Reference values for traces of heavy metals in soil - Heavy metals (mg/kg dry substance). Values are stipulated in Order 756/1997 for the approval of the Regulation on the assessment of environmental pollution [80].
\r\n\t
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He has written more than 100 scientific papers, reviews and book chapters in internationally renowned journals and edited one book as well as a variety of journal topical issues on plant secondary metabolism, including polyphenols. He is Academic, Assistant Editor and/or Editorial Board Member of several renowned Q1 Journals in Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology (including Plos ONE, Biomolecules, Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture, Frontiers in Plant Science, Cosmetics). He was reviewers for more than 500 papers for ca 35 International Journals, and recognized scientific expert for several national and international Institutions. Currently, he is developing research projects aimed at studying plant secondary metabolism to lead to the development of natural products with interests in pharmacology or cosmetics. 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The pollution of soil can be dangerous for human health because the toxic substances can enter the crops and the ground water. The soil, due to its properties and structure, plays the role of a filter that can retain and be a deposit for toxic substances. The most frequent contaminants of soil in Europe are heavy metals and mineral oil. The group ‘heavy metals’ for the purpose of discussing health risks or impacts generally includes: Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr) (although only the form Cr(VI) is toxic), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn).
Several of these elements are necessary for human health and are beneficial when taken into the body in foods or as supplements at appropriate, low levels. Conversely, cadmium, lead and mercury have no known biological function and are toxic to humans.
The sources of heavy metals that pollute the soil can be human activities like metalliferous mining (As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn), smelters (As, Cd, Pb), metallurgy, electronic industry (where metals are used in batteries, semiconductors, circuits), rolling (Ni, Cd, Pb, Hg, Se), dyes and paints industry (Pb, Cr, As, Se, Mo, Cd, Co, Ba, Zn), plastics industry (Cd, Zn, Pb, Sn are used as polymer stabilizers), chemical industry (using Pb, Ni, Nb, Hg, Pt, Ru as electrode catalysts), wood industry (As, Cr and Cu). In the vicinity of furniture factories and wood-processing, these elements were often identified as soil and water pollutants [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Also, by storing municipal waste, special and hazardous waste, the soil may be contaminated with various heavy metals.
The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the presence of Cd, Zn, As, Se, Cu, Mn, V, in the ashes and particulates of combustion. Some heavy metals (Se, Te, Pb, Mo, Li) are added to fuels and lubricants to improve their properties. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Corrosion of metals contained in various materials (Cu, Pb pipes and roofs, Cr, Ni, Co in stainless steel, Cr, Pb painting) can cause soil pollution. Agro-livestock activities can also cause soil pollution (As, Cu, Zn can be added to feed pigs and poultry, Cd, As, Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn can be present in phosphate fertilizers and pesticides). [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Pollution by heavy metals and many organic contaminants is practically irreversible (European Commission, 2012).
Excess heavy metal accumulation in soils is toxic to humans and other animals.
Exposure to heavy metals is normally chronic (exposure over a longer period of time), due to food chain transfer. Acute (immediate) poisoning from heavy metals is rare, but possible, through ingestion or dermal contact. Chronic problems associated with long-term heavy metal exposures are [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19] for:
Lead [20-60] – is well known to be toxic and its effects have been more extensively reviewed than the effects of other trace metals. Lead can cause serious injury to the brain, nervous system, red blood cells, and kidneys. Exposure to lead can result in a wide range of biological effects depending on the level and duration of exposure. Various effects occur over a broad range of doses, with the developing young and infants being more sensitive than adults. Lead poisoning severe enough to cause evident illness is now very rare. Lead can be harmful after uptake from food, air, water or contaminated dust. Lead is a particularly dangerous chemical, as it can accumulate in individual organisms, as well as entire food chains.
Cadmium – affects kidney, liver, and GI tract [28, 30, 61, 62, 63].
Arsenic – is associated with skin damage, increased risk of cancer and problems with circulatory circulatory system, affects kidneys and the central nervous system [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69].
Chromium is associated with allergic dermatitis in humans [70, 71].
The most common problem caused by cationic metals (metallic elements whose forms in soil are positively charged cations e.g., Pb2+) are mercury, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, chromium and manganese. The most common anionic compounds (elements whose forms in soil are combined with oxygen and are negatively charged e.g., MoO42-) are arsenic, molybdenum, selenium, and boron.
This study tried to assess the level of soil contamination with heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, manganese, nickel, total chromium, zinc, cobalt, copper and arsenic) in 34 counties in Romania. No previous data exists as a reference level of soil pollution.
Sampling was done in 2012, in the fall (September – October). Soil samples were taken from max 20 cm deep, from areas around children\'s units like nurseries, kindergartens, schools or playgrounds for children. The samples were taken in county capital cities. Also, soil samples were taken from areas of land used for agricultural purposes like farmlands and gardens.
For metal analysis, 0.2 g of ground soil were digested with aqua regia using microwave digestion (EN 13346 :02) followed by filtration and adjusting the volume in a volumetric flask. Concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr were measured using the electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ISO 11464:2006, SR ISO 11047/1999, EPA 6020). Concentrations of Zn, Mn, Co, Ni, Cr were measured using flame AAS (atomic absorption spectrometry) and concentrations of Hg and As were measured using atomic absorption spectrometry with cold vapour (HVG-AAS) and SR EN 1485/2007. [76, 77]
Despite the importance of soil pollution for our society, there is no EU legislation specifically targeting the protection of soil [78, 79]. A regulation regarding the soil pollution exists in Romania (Order nr. 756, November, the 3th, 1997). In this Order [80], the following definitions are of importance: environmental impact, types of land uses that require a certain soil quality, soil characterized by a maximum acceptable level of pollutants - sensitive and less sensitive soil, remediation targets, potentially significant pollution, significant pollution, threshold alert – (concentrations of pollutants in air, water, soil or emissions / discharges, which are designed to alert the competent authorities of a potential impact on the environment and determines the triggering of additional monitoring and / or reduction of concentrations of pollutants in emissions / evacuations), intervention threshold, reference sample [80].
\n\t\t\t\tHeavy Metals\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference threshold for sensitive soil\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAlert thresholds - sensitive soil\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAlert thresholds - soil less sensitive\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAction levels - soil sensitive\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAction levels – soil less sensitive\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Arsenic ( As) | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t
Cadmium (Cd) | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t
Cobalt (Co) | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t
Chromium (Cr) : Total Chromium total Hexavalent Chromium | \n\t\t\t30 \n\t\t\t\t 1 | \n\t\t\t100 \n\t\t\t\t 4 | \n\t\t\t300 \n\t\t\t\t 10 | \n\t\t\t300 \n\t\t\t\t 10 | \n\t\t\t600 \n\t\t\t\t 20 | \n\t\t
Copper ( Cu) | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t500 | \n\t\t
Manganese (Mn) | \n\t\t\t900 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t\t2000 | \n\t\t\t2500 | \n\t\t\t4000 | \n\t\t
Mercury (Hg) | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t
Nickel (Ni) | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t500 | \n\t\t
Lead( Pb) | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t1000 | \n\t\t
Zinc ( Zn) | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t700 | \n\t\t\t600 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t
Reference values for traces of heavy metals in soil - Heavy metals (mg/kg dry substance). Values are stipulated in Order 756/1997 for the approval of the Regulation on the assessment of environmental pollution [80].
\n\t\t\t\tCadmium in the soil registered levels that ranged from 0 and 0.86 mg/kg, in the urban areas and in the rural areas. Compared to the threshold value it can be seen that the levels of cadmium in soil, in both urban and rural areas, have not exceeded the threshold value (1mg/kg). It can be seen that the level of cadmium in soil is slightly higher in rural areas compared to urban areas.
\n\t\t\t\tLead in soil, registered levels that ranged from 0 and 96.11 mg/kg in the urban areas and from 0 to 147.67 mg/kg in rural areas. It can be seen that, both in the urban and rural areas, the lead levels in soil exceeded the threshold value (20 mg/kg). The alert threshold for sensitive soil (50 mg/kg) was exceeded in both the urban and rural areas.
Lead levels in soil in urban areas
Lead levels in soil in rural areas
Comparing the two charts it can be seen that, in the same area (Constanța county), the level of lead in soil is over the alert threshold in the urban and in the rural area. In other two counties (Buzău and Ialomița) the levels of lead in soil are exceeding the threshold limit both in the urban area and in the rural area. There are other two counties beside Constanta, where the levels of lead are exceeding the alert threshold in urban areas (Olt and Sibiu). In rural areas it can be seen that the number of counties where lead levels in soil exceed the threshold is higher than in urban areas.
\n\t\t\t\tCopper in soil registered levels that ranged from 0 and 128.5 mg/kg in the urban areas and from 0 to 80.43 mg/kg in rural areas. It can be seen that the levels identified in soil exceeded, both in the urban and rural areas, the threshold value (20 mg/kg). Also, the alert threshold for sensitive soil (100 mg/kg) was exceeded in a single urban area. In rural areas a slightly higher level of copper in the soil was observed.
Copper levels in soil in urban areas
Copper levels in soil in rural areas
The alert threshold was exceeded in a single county in urban areas. The number of counties where was found levels of copper in soil, in rural areas, that exceeded the threshold was double in comparison with urban areas.
\n\t\t\t\tNickel in soil registered levels that ranged from 0 and 44 mg/kg in the urban areas and from 0 to 41.6 mg/kg in rural areas. The levels of nickel found in soil samples exceeded the threshold value (20 mg/kg), in the urban and rural areas. Nickel recorded slightly higher levels in the soil of rural areas, but, also, were found peaks in urban soil. The alert threshold for sensitive soil (75 mg/kg) was not exceeded in either urban or rural area.
Nickel levels in soil in urban areas
Nickel levels in soil in rural areas
As it can be seen in the charts above, the soil pollution with nickel is similar in the urban and rural areas, regarding the number of counties affected.
\n\t\t\t\tManganese in soil registered levels that ranged from 0 and 1256.57 mg/kg in the urban areas and in rural areas the levels ranged from 0 to 1072. 62 mg/kg. Compared to the threshold value, the levels of manganese found in soil exceeded the threshold, both in the urban and rural areas (900 mg/kg). Alert threshold (1500 mg/kg) was not exceeded in neither rural areas nor urban areas.
Manganese levels in soil in urban areas
Manganese levels in soil in rural areas
The threshold was exceeded, both in urban and rural areas, in only one county in the middle of the country (Mureș).
Concerning the levels of total chromium in soil, values are similar, in urban and rural areas. The levels found in soil were between 0 and 40.81 mg/kg in urban areas and between 0 and 57.23 mg/kg in rural areas. Only the threshold (30 mg/kg) was exceeded in the urban and rural areas and not the alert threshold (100 mg/kg).
Total chromium levels in soil in urban areas
Total chromium levels in soil in rural areas
The total chromium levels registered in soil exceeded the threshold in a small number of counties. Only in one county (Mureș), levels of chromium exceeding the threshold were found in both the urban and rural areas.
\n\t\t\t\tCobalt levels were higher in rural areas compared to urban areas. The highest value was found in the soil of a farmland in Covasna county, where the level of cobalt was equal to 20.23 mg/kg, exceeding the threshold value (15 mg/kg) but not the alert threshold (30 mg/kg).
Total cobalt levels in soil in urban areas
Total cobalt levels in soil in rural areas
From the charts, it can be seen that it is only one hot spot where the levels of cobalt in soil exceeded the threshold.
\n\t\t\t\tZinc levels ranged between 0 and 275.35 mg/kg in the soil of urban areas and between 0 – 131.79 mg/kg in the soil of rural areas. The levels recorded were similar in urban and rural areas. One single higher value was found in Sibiu county.
Zinc levels in soil in urban areas
Zinc levels in soil in rural areas
A similar situation with zinc pollution of the soil was found in the urban and in the rural areas of Romania as number of counties affected.
\n\t\t\t\tMercury levels in the soil ranged between 0 and 0.265 mg/kg in the soil of urban areas and between 0 – 0.305 mg/kg in the soil of rural areas. The threshold value is equal to 0.1 mg/kg and was exceeded in urban and rural areas, but the alert threshold is equal to 1 mg/kg and was not exceeded in neither urban nor in rural areas. Special mention must be made for district Ferneziu of the town Baia Mare where there is a historical pollution of the environment. The level of mercury found in this area was equal to 0.265 mg/kg.
Mercury levels in soil in urban areas
Mercury levels in soil in rural areas
For the situation of soil pollution with mercury it must be stressed that, in the area of Maramureș there is a historical pollution due to a non-ferrous industry existing for a long period of time.
\n\t\t\t\tArsenic levels in soil were between 0 and 8.22 mg/kg in urban areas and 0 and 9.59 mg/kg soil. Arsenic concentrations were higher in rural areas compared to urban soil. The reference threshold is equal to 5 mg/kg and the alert threshold is equal to 15 mg/kg. The threshold value was exceeded but the not the alert threshold.
Arsenic levels in soil in urban areas
Arsenic levels in soil in rural areas
Comparing the two maps, it can be seen that, levels of pollution exceeding the threshold were found in the Sibiu and Mureș County, in the middle of the country, in both urban and rural areas.
This study is the first study that tried to assess the situation of soil pollution with heavy metals in Romania.
After assessment of the soil contamination with heavy metals in 34 counties in Romania, it can be concluded that for all investigated metals except cadmium the threshold values were exceeded.
Alert thresholds were exceeded for lead and copper, both in urban and rural areas, especially in two counties: Maramureș county and Sibiu county. Areas like Maramureș county or Sibiu county have a historic pollution due to the industry present since 1844 in Baia Mare, Maramures county and 1936 în Copșa Mică, Sibiu county.
A national screening program was performed in the years 2008-2010 in Maramureș county (Baia Mare city and especially Ferneziu district) to see the impact on human health in connection with lead pollution. In the years 2008 and 2009 a group of 91 children was investigated [81, 82].
The results showed the following situation:
\n\t\t\t\tYear of study\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLead in blood up to 10 μg/dl\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLead in blood up to 20 μg/dl\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLead in blood up to 30 μg/dl\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLead in blood up to 35 μg/dl\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLead in blood > 35 μg/dl\n\t | \n
2008 - % of investigated children | \n\t95.4 | \n\t97.8 | \n\t97.8 | \n\t97.8 | \n\t2.2 | \n
2009 - % of investigated children | \n\t58.70 | \n\t71.74 | \n\t84.06 | \n\t89.13 | \n\t10.87 | \n
Lead levels in blood in city Baia Mare, Maramureș county in 2008 and 2009.
A special situation had the children living near the factory that processes lead in the district Ferneziu in Baia Mare county.
During the year 2010, the study group was made of 94 pregnant women and 94 new born babies. The blood was taken from the new born cord in the case of children [83].
\n\t\t\tLevel of lead in blood of pregnant women\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t0-10 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t10-20 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t20-30 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t> 35 μg/dl\n | \n
% of the study group | \n\t94.7 | \n\t1.06 | \n\t2.12 | \n\t2.12 | \n
Lead levels in blood in the group of pregnant women, in city Baia Mare, Maramureș county, in 2010.
\n\t\t\tLevel of lead in blood of cord of new born babies\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t0-10 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t10-20 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t20-30 μg/dl\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t> 35 μg/dl\n | \n
% of the study group | \n\t93.6 | \n\t1.06 | \n\t- | \n\t5.34 | \n
Lead levels in blood in the cord of new born babies, in city Baia Mare, Maramureș county, in 2010
For copper, alert thresholds was exceeded, both in urban and rural areas. In Suceava county, copper mining was performed since 1922. In this area, there were taken rehabilitation measures in the period between1999-2005. Still, some of the effects of the ancient pollution situation can be seen today.
All the other investigated metals in the soil, both in residential areas and agricultural areas (which both can be classified as sensitive lands), do not exceed the alert threshold for sensitive lands.
For cadmium, nickel, manganese, cobalt and arsenic higher levels were recorded in the soil of rural areas than in the soil of urban areas.
For total chromium, zinc and mercury similar levels were recorded in the soil of urban and rural areas.
It must be stressed that in the areas where the alert thresholds were exceeded, pollution with impact on the environment can be present. The situation can be labelled as “potentially significant pollution”. In this case, the competent authorities can take action to reduce the pollutants emissions in the air or to take measures to diminish the possibilities to contaminate the soil directly or through water.
Carroll’s statement is know: [1] “The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has a long and varied history. It is possible to trace evidence of the business community’s concern for society for centuries. Formal writing on social responsibility, however, is largely a product of the 20th century, especially the past 50 years “. However, the current global challenges - including the environmental and social one - as well as recently the perspective completely changed by the COVID 19 emergency, lead to a rethinking of the CSR approach thanks to some nodes developed within the social impact assessment. Why is the CSR approach called into question? First of all because it is urgent to take structured approaches to responsibility and social citizenship of individual and collective business, for example on circular economy issues and social empowerment policies for the reduction of inequalities. The original perspective, born within the disciplines of the business economy - in particular on the issues of the corporate balance sheet and the social balance sheet - over time, comparing and contextualizing itself in a multiplicity of application sectors, has highlighted a strong need to rethink the concepts founding. However, this revision process maintains a fundamental principle, namely that of creating value or, even more correctly, of creating a new chain of values.
\nGiven this assumption, which remains as the aim to which these approaches must aim, the chapter articulates this reasoning starting from a brief excursus on literature and research review, to then propose a hybrid approach between CSR approach and the methodological openings and experiments carried out in within the social impact approach and impact investing, in particular in the identification of suitable indicators and measurement scales, not only of an accounting and equity nature specific to the business economy [2].
\nIt is known that one of the paradigms of CSR and its recent developments [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] is that of the reputation of the company as a social actor and its intention to not limit itself to development of the company, but to produce sustainable internal development with environmental development. In fact - as Wilson highlights [11] in an environmental context full of social and political connections, companies are no longer considered systems of production of economic and financial values, but must be considered as actors, levers and managers of environmental development and capable of producing both environmental and social value and environmental and social value in the form of damage caused to the environment [12].
\nThe CSR approach addresses issues related to the positive evaluation of this ability to interact with the environment and the attitude of entrepreneurial transformation not to limit itself to the development of the company, but to produce sustainable internal development with environmental development.
\nThe basic assumption is therefore that the economic transformation is also a transformation of values and a moment of creation of values: traditionally the business economy and the dynamic principles of the analysis of investments identify the maximization of the economy as an objective of the private enterprise, through market choices that create the maximum gap between revenues and production costs, therefore the maximum operating result (profit companies) or to minimize the gap between revenues and costs by reducing the operating result (non profit companies) as much as possible. His is the well-known approach to Value Based Management [13], which measures the creation of value through the traditional accounting indicators ROI, ROE, ROA, etc.
\nOver time, however, in view of the growing importance of the intangible components and of indeterminate and new risk profiles, the scientific community has recognized the urgency of rethinking this system of evaluation and verification of the creation of value [14], for example by integrating these “internal meters” with “external meters” (Market Added Value-MAV, Total Shareholder Return-TSR, etc.).
\nAn interesting contribution was also provided by the debate on the emergence of new costs related to the sphere of “conflicts of values” and “conflicts of identity” [13], which also directed towards the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) -argued by Zamagni [15]- which combines the logic of the pure economic result of pure business (measured in terms of profit) with the “philanthropic” one which allocates its profits to socially strategic purposes [16, 17]. The urgency of disciplinary and interdisciplinary confrontation is absolutely current and also dictated by the growing diffusion of these new investment methods and their ethical value, an aspect of extreme relevance and strategic [18]. In particular, the Author proposes here a re-reading of the classic paradigms of the evaluation and analysis of investments in light of the results that are emerging from the debate on the Social Impact Approach (SIA), in particular on the impacts and metrics of Social Impact Investing (SII). The multidimensionality of social impact investing can “contribute to the diversification of systemic risk”, since “the (…) underlying value does not depend on the economic situation of the market but rather on the skills of the social actors to implement an efficient project” ([19], p. 13): according to the estimative Italian school [20, 21] this assumption pushes to underline not the “ordinariness” of the operators (according to the disciplinary tradition), but their “extraordinariness” in operating.
\nThe theoretical core on the components of value and their genesis can today constitute a common platform for the exchange of instruments from different theoretical approaches (Figure 1, [11]). In particular, the perspective of this paper is that of impact investing, which operates on the value complex of the subjects who participate in it and take an active part in the investment project.
\nThe multidimensional nature of chain of value (source: Elaboration of the author by Coscia & Rubino [12] in press).
What can be the interchange issues between CSR and SII? Definitely the analysis of the creation of value and the models, tools and elements analyzed in the two theoretical contributions to measure the moments, phases or processes that create value in terms of either performance or impact. The synoptic framework of the SII methods identified by Ricciuti and Bufali [22] is tracing the coordinates to consolidate mutual contributions and identify their efficacy evaluation indicators.
\nThe classification in Logical Models (Logframe, Impact Value Chain and Theory of Change), Cost-effectiveness Analysis (CEA), Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA), Experimental, Quasi-Experimental Method and Counterfactual Approach and SROI leads to some insights related to concept of value as assumed for these models, of which a comparative critical reading is presented in Table 1.
\nTypology | \nNature | \nTechniques | \nApproach to value creation | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Qual | \nQual/Quant | \nQuant | \n\n | \n |
Logical models | \nX | \n\n | \n | Logframe, Value | \nGraphical framework | \n
Cost-effectiveness Analysis (CEA) | \n\n | X | \n\n | CEA, Cost-opportunities, Synthetic indicators | \nCriterion of the cost avoided | \n
Benefit Cost Analysis (BCA) | \n\n | \n | X | \nClassical BCA Model CIA (Community Impact Analysis) CIE (Community Impact Evaluation) | \nClassical but revised profitability indicators | \n
Cognitive and experimental methods | \nX | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Social Return of Investment (SROI) | \n\n | X | \n\n | Classic profitability indicators in a social key | \nClassical profitability indicators but with introduction of impact factor | \n
Methods for measuring SII with links to CSR: synoptic framework (source: elaboration of the author).
The Logical Models configure an approach to assessing impacts, by their nature qualitative, and are based on a reconstruction and graphic illustration of the causal links that connect the various points of the “social value chain” [23] The “assessment” outcomes are represented from a graphic and intuitive framework that describes the process of obtaining the expected impacts starting from the inputs used to implement social change [24].
\nThe family of techniques relating to the Cost-effectiveness Analysis (CEA) operates through synthetic numerical indicators, which should highlight the creation of value according to the known criterion of opportunity-cost and/or avoided social cost [25]: the field of application most tested is that of the evaluation of health projects and interventions, as some indices such as the increase in the number of years of average life, avoided deaths, etc. they allow a quick and synthetic evaluation of the improvement generated by actions accompanied by specific economic investments [26]. Among other things, in the face of the changes that we witnessed during the COVID-19 emergency, these models can transfer some interesting ideas on the measurement of the ethical and social sustainability of the interventions.
\nOn the side of the well-known -and also criticized- family of the Benefit Cost Analysis (CBA), the use of the traditional model derived from the analysis of investments in the public field and of the profitability indicators, as measuring net benefits, is currently being revision in its critical passages [27] and is still the subject of second thoughts, in the light of the two fundamental aspects: 1) the pro-activity responsible for the investor also through the calculation of a discount rate “ethical” [2, 28]; 2) the construction of a multi-actor client: the identification and measurement of specific net benefits and non-eliminable social costs becomes essential for each interest group [29].
\nExperimental, Quasi-Experimental Cognituve Methods and Counterfactual Approach constitute another cluster of methods [30], which provides for the execution of tests and experiments, with the aim of comparing an observable case and a hypothetical and abstract case (or “counterfactual”). They all start from the same definition of effect: the “effect of an intervention is the difference between what we observe after the intervention has been implemented and what we would have observed, in the same period and for the same subjects, in the absence of intervention” ([31], pp. 3–4).
\nLooking at operational tools that have recently been consolidated and codified, a significant reference is the Social Return of Investment (SROI), tested for verifying the social impact of non-profit projects: developed by the London Business School [32, 33, 34], and despite some limits that have not been exceeded [35], it has the merit of rethinking the classic ROI (Return Of Investment), building an index that internalizes both quantitative components and intangible factors and which expresses the relationship between resources invested and impact achieved.
\nIn summary, some operational aspects of value creation measurement techniques, investigated with the SII approach, may constitute levers for an evolution of the CSR model, in particular with regard to the issues of “corporate social responsibility”, from identify between the different subjects involved and the “social conscience” of the entrepreneur, now contextualized also in terms of environmental responsibility. Issues investigated in the following chapter.
\nStarting from the reflections of chapter 2, we want to highlight innovative aspects, recently applied in the “advanced” models of CSR, which emerged perhaps thanks to the debate carried out since the end of the Seventies [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43],
\nAmong these, two interesting theories, in particular analyzed by Freeman [44, 45]: 1) the theory of the Stakeholder Approach and 2) Corporate Social Citizenship. To the regard to two aspects highlighted, some passages made by the scientific community should be noted. The enterprise is an economic and social institution with strategic objectives aimed at satisfying the motivations of the individuals participating in the economic enterprise: a new perspective starts from the starting assumption to identify the nature and the areas of the company’s social obligations, classifying the types of social responsibility in relation to the interests of the different subjects involved.
\nOn this research direction, recent studies [46, 47] investigated a potential direct theoretical and operational link between techniques of between mapping techniques of the stakeholders of the organization and qualitative analyzes to support the social balance models: the focus is on interests in stakeholder game, in order to resolve the decision dilemmas generated by the conflicting nature of the interests of the different groups, which, directly or indirectly, are involved in the company’s business processes.
\nThe concept of ‘Social responsibility’ becomes the central theme in the stakeholder-based business and management approach [48, 49, 50], with the introduction of ethical values in the choices. Recently, some authors [51] have also constructed an index - Idiosyncratic volatility (IV) - which can measure the positive (motivating element) or negative (specific risk) “volatility” of the impacts of corporate strategies in relation to interest groups in aggregate or disaggregated form.
\nFurthermore, in the face of recent environmental and social challenges - which the COVID 19 emergency has amplified - social responsibility must also be applied with a view to sustainability and maintaining the competitive advantage in the long term and continuity of the business, seeking to respond to the ever-changing needs of its stakeholders. The growing importance of this topic is also ratified by the topics (Horizon2030, the 17 sustainable development goals-OSS/SDGs/Sustainable Development Goals of the UN) indicated by national and international bodies, which have laid down rules, action plans and tools to promote their diffusion [52, 53, 54].
\nThe strategic objectives of the company must then be compatible with the purposes of the entire community: a common theme is glimpsed with the issue of the social report [54]. The social report, in fact, was born as a budget model in which relations between the company and the environment are also considered organically and has the purpose of making explicit the social consequences of economic choices, in order to create a “social conscience” for the company.
\nA further element of debate is to outline a social balance framework that highlights the accountability of investments: a reporting that also arises from the need for transparency between Public Administrations, citizens and economic operators. Romolini [55] underlines how the social report represents “the social enterprise’s observance of social purposes” and that “mention of the results of the involvement of the workers of the enterprise” is made in it through an analysis of the behavior of all stakeholders.
\nIn fact, the emphasis on the issue of responsibilities and impacts to be redistributed on all stockholders, in a common proactive approach of the entrepreneur and interest groups, has addressed to the development of the concept of Corporate Citizenship [56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65]. Please refer to the paragraph below for further information on how this issue has opened up to new reporting models.
\nThe dissemination of the Social Report tool starts from the awareness that reporting limited to the economic-financial aspects of management is no longer sufficient to adequately satisfy the information needs of the various stakeholders, especially, for example, in relation to circular economy issues [65] and the cultural economy. The link with the CSR models is inherent in the analyzes that take ethics, responsibility and above all accountability [66] as operational and managerial premises. In these paragraphs we want to reflect on these aspects and on the transition from the Social Report to the Participatory Report.
\nOne of the significant and common aspects in the international diffusion of the Social Report model is that it is a voluntary act and that there are no rules for its production, as well as a single commonly accepted model. It is therefore a voluntary pro-active assumption of responsibility in the strategic planning phase, with ethical objectives and also environmental responsibility of all the stakeholders involved, which relate social performance to environmental performance. It is possible to identify the early 2000s [67, 68, 69, 70], as a turning point for the process of disseminating the social report, which in recent years is becoming increasingly important, even if in Italy one of the major limits to the diffusion of the themes of sustainability and of the social report is believed to be represented by the difficulty of determining a relationship between the investments made in this field and the relative economic return [71, 72, 73, 74].
\nIf, from a financial point of view, impact investing projects can generate less financial profit than other types of private investment, it is nevertheless important to underline how these projects can generate for the financiers an intangible component of value, linked to the possible satisfaction resulting from the ethics of the initiatives and the recognition and social appreciation by the community, often with a decrease in the levels of potential conflict between the investor and other interest groups involved.
\nFurthermore, the issue of transparency and shared accountability are also addressed in the participatory budgeting processes, which flow into the deliberative and participatory budget models [75, 76]. The distinction between the two areas, made by Ravazzi and Pomatto [77] is to be highlighted: 1) participatory processes are aimed in particular at activating citizens in the public sphere, so that they can put pressure on public administrators, inducing them to take care of themselves their needs; 2) deliberative processes have a partially different objective, namely to create open and in-depth discussion venues between citizens who have different or opposing ideas, points of view and interests, in order to develop solutions in a constructive way. The theory of deliberative democracy is undoubtedly partly linked to that of participatory democracy, but has progressively distinguished itself by a greater orientation towards consensus building and the resolution of conflicts in public policies.
\nOn this last aspect, the question of proactivity and “responsible” awareness of both the entrepreneur and the stakeholders involved in investing in processes from their start-up phase can be identified. Environmental issues also test these issues.
\nThe research questions that have emerged within the approaches described above are not all supported by empirical evidence, surveys or statistical models. In this sense, it is essential to recall two reference application areas: on the one hand, the approaches linked to the themes of territorial redevelopment with innovation and responsibility, starting from investment analysis models (DCFA) and from the ideas offered by rating; on the other hand, interpretative theories that in a very recent application [78] investigate the link between innovation and environmental performance with the structural equation modeling (SEM): the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm and the ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) theory explain the HRM-performance link in the context of the manufacturing sector SMEs in the UAE [79, 80, 81, 82, 83].
\nOngoing research has taken into consideration some limited application fields, in particular those of urban and peri-urban regeneration processes [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. Through this magnifying glass we want to point out some potential evolutions of the CSR theme, applied on investments that involve interventions on the built heritage, with the aim of creating value on goods and contexts. In this sense, the strategies upstream of these processes can be defined as Social impact-oriented.
\nSignificant contributions can be found in the theoretical approaches developed by the economic-appraisal and evaluation disciplines: they can offer ideas for reflecting on the value of initiatives with both financial and social performance purposes [2, 12, 17]. Just as the evaluation of cultural and environmental assets takes place, for example, in the light of the concept of total economic value (which includes the values of use of the goods, the values of non-use and the externalities generated), the value of an impact investing intervention could be estimated considering different components of value, which include the different facets that, in addition to the value of the intervention for the lenders, can take on the social value generated (for example the value of change of the individual condition, the value of change for the target community as a whole, the externalities generated, the environmental damage avoided, the green investment costs for benefits for future generations, etc.). The vision of the green entrepreneur in the management of the company is an innovative point of view with respect to legal obligations and falls within the sphere of responsibility for environmental management: a responsible business management model based on the “stakeholder” model, in which the creation of value it is not limited to risk shareholders who enter capital shares, but in which companies assume management objectives that bring mutual benefit to the community. As a mere non-exhaustive example, mention is made of the application of the principles of the Multifunctional Agriculture Model (MAM, Figure 2), or rather of a “responsible” management process for an Italian case study [17, 84]: the results are linked to the public-private strategies for the valorization of the historic agritourism system of Volpiano (in the metropolitan city of Turin, Italy).
\nA multifunctional agriculture model (MAM) (source: elaboration of the author by UNEP, GRID-Arendal, [85].
In this case, ideas for interesting developments are the reinterpretation of the toolkit of the integrated Discounted-Cash-Flow-Analysis method-DCFA (which incorporates cost and income items of a “green” nature) with the MAM and the CSR approach. In this case, the unresolved issues of land use and landscape protection can be further factors of social and ethical responsibility. The feasibility check of the “green” scenario to enhance the System of the 5 historic farmhouses indicates higher performance than the traditional scenario: profit is generated by the high degree of success in the reception of “environmental” bonuses and incentives and by the multifunctional diversification of production and the related impacts on all the stakeholders involved, together with an increase in the value of the land.
\nResearch groups [78] from the fields of economics and innovation in business management have experimented with interpretative models that have investigated the relationship between role of green transformational leadership and green human resource management (HRM).
\nThe rich literature, through very recent empirical support [78], strongly restores the link between human capital and corporate performance: the topic, debated for some time in the literature within the lines of research on human resources management and related strategies, in recent experiments have highlighted strategic elements on how to achieve green innovation and adopt it for superior environmental performance to beat competitors in the markets.
\nAmong the emerging strategies - tested with robustness and empirical evidence through models of structural equations - the scientific community has highlighted future directions through the following phenomena: 1) investing in environmental management is advantageous for the company to gain a good image in the eyes of stakeholders: the company should emphasize and reinforce the green leadership behaviors necessary for the implementation of Green HRM practices and Green HRM policies; 2) Green HRM practices are instrumental in directing human potential towards their own environmental management activities: top management should focus their policies on integrating the company’s environmental management objectives with green HRM policies and practices to support the innovation of green processes and products; 3) environmental performance depends on the quality of the green process and on the innovation of the green product: green processes and product innovation should not depend on the pressing actions of the stakeholders, but constitute the lever of proactive measures, aimed at reducing the any negative environmental impact to improve environmental performance.
\nIn fact, therefore, leaders and managers should institutionalize environmental management responsibilities in the performance evaluation and management system for employees, to show in the analysis of production processes the positive impacts on work behaviors (for example, analysis of green working environment, recycling, waste management and energy efficiency, etc.).
\nIn conclusion, the critical and diachronic reading of the CSR approaches faced by the scientific community since the 1950s increasingly highlights the need to read the results of the capital investment not only in terms of financing costs, but also through the relationship risk/liability not only of the investor but of all the interest groups involved, of a private, public and public-private nature.
\nIn this sense, “hybrid” assessment models can certainly offer innovative contributions, where, with respect to future emergencies (environmental, social, health), the following activities/phases become fundamental: 1) the identification, in forecast terms, of the changes generated by interventions, also in light of the framework of responsibility; 2) continuous monitoring of the cycle of the investment project; 3) the signing of a “liability pact” between the interested parties from the initial stages of the processes.
\nIn all the models shown in §5.1 and 5.2 four the founding principles, which reinforce the classic CSR approach and on which to direct future research developments: 1) the adoption of a social impact oriented approach, which explicitly includes the achievement of social objectives, 2) the investigation of new and more extensive value chains, in order to better understand the rainfall generated by the assumption of social responsibility and the prevention of any areas of conflict; 3) the environmental management is the strategic action for the top management and entrepreneurs, that in corporate decisions evaluate green solutions among the factors upstream of the company’s competitiveness, its degree of innovation and research and its credibility among stakeholders; 4) the green processes and product innovation as the lever of proactive measures.
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\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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