 | cyclooxygenase 1 |
COX-2 | cyclooxygenase 2 |
HDL | high density lipoprotein |
MIC | minimum inhibitory concentration |
GC-MS | gas chromatography-mass spectrometry |
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