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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11512",leadTitle:null,title:"Photodetectors - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tPhotodetectors are sensors of electromagnetic radiation. These devices may be classified by mechanism of detection, such as photoelectric or photochemical effects, or by performance metrics, such as spectral response. In addition, unique materials or materials systems exhibit physical and chemical properties that allow control or interaction with light converting the optical signal into an electrical signal for applications in photonics, electronics, and optoelectronics.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book entitled "Photodetectors - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications" aims to provide state-of-the-art knowledge on photodetector fundamentals and technology based on the latest research trends and exciting novel materials. Written by a team of world-renowned experts, with contributions from universities, research institutes, and industries, this book is timely and suitable for students and professionals engaged in photodetector technology research and development. Emphasis will range from synthesis methods, structural and performance characterization, new materials design, processing, and function, optoelectronic properties to theoretical analysis and simulations. Important experimental results are thoroughly addressed, embodying an advanced account of activities in this significant and exciting field in research and industry.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-090-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-089-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-091-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"01d4be8e37c9bf12fd8dcb67c135b29b",bookSignature:"Prof. Kuan W. A. Chee",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11512.jpg",keywords:"Particle Physics, Photomultiplier, Phototubes, Solar Cells, Photovoltage, Infrared Detectors, Photodiodes, Photoresistors, Phototransistors, Bolometers, Photoreceptor Cells, Photochemical Synthesis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and industry leader in semiconductor devices and materials, appointed head of the Optoelectronic Materials and Devices Laboratory, Senior Member IEEE, author of numerous research papers, and holder of multiple professional awards and prizes.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",middleName:"W. A.",surname:"Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Kuan W. A. Chee is Outstanding Professor at the Shandong Academy of Sciences and head of the Optoelectronics Materials Laboratory. He is also a Chief Technology Officer in the mechatronics industry. He has a diverse background in leading high-tech industries and academia. He has published in several top journals, books, and conference proceedings and has given numerous talks at international conferences and seminars in science and engineering. His research covers electronic design, nano- and post-CMOS electronics, and photonic and optoelectronic devices. He has received prizes and awards such as from the Institution of Engineering and Technology, UK; the Institute of Physics, UK; the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, USA; the Royal Academy of Engineering, UK; the Materials Research Society; and the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Prof. Chee is supported by a science and engineering talent program in China.",institutionString:"University of Cambridge",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Cambridge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7310",title:"Advances in Photodetectors",subtitle:"Research and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06c22478e66a3ad195c384bc36c78f8e",slug:"advances-in-photodetectors-research-and-applications",bookSignature:"Kuan Chee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7310.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",surname:"Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51915",title:"Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/64805",slug:"microbial-enhanced-oil-recovery-2016-10-14",body:'\nThe necessity of improving and/or advancing the current enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes to make them more efficient has attracted the attention of researchers and oil field operators. Thus, over the last few decades, this problem has received constant attention resulting in slow but steady growth of the average oil recovery factors. For instance, at present the worldwide average recovery rate is about 30%, whereas in the USA, the average oil recovery factor is 39%. However, many experts believe that in the foreseeable future the recovery factor may well reach 50–60% and even 70–80% [1].
\nThe development of an oilfield refers to the process of displacing the accumulated liquid and gas hydrocarbons in the reservoir towards production wells. Oil is produced initially using the natural driving energy of the reservoir (i.e., primary recovery operations), or by introducing energy into the reservoir during secondary oil recovery (i.e., waterflooding or gas flooding), as soon as the natural reservoir energy is depleted.
\nParticularly, in Kazakhstan most of the hydrocarbon deposits have already been discovered and commercially produced. Currently, fewer and fewer drilling sites in those mature reservoirs are of interest from the commercial standpoint. In this regard, the residual oil left behind in these mature hydrocarbon deposits after primary and secondary oil recovery offers an opportunity for the implementation of EOR processes, including the application of microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) technology.
\nIn 1926, J. W. Beckman [2] came to the conclusion that it was necessary to develop additional methods to augment oil recovery beyond primary and secondary oil recovery processes. Therefore, he proposed the utilization of microorganisms as one of the solutions to the oil recovery issue. Later on, the use of microorganisms for oil recovery enhancement was patented by C. E. ZoBell in 1946 [3], since then, the MEOR process has been validated by numerous studies and successful fields tests, the first of them carried out in Arkansas, USA, in 1954 [4].
\nSince the 1970s, intense research efforts on MEOR have been made in the USA, USSR, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland. The oil crisis in the 1970s further aroused the interest in MEOR research in more than 15 countries. For instance, in 1976, the Soviet Government enacted a special regulation “…concerning measures on achieving the most efficient oil recovery processes.” This regulation defined the target volumes of additional oil recovery that were required using tertiary enhancement methods and provided economic incentives to encourage oil-production enterprises [5].
\nSince year 1970 until the 2000s, microbial ecology and deposit characterization were the focus of MEOR research. By 1990, MEOR reached interdisciplinary technological status. In 2007, a review of 322 MEOR projects in USA showed that 78% of the total number of projects were successful in enhancing oil recovery; while no cases of lowered oil recovery were revealed [6]. At present, there is a grown interest in the application of MEOR to enhance oil production from depleted reservoirs, because its low capital cost and environmental friendliness.
\nMEOR mechanisms are the same mechanisms obtained from other chemical enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods; however, MEOR presents the advantage that microbial metabolites are directly produced in the reservoir rock formation, which makes them more effective. Furthermore, microorganisms metabolize different hydrocarbons at different rates [6].
\nFigure 1 presents a breakdown of the worldwide recoverable petroleum reserves by type and region prepared by Meyer and Attanasi [7] and Schmitt [8].
\nWorld’s current recoverable petroleum reserves by oil type and region in billions of barrels. From Meyer and Attanasi [
Worldwide accumulations of heavy oil and bitumen are about five times higher than the reserves of light conventional oils. For instance, heavy oil resources are an essential part of the oil industry in Kazakhstan as well as in a number of other oil-producing countries.
\nThe largest reserves of bitumen and heavy oil are located in Canada and Venezuela; while significant reserves are also found in Mexico, the United States, Russia, Kuwait, and China [9].
\nKazakhstan is currently experiencing a period of late-stage development. Oil fields under waterflooding have reached a high water cut ranging from 80 to 90%, while a large volume of undeveloped oil reserves (up to 60–-70%) are located in deep oil reservoir formations. In addition, most deposits of Kazakhstan are characterized by high viscosity oils and complex geological structures [10].
\nPrimary and secondary oil recovery processes achieve on a worldwide basis an average recovery of 33% of the original oil in place (OOIP); while the unrecovered oil (67%) might be retained in the reservoir by viscous and/or capillary forces. Conventional chemicals, such as solvents and surface-active compounds (surfactants) are used during chemical EOR applications. Solvents reduce the oil viscosity to improve the oil mobility by overcoming viscous forces; while surfactants reduce the interfacial tension between oil and rock or oil and water overcoming capillary forces. These chemicals are added to the injection water and transported within the reservoir during water flooding, however, the chemicals reach only the places where oil has already been displaced by water; furthermore, the chemicals could be partially consumed and/or retained within the rock formation before they reach the target area in the reservoir for their intended use [6].
\nThe injection of solvents and surfactants into some reservoirs have yield unsatisfactory results because the chemicals failed to contact the residual oil for the required time period, which is needed to achieve a long-term effect. Another problem is the natural heterogeneity of the reservoirs; therefore, the injected chemicals inevitably flow along the paths of least resistance (i.e., high permeability zones, natural fractures, etc.) where the saturation of residual oil is usually the lowest.
\nIt has been known for decades that specifically selected microorganisms are capable of metabolizing hydrocarbons producing organic solvents, such as alcohols, aldehydes, surface-active fatty acids, and other metabolites which can interact with the crude oil improving its fluidity. Other oil production issues such as the presence of paraffin, emulsions, and corrosion problems can also be controlled using microorganisms. For instance, extensive research has been conducted on the use of biosurfactants (BS) for enhanced oil recovery applications [11–14].
\nPrior to the application of MEOR technologies, the projects are assessed to determine the compatibility of the crude oil and reservoir properties with MEOR taking into account the physicochemical properties of the crude oil, reservoir production performance, and reservoir properties (i.e., temperature). At the preliminary stage, reservoir fluid samples are collected and tested for compatibility with the MEOR systems. The first stage is the identification of the indigenous hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria, which is already adapted to the in situ reservoir conditions; after which the best action strategy for each project is designed and developed [4, 6].
\nMEOR can be applied on individual wells as follows: (1) from the well being treated or (2) from the target well and adjacent wells of the same reservoir. The MEOR solution is injected into adjacent wells in the same way as water is injected into the reservoir. The volume of the MEOR biomaterial to be injected is calculated based on the pore volume of the target reservoir. The solution is mixed and pumped through the injection well followed by the injection of water to drive the biological solution into the oil saturated zones. Then, the treated well is shut in for the required period of time (normally 24 h to 7 days) after which oil production is resumed. This procedure is repeated every 3–6 months to enable microorganisms to move deeper into the deposit to oil saturated zones [6].
\nSome of the general advantages of MEOR are outlined as follows:
\nIncrease of the productivity of the oil fields [9];
Increase in the total oil produced and more efficient operation of wells and oil fields;
Increase of the viscosity of the formation water due to the upsurge of biomass concentration and the microorganisms’ metabolic products, such as soluble biopolymers, which reduces the mobility of the formation water within the formation rock [9];
The MEOR set up is less expensive, because the injected bacteria and nutrients are inexpensive [15, 16];
Low energy input requirement for microbes to produce MEOR agents [16];
Reduced of the operations downtime [9];
MEOR is environmentally friendly, because microbial products are biodegradable [15, 16].
In terms of the quality of the oil produced, some benefits are [9]:
\nAn increase of light alkanes <C20;
Reduction of the average content of C20–C40 alkanes;
Biodegradation of high molecular heavy hydrocarbon components;
Splitting of aromatic ring structures;
Splitting of phenolic ring chemical structures;
Transformation of sulfur-containing organic compounds;
Emulsification of crude oil that can be easily mobilized to the production well.
MEOR methods can be divided into two main groups:
\nThe
In the second step, oxygen-free water is injected into the reservoir to activate anaerobic indigenous bacteria that metabolize crude oil to acids, and gas (i.e., methane, carbon dioxide). The accumulation of these biogases increases the reservoir pressure. If the pressure in the reservoir is high enough, methane could be dissolved into the liquid hydrocarbon phase reducing its viscosity. Similarly, carbon dioxide could also reduce the oil viscosity if the pressure in the formation allows the miscibility of CO2 into the bulk oil phase. A reduction of the oil viscosity improves the oil-displacing properties through the reservoir increasing oil production [14]. Furthermore, CO2 could react with the minerals in the rock and dissolve carbonate increasing the permeability of the formation rock.
\nIn the oil industry, MEOR has been applied for several uses besides enhanced oil recovery, such as well stimulation; remediation of oil spills in soil and ground water; and to clean borehole, down hole equipment, and piping, among others.
\nThe MEOR process consists of two essential components: hydrocarbon-consuming microorganisms and a nutritional medium as the source of nitrogen and phosphorus. Hydrocarbon-consuming microorganisms can be exogenous or indigenous. Indigenous are isolated for characterization from the hydrocarbon deposit where they will be employed.
\nThe use of industrial byproducts as nutritional media such as molasses [21–24], corn steep liquor [25], and cheese whey [24] has been documented. The injection of nitrate aqueous solution at a concentration of 1.5 g/l of injected water has been recommended to suppress the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria [22]. Reduction of the cost of nutrients during the application of MEOR processes can be achieved by injecting only nitrogen and phosphorous sources. Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for bacterial growth. Likewise, phosphorous is another key nutrient. If phosphorous nutrients are lacking, microbial cells cannot synthesize enough ATP for their metabolic activity [26].
\nMicrobial communities in oil rock formations are dated as the Earth’s most ancient biocenoses, which sank to great depths along with organic residues and biogenic sludge.
\nNumerous varieties of microorganisms have been isolated and detected from different oil reservoirs such as sulfate and sulfur reducers hydrogenotrophic and heterotrophic methanogens [27–30], fermentative bacteria [31, 32], hydrocarbon and oil-oxidizing bacteria [19, 33], iron and manganese reducing microbes [34].
\nThe presence of indigenous microflora and exogenous microorganisms in water and oil-bearing deposits has been demonstrated [3]. Exogenous microorganisms have been introduced into the reservoirs during drilling and flooding (i.e., secondary and tertiary oil recovery) operations. In the absence of molecular oxygen (i.e., absence of a terminal electron acceptor), microbial hydrocarbon decomposition is possible through anaerobic respiration using nitrate, iron oxide, carbon dioxide, or sulfate. Interspecific electron transfer is also possible with methanogenic or sulfate reducing bacteria as biological acceptors. In oil strata with temperatures between 20 and 80°C, there are complex microbial communities made up by fermentative bacteria and methanogens that can oxidize hydrocarbons and reduce sulfur, sulfate, and iron. The microbial count in high temperature oil reservoirs is low.
\nThe studies of microbial communities conducted on samples of formation water from the Zhetybay and Kulsary oil fields located in Western Kazakhstan gave total aerobic counts of 1.8 106 and 25.1 106 cells/ml, respectively. The number of aerobic microorganisms present in the water samples from the Zhetybay field is lower than the bacterial count from the Kulsary field by an order of magnitude. While the count of anaerobes is 0.38 105 cells/ml for the Zhetybay field sample and 0.5 102 cells/ml for the Kulsary field. These observations correlate well with the respective depth of each reservoir; the water samples from the Kulsary field were collected at a depth of 250 m; while the water samples of the Zhetybay field were collected at a depth of 1900 m, therefore it is expected that at deeper reservoirs conditions (i.e., Zhetybay field) anaerobic microorganism would adjust better. It has been reported that in deep water and oil-bearing strata the total bacterial count is as high as 10 million cells/ml [35].
\nThe effect of microorganisms is significant if they are numerous and physiologically active. An arbitrary threshold for bacteria is estimated at 1 million/1 g substrate since it is only in such quantities that they can have significant ecological impact. For each ecological factor (temperature, amount of nutrients, concentration of microcells, and trace elements), there are optimum values which favor the growth of an organism and the extreme values at which growth is suppressed. At values close to the extremes of the preferred range for a given organism, its survival is still possible though its growth is limited because the organism is under physical stress conditions. Microbiological studies on bacteria obtained from the Zhetybay and Kulsary hydrocarbon deposits show that aerobes play an important ecological role since they are found in large numbers and in physiologically active states [35].
\nExogenous bacteria such as allochthonic bacteria are present in oil reservoirs, which were introduced during water injection creating a mixture of exogenous and indigenous microflora. At reservoir depths of 1–3 km, thermophilic microbial communities are found. These microbial communities are made up of microorganisms commonly found in deep reservoirs and bacteria normally encountered in shallow areas of the reservoirs (i.e., <1 km) but in lower numbers.
\nFor instance, the Zhetybay and Kulsary oil reservoirs contain several groups of microorganisms including spore-forming bacteria,
Total bacterial counts and the abundance of certain groups of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are remarkably lower in oil reservoirs than the count of bacteria determined in the water used during waterflooding. The reason is that not all microorganisms survive extreme reservoir oil conditions. Some bacteria may be immobilized on the surface of the rocks lowering the number of bacteria in the liquid phase. Viable cells of methanogenic microorganisms have been found in reservoir fluids (i.e., formation brine) with salinity as high as 200 g/l, however, these and other microorganisms were also present in large numbers in substantially desalinated fluids [35].
\nMicrobial community in oil reservoirs can be considered as closed and semiclosed systems, because they exist in an environment hindered from water exchange, which is characterized by a slow mass transfer at constant temperature in the absence of atmospheric air and sunlight. In this ecosystem, oil is the main source of energy for the microbial community. Molecular nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen are sufficient to meet the needs of the microflora. The phosphorus content is small, which limits the biogenic processes in this ecosystem. Therefore, microbiological processes proceed slowly due to low water exchange and lack of nutrients. The development of oil reservoirs by water injection introduces dissolved oxygen into the system that activates microbiological processes and as result oil biodegrades [36].
\nAerobic microorganisms have been found in formations with temperatures ranging from 20 to 70°C and pH ranging from 6.0 to 8.4. Some of these aerobic bacteria have been identified as
Wang et al. isolated three thermophilic hydrocarbon-degrading species, such as
Thermophilic bacteria were isolated from a reservoir, located at Maracaibo Lake, Venezuela, which has temperatures ranging from 60 to 80°C and pressures ranging from 1200 to 1500 psi [42]. Moderately, thermophilic spore-forming sulfate-reducing bacteria (
The anaerobic microflora present in oil reservoirs are commonly bacteria of the genera
During the MEOR process, the components are mixed at surface facilities and injected into the oil reservoir. Inside the reservoir, MEOR-bacteria are transported by the injected water and accumulate in porous zones at the oil/rock and oil/water interfaces. Bacteria utilize very small amounts of oil and produce metabolites such as solvents, surfactants, acids, and carbon dioxide. These bioproducts interact with the oil in the reservoir to reduce the oil viscosity, interface tension at the oil/rock and oil/water interfaces, improve rock permeability by removing paraffin, mud, and other debris that plug the porous media [15, 50]. Microbial cells are continuously generated as well as the
Microbial degradation of oil, which is a complex chemical compound, is the result of cometabolism of microorganisms where the metabolism’s products of the hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria serve as the substrate for other physiological groups in the reservoir. Hydrocarbons are decomposed to produce fatty acids that can be utilized by other microorganisms [51].
\nThe main mechanisms acting on oil recovery by MEOR are summarized as follows:
\nFormation of bioacids that could dissolve some of the minerals (i.e., clays, carbonates, etc.) contained in the formation rocks. Rock dissolution increases the porosity and permeability of the reservoir [52–54];
Production of solvents and biogases, leading to lower oil viscosity that facilitates oil displacement through the porous media [55–58];
Formation of biosurfactants, biopolymers and other compounds, that could interact with the crude oil by emulsifying the oil, reducing its viscosity, and reducing the interfacial tension at the oil-water interface [59–63];
Production of microbial biomass that could change the wettability of the oil rock [55, 64].
One of the most important functionalities of oil-oxidizing microorganisms is their capability of using hydrocarbons to produce biosurfactants, which emulsify hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganism’s strains that are very active in producing biosurfactants are:
The implementation of MEOR requires low capital investment; while it offers high efficiency, and environmental friendliness. The initial phase of the MEOR process is the partial oxidation of residual oil in the bottom-hole area that yields bioproducts such as carbon dioxide, low-molecular-weight fatty acids, and other organic compounds. Further, when these bioproducts are transported by the injected water into the anaerobic zones of the reservoir, methanogenic microorganisms are activated. Production of methane is important because this is an easily extractible gas that can be dissolved into the oil phase (i.e., if the reservoir pressure is high enough) improving the oil mobility [70].
\nDuring waterflooding, dissolved oxygen in the water is delivered to the strata. This oxygen is rapidly consumed at the bottom-hole area during the microbial oxidation of residual oil, which causes the stimulation of anaerobic bacteria, particularly, methanogens, in the oxygen-free zone of the stratum [70]. The number of aerobic hydrocarbon-oxidizing and oligocarbophilic bacteria grows to a less extent, however, at the same time the content of anaerobic metabolism products in oil formation waters increases significantly. During this process, carbonate and sulfate content increases.
\nFoam-forming organic substances that reduce the interfacial tension at the oil/water interface by a factor of 100 have been identified to be caused by microbiological oil oxidation products in the bottom-hole area [71].
\nOil recovery by waterflooding can be viewed as a natural fermenter, where continuous microbial cultures could be maintained. These microbial cultures could be activated by the injection of microorganisms and nutritional medium components. In this case, residual oil serves as the main substrate for microorganisms; while in the bottom-hole area, a specific microbial community is formed whose activity can be regulated [71].
\nThe temperature of the oil reservoirs determines the types of microbial communities. In the bottom-hole areas of the injection wells, the temperature corresponds to the temperature of the injected water. In high temperature reservoirs, as is the case of the Zhetybay oil field, cold water is injected, therefore mesophilic bacteria prevail at these conditions compared to the thermophilic communities of the Uzen oil field in Kazakhstan, where hot water is injected [71].
\nThe implementation of MEOR starts with the addition of biological materials to the injection water. Microorganisms enter the reservoir mixed with the injected water through the existing flooding system without affecting the injection rate or pressure. The implementation of MEOR process requires very small modifications, if any, to the existing water injection equipment, so that the flooding process is not interrupted [6].
\nAfter the implementation of the MEOR project, it is continuously monitored through bacteria population growth and the oil output rate within certain period of time. The hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria population is kept under continuous surveillance after the injection of MEOR fluids. The population size is compared to that of the indigenous hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria before the beginning of the process. Normally, such population starts to grow slowly. In addition, the fluids produced are also monitored for the presence of hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria in order to assess how far the microorganisms have moved into the reservoir after injection [6].
\nThere is extensive MEOR published literature on laboratory research data and pilot field trials. Although at present widespread commercial use of the MEOR technology has not taken place yet.
\nBiotechnological methods for increasing oil recovery have to solve a number of practical problems [72], which are summarized as follows:
\nThe preparation of suitable microorganisms and microbial associations highly active at the specific conditions of the reservoir, including the composition and properties of the crude oil. Most of the microorganisms that adapt to the conditions of the field could have little effect on the composition and properties of the crude oils. Industrial applications require new strains of microorganisms with the following qualities: tolerant to high temperatures and salinities concentration, as well as capable of synthesizing surfactants and polysaccharides.
The establishment of techniques to create appropriate reservoir conditions to favor the growth and activity of specific microorganisms. This requires further exploration of ways to introduce additional nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus compounds.
The development of cost-effective methods for sulfate reduction. Reservoir conditions are ecological niches for sulfate-reducing bacteria. It is necessary to control the generation of hydrogen sulfide because it creates the problem of a toxic aggressive environment, corrosion, higher sulfur content in the crude oil, toxic products, and other undesirable consequences.
Maudgalya et al. [73] reviewed 407 MEOR field trials worldwide. The field trials were classified according to the following parameters: reservoirs’ lithology and properties, microorganisms, nutrients, type of test, and type of recovery mechanism. From the total 407 field trials, 333 field trials were applied following the well stimulation method, 26 of the trials were conducted using the waterflooding and 44 field trials were conducted as single well (huff-puff scheme) applications; while details of the application method for the remaining four field trials were not provided. This survey indicated that the primary mechanisms for MEOR were permeability profile modification, increase of capillary number (i.e., biosurfactants, alcohols, biopolymers, and acids), biodegradation of heavy crude oil components making the oil less viscous, and the swelling of the oil due to the absorption of biogas (i.e., CO2 and CH4) within the bulk oil phase.
\nCareful review of the common characteristics and results observed from these 407 MEOR field trials indicate that successful field trials were obtained at the following conditions:
\nMinimum reservoir permeability of 75 md to ensure propagation of bacteria and nutrients deep into the reservoir;
Reservoir temperature <200°F;
Brine salinity <100,000 ppm;
Bacteria species commonly used: anaerobic bacteria (i.e.,
Nutrient: the most common organic nutrient used was molasses; while phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers were the most common inorganic nutrients;
Oil saturation: ranging between 45 and 70%;
Candidate fields most suitable for MEOR are waterflooded fields with relatively high oil saturations [73].
The Activated Environment for Recovery Optimization (AERO) technology has been developed for improving waterflood performance. The AERO system is a microbial process designed to increase oil recovery during waterflooding by the following mechanisms: improved sweep efficiency due to microdiversion of fluid pathways at the pore level, interfacial tension reduction, and residual oil mobilization (i.e., biosurfactants). This technology has been successfully implemented by Statoil offshore Norway and in the Stirrup field in southwest Kansas, USA. Highlights of this technology are minimum to none capital investment with very low risk for implementation and high performance efficiency at low operational costs [74].
\nResearch conducted to establish the potential for MEOR application at the heavy oil Schrader Bluff formation on the North Slope of Alaska indicated that the viable mechanisms for driving incremental heavy oil recovery are:
\nWettability alteration;
Permeability modification causing improvement of reservoir conformance;
Some reduction of the interfacial tension between oil and water.
This study also demonstrated that the most important criteria for selecting a reservoir for MEOR applications are the reservoir temperature and formation brine salinity, which must favor bacterial growth. Furthermore, an effective MEOR application depends on the optimal use of the appropriate microbes and nutrients and their proper application in the reservoir [75].
\nDuPont possesses a solid expertise in MEOR and considers it a low-risk and low-cost technology to produce incremental oil from mature fields. DuPont has established a set of reservoir criteria for its successful application as follows:
\nReservoir temperatures <160°F;
Moderate salinity levels up to 100,000 ppm;
Reservoir permeability above 30 md to ensure the propagation of the microbes and nutrients deep into the reservoir;
The reservoir must be under a waterflooding recovery.
According to DuPont’s experience, the main mechanisms for oil recovery are permeability modification due to the formation of a biofilm on the rock surface and wettability modification. Successful field trials conducted by DuPont indicate that oil recovery from mature fields can be increased up to 25% with a cost of $10 per incremental barrel of oil. Furthermore, DuPont considers the MEOR technique to be more cost effective compared to other EOR processes, such as CO2 flooding or polymer flood [76].
\nA biopolymer, Schizophyllan, has been developed by Wintershall. The unique properties of this biopolymer are tolerance to high salinity (up to 19 wt%), tolerance to temperatures as high as 275°F, mechanical stability, and high viscosity. Therefore, the Schizophyllan biopolymer would make possible the application of polymer flooding in harsh reservoir environments. The main downside of this biopolymer is its susceptibility to bacterial degradation; however, this has been prevented by the addition of biocides. A pilot test has indicated that the performance of polymer flooding using this biopolymer has rendered oil recoveries ranging from 20 to 25 % higher than the oil recoveries expected from conventional waterflooding [77].
\nSuccessful MEOR application in a mature waterflooded reservoir in Saskatchewan, Canada has been reported [78]. This MEOR application consisted in the stimulation of indigenous bacteria through the injection of the appropriate nutrients. Production data obtained from this MEOR field application indicate higher oil production rates, incremental oil recovery, and decreased water cuts (up to 10%), which decreased operating costs due to reduced lifting and water treatment costs. In this field application, it was considered that the main MEOR mechanism was modification of the oil and water relative permeability driven by the interactions at the oil-water-microbes interface. Several benefits of this MEOR approach compare to other MEOR applications schemes and other EOR processes are as follows [78]:
\nLow application costs;
Low process cost per incremental oil production, on average it was US$ 6 per barrel of oil produced;
No capital outlay required to implement the MEOR project;
Low risk to implement;
Environmentally friendly.
Numerical modeling has been used to attempt the quantitative prediction of the performance of the MEOR process [73]. A study conducted by Eduarda et al. [79] in which a finite difference method was applied, indicated that appropriate bacterial growth within the reservoir is the determining variable affecting the oil recovery factor.
\nMEOR technology makes use of special indigenous or exogenous microbial strains and nutrients that are injected into the reservoir to enhance oil production. The metabolic action of the injected exogenous microbial strains and the indigenous reservoir microflora produce metabolites such as gases, alcohols, and surface active compounds (biosurfactants) that interact with the crude oil. Biogases provide additional reservoir driving pressure; while bioalcohols and biosurfactants reduce oil viscosity and surface tension between oil-water and oil-rock, respectively. Under the effect of metabolites, the crude oil flowing properties are modified causing its release and mobilization toward the production wells enhancing the oil flow output.
\nThe following metabolites interact with the crude oil changing its physicochemical properties:
\nOrganic acids (i.e., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids);
Solvents (i.e., acetone, aldehydes, low-molecular-weight alcohols, ketones, etc.);
Biomass (i.e., cell debris);
Biopolymers (i.e., xanthan, scleroglucan, polysaccharides);
Biosurfactants (i.e., rhamnolipid, surfactin);
Biogases (i.e., methane, CO2, etc.).
MEOR is an easy-to-use process which requires minimum, if any, upgrade of the existing process equipment and facilities. This process has the potential to recover oil reserves that otherwise would remain immobile and unrecoverable. This process overcomes natural and chemical barriers in oil deposits that hinder microbial growth. MEOR is safe and environmentally friendly that does not cause any threat to plants, animals, and humans.
\nAs a common and complex skin condition (Section 1.1), the root causes of psoriasis begin inside our body [1], making it far more than just skin deep. The fact that psoriasis affects the skin’s hydration, barrier structure, function and integrity (Section 1.2) [2] means that a combination of several management strategies (Section 1.3) is usually required in order to alleviate associated symptoms [3, 4]. Topical moisturisers (Section 1.4) represent
Psoriasis is a chronic, inflammatory, non-contagious and relapsing skin condition with a strong genetic predisposition and autoimmune pathogenic traits [8]. While psoriasis can present at any age, it most commonly appears for the first time between the ages of 15 and 25 years, and then again between ages of 57 to 60 years [9], affecting both men and women equally [3, 10]. The worldwide prevalence is about 2–5% on average, but varies according to regions and ethnicities [3, 10]. In general, the higher or lower the latitude, the higher the prevalence; people from Asian and African countries are less prone to psoriasis than people from regions further from the equator such as Northern Europe, North America and Australia [10, 11].
The term ‘psoriasis’ encompasses several distinct clinical forms of the disease, the most common and well-known of which is psoriasis vulgaris, also known as plaque psoriasis. Given the ubiquity of psoriasis vulgaris relative to other forms of the disease, our focus in this chapter will be on this particular form.
The pathogenesis of psoriasis is multifactorial, with genetics being a primary contributor, especially in those with early onset of the disease. Many of the candidate genes are either involved in antigen presentation, immune cell signalling and activation, or skin barrier function, suggesting an intricate interplay between dendritic cells, T cells and the main skin cell type, known as keratinocytes [12, 13]. Several other factors can either initiate and/or exacerbate psoriasis flare-ups. These include: (a) trauma induced by various physical, chemical and inflammatory skin disruptions (e.g., abrasions, incisions, rubbing); (b) bacterial (e.g.,
Psoriasis manifests in several distinct clinical forms according to appearance and the body part affected but predominantly presents as well-demarcated salmon pink plaques (dry and piled up skin cells) and/or lesions with silvery-white scale, accompanied by skin tightness, itchiness, a burning sensation and, in severe cases, even bleeding [1, 3, 10, 13, 15]. These plaques typically appear in a symmetrical distribution and affect extensor areas such as the elbows, knees, lower back, limbs, the scalp, tips of the fingers and toes, palms and soles, the fingernails and toenails, and occasionally, the genitals [3, 10, 13, 14, 15]. Patients suffering from psoriasis are frequently categorised into two main groups: (1) mild or moderate psoriasis (most common category; affecting 3–10% of total body area) and (2) severe psoriasis (rare; affecting more than 10% of total body area). Such categorisation primarily depends on the following three aspects: (1) the clinical severity score (also known as Psoriasis Area Severity Index—PASI) of the plaques, which is an assessment tool based on the degree of plaque redness, thickness, itchiness and scaling; (2) the percentage of affected body surface area (BSA); and (3) patient QoL [13, 14, 16].
As alluded to in the introduction, psoriasis is not only a skin condition, it also involves multiple organ systems (e.g., cardiovascular, hepatic, respiratory and haematological) and people with psoriasis regularly display a broad spectrum of symptoms and significant co-existing conditions such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, cancer, diabetes and metabolic syndrome, with rates being especially elevated in those with more severe psoriasis [1, 13]. For example, diabetic patients with psoriasis appear to be more likely to require pharmacological management and suffer from micro- and macrovascular diabetes complications than diabetic patients without psoriasis [17].
The barrier function of the skin resides in the outermost layer of the epidermis, known as the stratum corneum (SC) and is linked to the protein enriched corneocyte (dead keratinocytes lacking vital cellular organelles) layers and the intercellular membrane lipid matrix mostly composed of ceramides, cholesterol and free fatty acids [18, 19, 20, 21]. Corneocytes are continually and efficiently replaced to maintain skin hydration, flexibility and structural integrity, and to repair any perturbation and damage [21]. Continuous exposure to environmental insults such as harsh climatic conditions (e.g., extreme temperatures, wind) and chemicals (e.g., harsh detergents and soaps) can significantly impact the skin’s structural and functional properties, which in turn can cause acute or chronic damage of the skin barrier resulting in unfavourable changes in skin morphology and physiology over time [19, 20, 22, 23, 24].
Skin dryness is a major underlying problem of the dysfunctional psoriatic skin barrier as it reflects an abnormal and defective desquamation (shedding) process, where corneocytes are shed as visible scales, causing the cosmetically unattractive rough texture associated with dry skin and excessive transepidermal water loss (TEWL), ultimately leading to discomfort and itchiness. Such compromised, dry and fragile skin that is unable to efficiently bind and hold water is also susceptible to the penetration of irritants, allergens and microorganisms that can result in irritation, inflammation and infection [3, 10, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24].
Normally, healthy skin cells mature and are shed from the skin’s surface every 28 to 30 days [25]. However, when psoriasis develops, these skin cells mature much faster, usually in 3 to 6 days, and subsequently move to the skin surface. Due to such a rapid turnover of skin cells, it is possible that even live and healthy cells can reach the surface and accumulate with the dead cells. Instead of being shed, the skin cells pile up, causing the development of thick plaques that are characteristic of psoriasis [14]. There are two main schools of thought as to the exact pathological process that leads to the development of such psoriatic plaques, however, neither of these can stand independently from each other. The first considers psoriasis primarily as an unregulated condition of excessive growth and regeneration of skin cells, characterised by abnormal keratinocyte differentiation and hyperproliferation. Such a problem is simply seen as a ‘fault’ of the epidermis and its keratinocytes [3, 14, 26]. The second considers psoriasis as an immune-mediated skin condition in which the excessive regeneration of skin cells is secondary to factors produced by the immune system, suggesting that the inflammatory mechanisms are immune-based and most likely initiated and maintained primarily by T cells found within the deeper layer of the skin, the dermis [14, 27, 28]. Given that keratinocytes, dendritic cells and activated T cells are all crucial to the development and persistence of psoriatic plaques, the pathophysiology of psoriasis cannot be explained by the role of a single cell type exclusively – it is likely a dynamic and complex interplay between those cell types. Furthermore, the contribution of each cell type is equally essential in different phases (e.g., initiation, formation, maintenance) of psoriatic alterations. Therefore, the exact sequence of events that lead to the development of psoriatic plaques remains unknown [28].
Choosing the best management strategy for psoriasis can often be problematic and frustrating for both patients and healthcare professionals, and usually there are several factors to consider: the type, severity and localisation of the condition; the patient’s age and medical history; the impact the disease has on QoL; and the patient’s expected goals [1]. Before embarking on a management strategy, it is absolutely crucial to establish expectations and goals. The ‘ideal’ goal would be complete clearance of psoriatic plaques but this is currently not achievable in most patients. Thus, it is necessary to set a minimal target to allow modification of the management strategy if the target is not achieved within a set time [29]. In very basic terms, management for ‘generalised’ psoriasis follows a 1-2-3 step-ladder approach (Figure 1), starting with topical therapies (e.g., topical moisturisers) (Section 1.4) followed by phototherapy and then systemic medications that can include a range of oral drugs and small biologicals [1, 10, 30].
Schematic of psoriasis 1-2-3 step-ladder management approach [
Topical therapy as monotherapy is useful in psoriasis patients with a mild to moderate condition. Topical moisturisers are also used as an adjuvant strategy for moderate to severe psoriasis that is concurrently treated with either phototherapy or systemic medications [10].
Phototherapy represents a second-line defence strategy in the management of psoriasis (Figure 1). It involves exposure of the psoriatic skin to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can decrease the appearance of plaques on the skin [10, 31]. Many types of phototherapy have been developed and used for the treatment of psoriasis over the last few decades. Broadband ultraviolet B light (BB-UVB, 290–320 nm) was the first such therapy developed, but was later replaced by narrowband ultraviolet B light (NB-UVB, 311 nm) as the latter is more effective than the former. The excimer laser/lamp of 308 nm was next invented and used as a monochromatic (single wavelength) UVB source for psoriasis treatment. The advantage of using excimer is its targeting ability that can spare unaffected skin while providing high doses targeted directly at psoriatic skin [32]. In short, phototherapy acts by causing cutaneous immuno-suppression, slowing down excessive growth of skin cells and altering cytokine expression [10, 31]. The drawbacks to phototherapy include the extensive time investment that is required; usually, three to five therapy sessions per week are needed, with the total therapy period ranging from approximately 2–3 months. Additionally, the response to phototherapy can vary from individual to individual, and there can be health implications to consider, such as the risk of skin cancer [10].
The decision to progress to systemic therapy (Figure 1) should be based not only on objective disease severity (where PASI ≥10% or QoL index ≥10% or BSA ≥10%; indicating more than 10% of involvement of the skin) [33], but also on social and psychological factors. The patient should understand the risks (e.g., higher risk and more adverse effects) (Figure 2) associated with systemic medications and should be allowed to determine whether the risk of therapy outweighs the benefit [10]. Indications for systemic therapy include widespread plaque psoriasis, erythrodermic (potentially life-threatening inflammation) psoriasis, or the need for repeated hospitalisation for topical therapy. The therapies for extensive and severe forms of psoriasis usually have long-term side effects [34].
The order in which management strategies for psoriasis should be implemented [
The order in which these management strategies are employed should progress in a stepwise fashion from lowest to highest risk (Figure 2), hence, the concept of a management ladder (Figure 1). The management strategy with the fewest side-effects (e.g., topical moisturisers) should be employed first. If this strategy proves ineffective or if the psoriasis is more severe, strategies with greater toxicity (e.g., phototherapy and systemic medications) may be initiated (Figure 2) [10, 34].
Most topical moisturisers are specifically formulated to promote and maintain healthy skin, but may also serve to manage dry and itchy skin conditions such as psoriasis. Moisturisers are crucial to achieving a reduction in clinical signs of irritation and dryness, scaling and roughness, and a decrease in perceived feelings of tightness and itching [6, 20, 35, 36]. There are no specific rules on what is the best or ‘correct’ type of topical moisturiser to use. Since topical moisturisers are effectively used either as cosmetics (providing basic skin moisturisation) or therapeutics (e.g., managing psoriasis and preventing its exacerbation), the patients’ considerations will be mainly influenced by their personal preferences and lifestyle, and the nature and severity of their skin condition. Individual patient preferences and history may have an impact on the choice of moisturiser or moisturising base to use. A psoriasis patient presenting with severe dryness may benefit most from an occlusive ointment, yet their distaste for this particular base may dissuade them from using the product consistently, which could lead to increased morbidity. Conversely, while a lotion or cream may not provide as much hydration as an ointment, the patient’s preference for such ingredient base may improve compliance and, therefore, outcome. Patient expectation can also impact the choice or use of moisturiser. Despite wide management options being available, psoriasis is still an incurable disease, so expectation needs to be carefully managed. Complete psoriatic plaque clearance and relief from symptoms is often very difficult, if not impossible, a fact that can lead to patient dissatisfaction, as well as poor adherence and compliance with the current management options [10, 37].
The ‘ideal’ topical moisturiser (Figure 3) is one that the user prefers and will use regularly and liberally, keeping in mind that it should be: (a) cosmetically acceptable and elegant; (b) absorbed rapidly providing immediate skin moisturisation and achieve the intended cosmetic and/or therapeutic effect(s); (c) free from common irritants and allergens such as fragrance, colour and soap to minimise irritation and aggravation of the skin or underlying skin condition; and (d) non-sensitising, non-comedogenic (will not block pores), long-lasting [36, 38] and pH-balanced [39].
The ‘ideal’ topical moisturiser characteristics [
The efficacy of topical moisturisers is related to its basic skin moisturisation and ‘conditioning’ benefits, as well as its therapeutic effects. This is achieved most commonly through a well-designed combination of fundamental and specialty ingredients and actives, formulated and delivered in a range of topical formulations (Section 3) [20, 40, 41].
The evolution of topical moisturisers is basically equivalent to an odyssey from fundamental ingredients (e.g., emollients, humectants, occludents, excipients) [6, 35, 42] (Section 2.1) to specialty molecules (e.g., ceramides, Panthenol, nicotinamide) [6, 35] (Section 2.2) and functionally distinct actives (e.g., corticosteroids, tar-based ingredients, keratolytics) [43, 44] (Section 2.3). Therefore, understanding the interplay and synergism amongst different ingredients as well as being familiar with their ever expanding biophysical effects is essential to get a cosmetically acceptable and/or therapeutically stable tailored product (Section 3) with the desired impact on both healthy and diseased skin [6, 35].
Topical moisturisers usually contain, at a minimum, one or a combination of the key moisturising ingredients, namely emollients (e.g., dimethicone) (Section 2.1.1), humectants (e.g., glycerin) (Section 2.1.2) and occludents (e.g., petrolatum/petroleum jelly) (Section 2.1.3), as well as numerous excipients (e.g., penetration enhancers, preservatives, pH adjusters) to stabilise the formulation (Section 2.1.4). Additional ingredients often include selected specialty ingredients (Section 2.2) and actives (Section 2.3). Ingredient selection, and moisturiser composition and formulation are crucial considerations when choosing an appropriate moisturiser. Specifically for psoriasis, these considerations can determine whether the product will repair and strengthen or further deteriorate the psoriatic skin barrier [6, 35, 45].
Emollients are used to improve the appearance and texture of skin by filling in the crevices between corneocytes. This contributes to increased softness, smoothness and suppleness of the skin and improves its overall appearance [42, 46, 47]. The most common types of emollients are silicones such as dimethicone, which is a hypoallergenic and non-comedogenic polymer and is used extensively in topical moisturisers. It exerts a protective effect on the skin by locking in moisture and decreasing TEWL [48]. Dimethicone’s low surface energy and highly flexible silicone polymer backbone allows for effective spreading on the skin and a pleasant skin feel. The physical and aesthetic properties of silicones can be controlled by varying the chain length and molecular weight of the polymer. As chain length increases, the viscosity of silicones also increases, and vice-versa. Low viscosity means that the silicone is able to spread quickly and easily while providing a light, silky skin feel, whereas higher viscosities enable silicones to form more persistent hydrophobic (water-repelling) films with good water barrier properties [49].
Humectants are hygroscopic (water-attracting) substances that are able to increase the water content of the skin by enhancing water absorption from the underlying skin layers, namely the deeper epidermis and dermis. Humectants penetrate the SC readily and act like biological sponges that promote water retention in the skin [47]. In addition, humectants are also able to hydrate the SC by absorbing water from the external environment. As a consequence, the SC tends to have greater water content in areas in which humectants are localised [42, 46, 47].
Glycerin is the most widely-studied and used humectant. It is also an endogenous component of the human skin. Glycerin is transported from the dermis through the keratinocytes by a transmembrane water/glycerol transport protein, Aquaporin 3 (AQP3) [50, 51, 52], and its hygroscopic properties enable it to increase the water holding capacity of an impaired SC. Glycerin functions in a way similar to the skin’s own natural moisturising factor (NMF), which is an essential skin process responsible for appropriate SC hydration, barrier homeostasis, desquamation and plasticity. When used topically, glycerin protects the skin from irritant-associated skin conditions and accelerates recovery of irritated skin, while also improving overall skin hydration. Topical glycerin also helps barrier recovery through corneocyte desquamation regulation and is able to restore skin hydration at low usage levels (from as little as 2% v/v up to 10% v/v) [47, 52].
Occludents are lipohilic (lipid-loving) substances that form a protective film on the skin and restrict TEWL, trapping water in the skin’s uppermost layers and protecting against moisture loss [42, 46, 47, 53]. The most commonly used occludent, petrolatum or petroleum jelly (a long, aliphatic/straight chain of hydrocarbons) [54], can enter the intercellular space of the SC and become part of its lipid structure to provide internal occlusion of the SC, resulting in an increased barrier to water loss. In this regard, petrolatum is often considered to be the most effective moisturising ingredient for dry skin [42, 46, 47, 53].
Non-active ingredients, commonly termed excipients, are extensively used in the formulation of topical moisturisers and typically make up the majority (≥90%) of topical product content [41, 55]. By their physicochemical nature, different classes of excipients are used to enhance the functionality of active ingredients in therapeutic products, as well as to aid with formulation challenges. Excipients are often used to: (1) improve solubility to allow incorporation of an active; (2) control the release, penetration and permeation of an active; (3) improve the overall aesthetics of the product to increase patient compliance; (4) improve active and product stability; (5) prevent microbial growth and contamination (e.g., preservatives) and (6) balance the pH of water-based moisturisers, so that they are compatible with the skin’s naturally slightly acidic pH [41].
Penetration enhancers are chemicals that readily disrupt the structure of the SC and are commonly used to facilitate active (drug) delivery. The cutaneous inflammation experienced by patients with psoriasis promotes hypersensitivity and also suppresses skin barrier function. Therefore, the effective delivery of anti-inflammatory actives such as corticosteroids, aided by appropriate penetration enhancers, can bring about a net improvement in the skin’s barrier function [41]. Many penetration enhancers, like propylene glycol, are also solvents, and so can be used alone or in combination with other penetration enhancers to help facilitate both the partitioning into and the passage through the SC. However, care must be taken when selecting and using chemical penetration enhancers since their excessive use can potentially lead to systemic absorption of the active [41, 56]. As such, a careful tradeoff must be made between delivering a therapeutic active dose and protecting the integrity of the skin barrier. Penetration enhancers composed of short chain fatty acids, such as propylene glycol, are thought to integrate into the hydrophilic regions of the packed SC lipids and increase the solubility of this domain for the permeant [41], yet at high concentrations (above 10%) they can irritate the skin [41, 57, 58]. In contrast, penetration enhancers composed of long chain fatty acids like oleic acid insert themselves between the hydrophobic lipid tails to increase the fluidity of the SC lipid bilayers [41].
Preservatives are essential components of water-based topical moisturiser formulations and skincare products in general, as they protect products from potentially harmful bacteria. Without preservatives, water-based products would have a very short shelf life and would, for the most part, have to be stored at lower temperatures [59, 60]. Parabens such as methyparaben and propylparaben are arguably the most commonly used preservative ingredients. They have antimicrobial efficacy against a broad spectrum of yeasts, moulds and bacteria, although they are most effective against gram-positive organisms such as
In addition to the chemical stability of the ingredients and the formulation itself, pH is a crucial consideration for topical moisturisers. Not only is the absolute pH value important, but the buffer capacity is also crucial to the skin’s natural acid mantle. The buffer capacity describes the ability of a formulation to keep the pH value almost constant or as close to the skin’s natural pH as possible [65, 66]. This can be achieved by adding pH adjusters to the formulation [66]. The natural pH of the skin surface of most parts of the body is slightly acidic and in the range of pH 4.1–5.8 [66], a feature that can have significant impacts on how the skin reacts to the product. It is a generally accepted fact that the use of alkaline or non pH-balanced products such as soaps, cleansers and creams will lead to skin barrier impairment with a concomitant pH increase in both healthy and diseased skin. The duration of this increase in skin pH depends on skin condition, frequency of application and the composition of the product. Therefore, every skincare product is a potential skin surface pH modifier and the pH of such products must be adjusted to a physiological pH during its development [67]. Some of the most commonly used pH adjusters for topical moisturisers include aminomethyl propanol and citric acid. Aminomethyl propanol is a synthetically produced pH adjuster that is classed as an aliphatic alcohol. It is commonly used in topical formulations due to its safety profile when used in low concentrations [68, 69]. Citric acid is a weak alpha hydroxy acid (AHA) that is naturally occurring in plants and animals. The majority of citric acid comes from citrus fruits, like oranges, lemons, grapefruit and limes. When used and applied in small amounts, it serves as an effective pH adjuster [70].
The newest generation of topical moisturisers for psoriasis also routinely contains specialty or complimentary ingredients in addition to the fundamental moisturiser components detailed in Section 2.1. Common examples of such ingredients include: (1) ceramides that help to replenish the deficient lipids in psoriatic skin [71], (2) the versatile Panthenol (Pro-vitamin B5), which is a skin protectant with moisturising and anti-inflammatory properties [72, 73] and (3) the ‘wonder molecule’ nicotinamide (also known as niacinamide and Vitamin B3), which is one of the most widely used complimentary ingredients in topical moisturisers [74, 75].
Ceramides, alongside cholesterol and free fatty acids, are the predominant components of the SC and comprise 30–40% of the SC lipid matrix by mass. They are composed of long chain sphingoid bases (e.g., sphingosine) which are linked to long chain free fatty acids. Incorporating the skin’s naturally occurring ceramides such as ceramide I (ceramide EOP) and ceramide III (ceramide NP) in topical moisturisers can help to improve both healthy and psoriatic skin by replacing decreased or even depleted ceramide levels [76]. A functional SC plays an indispensable role in ensuring the skin’s flexibility and structural integrity. The ordered alignment and organisation of the lipid bilayers within the SC forms a closed system to prevent TEWL in psoriatic plaques and makes the SC more impermeable. Therefore, even a subtle change or disturbance in the amount, physicochemical characteristics and organisation of the SC ceramides can potentially initiate and/or exacerbate psoriasis [71, 77].
Panthenol is a biologically active component of the B vitamin-complex, which is a basic component of the skin, hair and nails. When applied topically, Panthenol is efficiently absorbed into the epidermis and quickly converted into pantothenic acid, which is then converted to Acetyl Coenzyme-A (Acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is an essential mediator of many biochemical reactions within skin cells, and is necessary for optimal energy levels, barrier function, moisturisation, elasticity and strength [72, 73]. Furthermore, Panthenol can act as both an emollient and a humectant. As an emollient, it can help seal cracks in the skin, keeping water locked in, which in turn contributes to skin softness and smoothness. As a humectant, it can bind to and hold water effectively, reducing the amount of TEWL through the skin and helping it maintain moisture, softness and elasticity [72, 73, 78].
Nicotinamide, which easily penetrates the skin, is fast becoming a ubiquitous topical skincare ingredient in a range of moisturiser formulations. A number of clinical trials [79, 80, 81] show that the concentration of topical nicotinamide products can go up to 10%, but desired effects can be achieved with concentrations as low as 2–5% [79]. Nicotinamide provides a long list of skin care benefits with its use, including its ability to: (1) support the skin barrier structure and function by facilitating the formation of ceramides and keratin [74, 75]; (2) improve the skin’s tone and texture [82]; and (3) boost the effectiveness of moisturisers in general [75]. For example, when formulated in a combination with glycerin, a nicotinamide-containing moisturiser can very effectively improve the integrity of the SC and thus reduce skin dryness over time [75, 83]. In addition, nicotinamide has also been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, the latter of which may help to reduce the harmful effects of UV radiation, photoageing and oxidative stress [84]. The appropriate concentration of topical nicotinamide for each individual may depend on their skin type and condition, keeping in mind that in some instances, high levels of nicotinamide can cause an allergic reaction for people susceptible to skin allergies [85].
Alongside moisturisers, topical therapeutic products for psoriasis that contain active ingredients can also utilise both the fundamental (Section 2.1) and specialty (Section 2.2) ingredients to compliment the active component of the product or provide additional skin conditioning benefits. Common examples of actives indicated for the management of psoriasis include corticosteroids (e.g., hydrocortisone, clobetasone butyrate, mometasone furoate) (Section 2.3.1), tar-based actives (e.g., coal tar, pine tar) (Section 2.3.2) and keratolytics (e.g., salicylic acid) (Section 2.3.3). While these active ingredients are included to treat specific symptoms or characteristics of psoriasis such as inflammation, itch and plaque build-up, the use of a moisturising base can help to dramatically improve patient outcomes [6, 35]. While non-active moisturisers containing only fundamental ingredients are an important adjuvant therapy of classical psoriasis treatment modalities and used as supportive treatment in relapse-free phases [6, 35, 50], a moisturising base containing a topical corticosteroid will be able to not only manage the inflammation associated with psoriasis but also reduce the dryness and itch, and the accompanying scratch response that can significantly worsen disease morbidity [86].
Corticosteroids play a key role in the management of psoriasis. In this context, their mechanism of action involves the reduction of skin redness and the expression of anti-inflammatory mediators, as well as achieving an improvement and/or clearance of psoriatic plaques (Figure 4) [87]. These effects are exerted via intracellular corticosteroid receptors, which regulate gene transcription, including several that code for pro-inflammatory mediators. Topical corticosteroids are classified based on their skin vasoconstrictive activity, ranging in strength (potency): (a) super potent/ultrahigh (e.g., clobetasol propionate 0.05%); (b) high (e.g., mometasone furoate 0.1%); (c) moderate (medium) (e.g., betamethasone valerate 0.1%) [43, 86] and (d) low (e.g., hydrocortisone 1.0%) [43]. Choosing a corticosteroid with appropriate potency plus the appropriate topical formulation should be based on the disease severity and area affected, and the patient’s preference and age [88]. Lower potency corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone should be used on the face, intertriginous areas, and areas that are susceptible to steroid atrophy (e.g., forearms) [88, 89]. In adults, higher potency corticosteroids such as clobetasone butyrate and mometasone furoate are generally recommended as initial therapy [86, 88, 90]. Areas with thick, chronic plaques often require management with ultrahigh-potency corticosteroids. In numerous randomised clinical trials [4, 91, 92, 93, 94], different potency topical corticosteroids were effective and safe at 2 to 4 weeks in the management of mild to severe plaque psoriasis. Evidence on the efficacy of topical corticosteroids for the management of psoriasis varies greatly due to the differences in study designs, patient populations, corticosteroid class and concentration, adverse effects and outcomes [86].
The choice of management strategy for psoriasis is driven by the skin’s dryness and itchiness; inflammation and redness; scaliness and thickness [
Tars represent one of the first therapies developed in the history of psoriasis [87]. In fact, pine tar has probably been produced in Scandinavia since the Iron Age and its use in medicine was first described by Hippocrates more than 2000 years ago in ancient Greece to treat a range of skin conditions because of its soothing and antiseptic properties [95]. Pine tar should not be confused with coal tar, which has been produced from coal for approximately a 100 years. Today, it is available in various formulations, from gels, to lotions and soap-free bars [96]. As an effective anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antifungal substance, topical pine tar has been used in topical formulations for a long time to relieve itchiness and inflammation associated with a range of dry, itchy, flaky or inflamed skin conditions (Figure 4), particularly eczema and psoriasis, with minimal safety risk [96]. Furthermore, both coal tar and wood tars such as birch and beech are also available as topical anti-psoriatic ingredients in different topical formulations [87, 97]. Due to its inherent chemical composition and complexity [98], the mechanism of action of coal tar is not well understood, but it likely suppresses DNA synthesis and reduces keratinocyte proliferation. Coal tar is often used as either a monotherapy or in combination with other management strategies [87, 97]. Pine tar is thought to exert its effect by reducing DNA synthesis and mitotic (cell division) activity, which promotes a return to normal keratin development [96]. Tar-based formulations are indicated for the management of chronic, stable forms of plaque-type psoriasis and scalp psoriasis, whereas their use might be limited in sensitive areas such as around the genitals due to their irritation potential [87].
Keratolytics (Figure 4) such as salicylic acid are readily used as active ingredients in many topical formulations, but may have particular utility when it comes to psoriasis as the disease is characterised by a build-up of keratinocytes on the skin. Keratolytics promote the physiologic skin shedding process and also decrease cell-to-cell cohesion in the SC, in effect loosening the glue that keeps keratinocytes together [87, 99]. Salicylic acid has been shown to aid in the removal of excessive keratin in psoriatic plaques and to produce desquamation of the SC while being safe to use and not effecting qualitative or quantitative changes in the structure of the viable epidermis [100]. It is often used as either monotherapy or as part of combination therapy to reduce the size and scale of psoriatic plaques [15, 100]. Keratolytics have proven to be particularly effective in reducing psoriatic plaque thickness if prescribed several days prior starting a first-line treatment (i.e., corticosteroids) for localised psoriasis or in specific areas such as the scalp [87, 99].
While the specific ingredients used in topical moisturisers or active therapeutics containing moisturising ingredients are important to effectively manage psoriasis, it is equally important to consider the base used to ensure that the product functions as intended. The most common bases include lotions, gels, creams and ointments, and each is distinguished by unique composition and properties that can have significant impact on the cosmetic and/or therapeutic effects they exert on psoriatic skin (Figure 5). An important initial factor to consider is the skin’s dryness. Very dry skin will likely benefit from an occlusive ointment or cream to trap in moisture, often at the expense of product feel (and as a result, patient compliance) whereas mild to moderately dry skin can often be managed with a lotion or cream, which tend to be more appealing and thus may make for a product that is more readily used. In reality, patients often require more than one topical moisturiser formulation; a less greasy, cosmetically-acceptable product such as a lotion or light cream for use during the day and a heavier or greasier formulation such as an ointment or gel for night-time use [6, 35, 36].
A range of basic blend and tailored blend topical moisturiser formulations: Lotions, gels, creams and ointments, each distinguished by its unique composition, ingredient combination, and cosmetic and/or therapeutic effects they exert on psoriatic skin, resulting in a range of skin benefits.
The commonly used topical formulation blends, either basic or tailored (Figure 5), can provide efficacy through divergent pathways. As these formulation blends contain a unique combination of ingredients (Section 2) they can potentially act through different mechanisms. As a result, there is a scientific rationale for their use in the management of psoriasis, either individually or in combination. This rationale assumes that such formulation blends are selected on the basis of their individual mechanism of action and the biophysical effects they exert on psoriatic skin, which may offer the possibility of synergistic efficacy as well as a reduction in the occurrence of cosmetic problems and side effects (Figure 6) [99].
Efficacy, relapse rate, side effects and cosmetic problems associated with the use of basic blend moisturisers that contain no actives, tailored blend moisturisers that contain actives such as keratolytics and tar-based actives (coal tar and/or pine tar), and therapeutics with moisturising ingredients and actives such as corticosteroids in the management of psoriasis. Scored on a scale from zero (0) to three (3): 0 denotes little or no change/effect; 3 denotes great and frequent change/effect [
Topical moisturiser formulation blends and topical therapeutics with moisturising bases (Figure 5) can be used in a deliberate sequence individually or in combination (and even with other management options such as phototherapy and systemic medications) with the aim of achieving initial efficacy for the management of psoriasis followed by a safe maintenance regimen. This management strategy maximises the efficacy of each product while helping to minimise relapse rate, cosmetic problems and long term side effects (Figure 6) [99, 101, 102].
Now, when we are familiar with a range of basic blend and tailored blend topical moisturiser formulations and their unique composition and ingredient combination (as explained above) (Figure 5), an example of a management strategy for psoriasis would be as follows: first, the use of a topical therapeutic with a moisturising base containing a topical steroid potent enough for the severity of the disease (e.g., hydrocortisone for mild, mometasone furoate for moderate to severe) or pine-tar active, at the maximum therapeutic dose, with the main aim of promptly controlling psoriasis flare-ups accompanied by redness and inflammation. This first step can then be followed by the use of a topical moisturiser formulation blend in which a well-tolerated ingredient such as a keratolytic is introduced to reduce psoriatic plaque thickness and scaling. Finally, by using a cosmetically beneficial basic topical moisturiser formulation, the patient can remain indefinitely on a maintenance regimen that aims for continuous hydration of the skin as well as improvements in skin suppleness, flexibility and strength, and the minimisation of dryness and itchiness (Figure 4).
While moisturisers are important tools in the management of psoriasis, their use comes with some challenges such as patient perspectives [10] as described in Section 1.4, and some general and more specific concerns regarding the development, uses and regulations of novel anti-psoriatic topical formulations [99]. These include the following amongst many others: (1) heterogeneity in psoriatic plaque thickness, (2) management of psoriasis in different groups of patients (e.g., elderly, pregnant women, children, immuno-compromised patients) requires a few specific care factors and considerations (e.g., prolonged use of topical corticosteroids may lead to thinning of the skin in elderly patients) [10], (3) the safety and efficacy of novel moisturisers when used in combination with existing and established therapies [99] and (4) regulatory requirements and classifications of topical moisturisers, be they cosmetic or therapeutic [103, 104].
Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition characterised primarily by dysfunctional skin barrier integrity, dry and itchy skin, and the development of scaly plaques. Being defined as a multifactorial skin condition caused by an interaction between various genetic and environmental factors, psoriasis requires a 1-2-3 step-ladder combination approach of therapeutics to treat the condition and topical moisturisers to alleviate the symptoms.
Therapeutics like topical corticosteroids are not moisturisers themselves, but benefit from having a moisturising base and fundamental and complimentary moisturising ingredients. Therefore, understanding the interplay and synergism amongst different ingredients as well as being familiar with their advantageous biophysical effects and potential adverse effects is essential to get a range of cosmetically acceptable and/or therapeutically stable products with desired impact on both healthy and psoriatic skin.
Topical moisturisers are a key part of psoriasis management and come in various formulations such as lotions, gels, creams and ointments. By using such formulations readily and frequently, the patient can remain on a daily maintenance regimen that aims for continuous hydration of the skin as well as improvements in skin’s functionality, structural strength, visual and tactile attributes as well as minimisation of dryness and itchiness.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Therefore, we develop an efficient CTU decision method by combing temporal-spatial searching order algorithm (TSSOA) in BL and a fast inter-layer searching algorithm (FILSA) in EL to speed up the encoding process of SHVC. The simulation results show that the proposed efficient CTU decision method can achieve an average time improving ratio (TIR) about 52–78% and 47–69% for low delay (LD) and random access (RA) configurations, respectively. It is clear that the proposed method can efficiently reduce the computational complexity of SHVC encoder with negligible loss of coding efficiency with various types of video sequences.",book:{id:"5364",slug:"recent-advances-in-image-and-video-coding",title:"Recent Advances in Image and Video Coding",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Image and Video Coding"},signatures:"Chou-Chen Wang, Yuan-Shing Chang and Ke-Nung Huang",authors:[{id:"26337",title:"Dr.",name:"Chou-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"chou-chen-wang",fullName:"Chou-Chen Wang"},{id:"194121",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuan-Sing",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"yuan-sing-chang",fullName:"Yuan-Sing Chang"},{id:"194122",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke-Nung",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"ke-nung-huang",fullName:"Ke-Nung Huang"}]},{id:"67911",title:"New Graphical Password Scheme Containing Questions-Background-Pattern and Implementation",slug:"new-graphical-password-scheme-containing-questions-background-pattern-and-implementation",totalDownloads:1089,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Security of authentication is needed to be provided superlatively to secure users’ personal and exchange information, since online information exchange systems have been developed according to internet speed. Therefore, aim of the chapter is to develop current graphical password scheme based on recall, create and implement a new graphical password scheme composed of three layer verification. We programmed our scheme in order to use in section of anonymous information exchange system and user’s registration of trading chat room. While we conducted survey on user by accessing participant to our system lied in participants’ local network and we analyzed in accordance with the average length of their created password and statistical significant of entropy bit. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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