Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-547-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-546-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-548-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:22,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"76073",title:"Integrating Ecological Site Descriptions with Soil Morphology to Optimize Forest Management: Three Missouri Case Studies",slug:"integrating-ecological-site-descriptions-with-soil-morphology-to-optimize-forest-management-three-mi",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"},{id:"269286",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",surname:"Aide",slug:"christine-aide",fullName:"Christine Aide"},{id:"269287",title:"Dr.",name:"Indi",surname:"Braden",slug:"indi-braden",fullName:"Indi Braden"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"600",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",subtitle:"Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e97caba8487382025a1e70eb85e4e390",slug:"approaches-to-managing-disaster-assessing-hazards-emergencies-and-disaster-impacts",bookSignature:"John Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/600.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56421",title:"Robotic Splenic Flexure and Transverse Colon Resections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69881",slug:"robotic-splenic-flexure-and-transverse-colon-resections",body:'\nSince the 1990s, laparoscopic technique has become a standard approach for several surgical procedures in the field of colorectal surgery [1]. All the main prospective trials comparing open and laparoscopic technique for colorectal cancer have shown same clinical and oncological outcomes of the two approaches [2–5]. Laparoscopic approach to splenic flexure and transverse colon cancer, however, has not been investigated and it is still a matter of debate, mainly due to the rare incidence of the cancer of the left flexure, ranging approximately from 3 to 10% of all colon cancers, and to technical difficulties in approaching the transverse colon. Splenic flexure cancers are generally considered as all those cancers occurring between the distal part of the transverse colon and the proximal part of the descending colon [6]. Pure transverse colon cancers are commonly defined as all those cancers occurring in the middle part of the transverse colon. Surgical technique for this kind of tumors is not standardized yet, because of anatomical aspects and technical issues. Laparoscopic approach has been considered a challenging procedure, with longer operative time than in open surgery and a relative risk of splenic and pancreatic injuries, suggesting its use by expert surgeons and for early stage disease. Robotic surgery has been introduced in colorectal surgery about 15 years ago, and it is spreading worldwide, thanks to its advantages over laparoscopic technique.
\nPatient is placed in the reverse Trendelenburg position (15°), with a 30°-tilt to the right with the arms alongside the trunk and the legs abducted (\nFigure 1\n). The cart approaches the operative table from patient’s left hip (\nFigure 2\n). The procedure is carried out with a five-trocar technique and begins with the insertion of the Veress needle in the left hypochondrium and the induction of a 12-mmHg pneumoperitoneum. The optical trocart is placed 2 cm right and up the umbilical scar. The robotic trocarts R1, R2, and R3 are inserted in the right iliac fossa at the cross between the line passing through the antero-superior iliac spine and the umbilical scar, and the middle clavicular line; in the epigastrium/left flank between the midline and the left-middle clavicular line, and in the right hypochondrium 2 cm below the right rib margin along the middle clavicular line, respectively. A laparoscopic 12-mm trocart is placed in the right flank between R1 and R3, for the assistant at the operative table. Arm 1 is connected to R1, arm 2 is connected to R2, and arm 3 is connected to R3. The complete trocarts and operating theatre setups are shown in \nFigures 3\n and \n4\n.
\nPosition of the patient on the operative table.
Direction of the docking of the robotic cart in left colic flexure resection.
Trocarts position in left colic flexure resection. SUL, spine-umbilical line; MCL, middle clavicular line.
Operative theater setting.
Robotic instruments used in this procedure are bipolar fenestrated forceps, for coagulation and traction, the ProGrasp for traction and exposure, and robotic scissors for cutting and blunt dissection (when used with closed jaws). The robotic monopolar scissors are mounted on arm 1, the robotic bipolar fenestrated forceps on arm 3, and the ProGrasp on arm 2 (\nFigure 5\n).
\nRobotic instruments used during robotic left colic flexure resection.
A laparoscopic exploration of the abdominal cavity and an intraoperative ultrasonography of the liver are systematically performed to identify the site of the neoplasm (tattoo or the cancer itself) and to complete the staging of the disease. This is a fundamental step that allows also in finding out the connections between the splenic flexure and the inferior pole of the spleen. The robotic arms are connected to the trocarts (robot docking). The first step of the flexure takedown is the dissection of the gastrocolic ligament. The transverse colon is pulled down by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper, while the stomach is pulled up by the bipolar forceps on arm 3, in order to maximize the exposition of the gastrocolic ligament and to identify the Bouchet’s area, the starting point of the dissection carried out by the robotic scissors on arm 1 in a right-to-left direction (\nFigure 6\n). The dissection continues till the lower pole of the spleen is reached, then the splenocolic ligament and the superior part of the left paracolic gutter are incised. The access to the lesser sac is achieved. The inferior margin of the pancreas is identified and the root of the mesocolon is incised 1 cm below the pancreatic margin by the robotic scissors on arm 1, from left to right, till reaching the first jejunal loop, at the Treitz area. The transverse and left colon are medialized by the assistant and the separation of the Toldt’s fascia from the Gerota’s fascia is carried out in a lateral-to-medial direction; during this step, the paracolic gutter is completely incised up to the sigmoid colon. The takedown of the splenic flexure is completed.
\nDissection of the gastrocolic ligament. The transverse colon is pulled down by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper, while the stomach is pulled up by the bipolar forceps on arm 3, in order to maximize the exposition of the gastrocolic ligament and to identify the Bouchet’s area.
Vascular anatomy of the left colic flexure is constituted by secondary branches of the two main intestinal vascular trunks; blood supply is provided by the left branch of the middle colic artery originating from the superior mesenteric artery, and by the left colic artery (LCA), originating from the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA); venous drainage flows into the superior mesenteric vein, through the left branch of the middle colic vein, and into the inferior mesenteric vein (IMV), through the left colic vein (LCV).
\nSplenic flexure cancer has various lymphatic drainage pathways. The standard lymphatic way is satellite to the left branch of the middle colic artery and left colic artery, but lymphatic metastases to the infrapancreatic lymph node region and the splenic hilum have been reported. Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence may help analyzing metastatic lymphatic spread, if injected subserosally or submucosally. The optimal dose range is between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg and should not exceed 2 mg/kg. For the detection of the lymph flow, a dose of ICG of 2.5 mg/1.0 mL is injected into the subserosal-submucosal layer around the tumor at two points after trocar insertion; the lymph flow is observed using the robotic integrated near-infrared system (NIR) 30 min after ICG injection.
\nThe transverse colon is pulled upward by the assistant with the laparoscopic grasper, and the left colon is lifted up and laterally by the ProGrasp on arm 2. The inferior mesenteric vein (IMV) is identified at the inferior margin of the pancreas. The dissection starts at the lateral margin of the IMV in order to identify the left colic vein (LCV). An accurate lymphadenectomy of the root of the IMV is performed. The left mesocolon is lifted up by the ProGrasp on arm 2, while the IMV is medialized by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper. The dissection continues till the LCV is identified and isolated between non-adsorbable clips, applied by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier on arm 1, and cut by the assistant or by the scissors on arm 1 (\nFigure 7a\n and \nb\n). The dissection is carried out with a medial to lateral direction, joining the previous plane between Toldt’s and Gerota’s fascia. The sigmoid colon is completely mobilized, preserving the left gonadal vessels and the ureter, lying down Gerota’s fascia (\nFigure 8\n).
\nVascular dissection. the LCV is identified and isolated between non-adsorbable clips, applied by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier on arm 1, and cut by the robotic scissors on arm 1. LCV, left colic vein.
Mobilization of the sigmoid colon. The left gonadal vessels and ureter are preserved under Gerota’s fascia.
The left mesocolon is then lifted up by the ProGrasp on arm 2 to identify the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA): the dissection follows the lateral aspect of the IMA till reaching the origin of the left colic artery (LCA). An accurate lymphadenectomy of the origin of the IMA is performed. The LCA is isolated between non-adsorbable clips and cut by the assistant or by the robotic scissors on arm 1 (\nFigure 9\n).
\nThe vascular dissection continues with the isolation of the left branches of the middle colic vessels (LMCV) (\nFigure 10a\n). The transverse mesocolon is pulled upward by the ProGrasp on arm 2, and the identification of the main trunk of the middle colic vessels starts at its origin from the superior mesenteric vein (SMV), upward. The dissection is carried out by the robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3 and the robotic scissors on arm 1. After identification of the main trunk, the left branch is dissected and freed from the surrounding lymphatic and fatty tissue, and cut by the assistant or by the scissors on arm 1, after being isolated between clips, as well (\nFigure 10b\n and \nc\n).
\nVascular dissection. The LCA is isolated between non-adsorbable clips and cut by the robotic scissors on arm 1.
Vascular dissection. Identification of the left middle colic vessels (a), isolation between clips (b) and section (c).
Lymphadenectomy and vascular dissection have been completed.
\nOnce the mobilization of the splenic flexure and the vascular dissection are completed, the evaluation of the vascularization of the colon with ICG is performed to identify the correct site of transection (\nFigure 11a\n). After intravenous injection, in a time interval between 5 and 30 s, ICG reaches the arterial and venous vessels. The assistant, then, cut the transverse colon and the proximal sigmoid colon by a laparoscopic linear stapler (\nFigure 11b\n). A robotic linear stapler can be used if available on arm 1. A recheck of both the two colonic stumps is carried out to avoid postoperative risk of anastomotic or stumps dehiscence, mainly caused by tissue devascularization (\nFigure 11c\n and \nd\n). The specimen is inserted into an endobag for further removal. The two colonic stumps are approached. The robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3 holds the descending colon stump and a colotomy is performed at the level of the tenia, with the robotic scissors on arm 1, as well as for the transverse colon stump. The laparoscopic linear stapler is introduced into both the two colostomies while the surgeon at the console helps the introduction of the two branches of the stapler inside the colonic stumps with the robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3. A colocolic side-to-side antiperistaltic mechanical anastomosis is then performed (\nFigure 12\n). The entry hole of the stapler is closed by two running barbed sutures starting from the opposite angles. The first running suture is performed from the inferior angle upward. The second suture is performed from the upper angle downward (\nFigure 13a\n and \nb\n). Afterwards, the robotic system is undocked and a Pfannenstiel incision is performed for specimen extraction.
\nEvaluation of the vascularization of the colon with ICG (a), section of the colon (b), recheck of the two colonic stumps (c-d).
Fashoning of the colo-colic side-to-side mechanical anastomosis.
Closure of the entry hole.
Patient is placed in anti-Trendelenburg position with the arms along the trunk and the legs abducted. The robotic cart approaches the operative table from patient’s head (\nFigure 14\n). The procedure is carried out with a five-trocar technique and begins with the insertion of the Veress needle in the left hypochondrium and the induction of a 12-mmHg pneumoperitoneum. The optical trocart is placed 2 cm right the umbilical scar. Three robotic trocarts are placed in the right (R2) and left (R1) hypochondrium 2–3 cm under the rib margin and in the right flank (R3) along the middle clavicular line 2 cm below the transverse umbilical line. A laparoscopic 12 mm trocart is inserted in the left flank along the middle clavicular line 2 cm below the transverse umbilical line for the assistant. Arm 1 is connected to R1, arm 2 is connected to R3, and arm 3 is connected to R2. The complete trocarts and operating theatre setup are shown in \nFigures 15\n and \n16\n.
\nDirection of the docking of the robotic cart in transverse colon resection.
Trocarts position in transverse colon resection. SUL, spine-umbilical line; MCL, middle clavicular line.
Operative theater setting.
As for splenic flexure procedure, robotic instruments used in transverse colon resection are bipolar fenestrated forceps, for coagulation and traction, the ProGrasp for traction and exposure, and robotic scissors for cutting and blunt dissection (when used with closed jaws). The robotic monopolar scissors are mounted on arm 1, the robotic bipolar fenestrated forceps on arm 2, and the ProGrasp on arm 3.
\nTransverse colon receives blood supply from the two main intestinal trunks: the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and the IMA, via the middle colic arteries and the left colic artery, as well as the venous drainage is tributary of both the two vascular systems (SMV and IMV). Venous drainage, however, is especially variable and closely related to pancreatic and omental veins, as for the close relationship of the transverse colon with the greater omentum, the pancreas, and the stomach. Even though locoregional lymphadenectomy of the root of the SMV and SMA is commonly considered oncologically adequate, some authors suggest exploring and dissecting lymph nodes of the infrapancreatic and gastroepiploic region.
\nThe first step of the procedure is the dissection of the gastrocolic ligament carried out by the robotic scissors on arm 1. The stomach is pulled up by the surgeon with the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, and the transverse colon is pulled downward by the assistant. The dissection continues laterally to the sigmoid colon on the left side to the cecum on the right: the phrenicocolic and splenocolic ligament, and the parietocolic ligament are sectioned on the left; on the right, the gastrocolic ligament is dissected below the gastroepiploic vessels, performing a locoregional lymphadenectomy. The right colon is then retracted medially by the assistant and by the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, and the dissection of the right parietocolic ligament is performed by the robotic scissors on arm 1. A blunt dissection is performed lateral-to-medial from both sides and over the pancreas till reaching the Treitz area and the origin of the middle colic vessels. Then, the transverse colon is pulled up by the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, enhancing the main trunk of the middle colic vessels. The dissection of the root of the transverse mesocolon is completed toward the end of the pancreatic tail. The root of the main trunk of the middle colic vessels is clipped by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier and sectioned by the assistant or by the robotic scissors on arm 1, and the locoregional lymphadenectomy is carried out. The incision of the transverse mesocolon is performed by the robotic scissors, starting from the middle colic vessels straight to the flexure on both sides.
\nThe transection of the colon is performed by the assistant with a laparoscopic flexible stapler or by the surgeon with the robotic stapler on arm 1, and it includes both the two flexures. The left and the right colon are joined and a colotomy is carried out at the closed margin of both the two colonic stumps. The right colon is held by the surgeon with the ProGrasp on arm 2, the left colon by the assistant. A double running suture colocolic end-to-end anastomosis is performed with two needle-holders on arms 1 and 3. Afterward, the robotic system is undocked and a Pfannenstiel incision is performed for specimen extraction.
\nThe role of minimally invasive surgery has been recently established in the colorectal field thanks to a series of randomized clinical trials that compared laparoscopic and open techniques. Their results definitely eliminated any doubts concerning the oncological adequacy of minimally invasive treatment. The spread of minimally invasive surgery may be also justified by the reduced postoperative pain, decreased hospital stay and faster postoperative recovery, reduced incidence of postoperative complications, improved cosmetic outcome, and decreased incidence of incisional hernias. Alongside these encouraging results, technologic innovations have been introduced in minimally invasive surgery. Robotic technique has spread worldwide thanks to its advantages over standard and advanced laparoscopy (three-dimensional (3D)). Several generic aspects of robotic assistance, such as three-dimensional view, better ergonomics, magnified vision, and articulated tips of the robotics instruments are reported to be significant technical advantages in colorectal surgery. Splenic flexure and transverse colon resections seem to be challenging procedures, which robotics may help with. Surgical approach of left flexure and transverse colon cancers is not standardized yet, due to the rare incidence of the flexure cancer and the technical difficulties of the latter. Left colic flexure cancers have an incidence ranging from about 3–10% of all colon cancers [7] and were initially correlated to a poor prognosis and a high risk of obstruction [8]. This correlation has been recently overcome by some studies showing comparable survival outcomes to those of other colonic cancers, and demonstrating that neither the splenic flexure site nor colonic obstruction has an independent influence on patient survival after surgery [8–10]. One of the aspects that remain controversial is the extension of lymphadenectomy [6, 11]. As previously reported, the classic pathways follow the main nourishing arterial trunks: the middle colic vessels, essentially the left branch, and the left colic artery. Some authors argue that lymphatic spread may follow the IMV and the IMA, thus requiring their ligation and a consequent standard left colectomy in order to achieve an oncologically adequate lymphadenectomy; aberrant metastatic pathways to the infrapancreatic lymph node region and the splenic hilum have been reported [12], even though no systematic data in the literature regarding the frequency of lymphatic drainage roots at this site have been clarified yet. Recently, indocyanine green fluorescent imaging (ICG) in colorectal cancer has been used to evaluate the blood flow, but there are few reports on the lymphatic flow [13–15]. Some authors conducted a study on the pattern of lymph flow for splenic flexure colon cancers with ICG on 31 consecutive patients [15]. The amount of ICG injected was 2.5 mg (1 mL of solution) into the subserosal-submucosal layer. The main lymphatic diffusion was observed through the IMV and LCA areas, with or without the presence of aberrant vascularization. The conclusion was that lymph node dissection of the root of the IMV area is important and it should be always performed, avoiding ligation of both the left middle colic artery (lt-MCA) and LCA, in those cases without widespread lymph node metastases. Unnecessary splenectomy is one of the main complications reported on laparoscopic studies for splenic flexure colon cancers, due to the anatomical relations between these two organs, and the characteristics of the laparoscopic instruments. Poor dexterity, instrument stiffness, and a limited range of motion make splenic flexure resection a challenging procedure, requiring also several modification of patient’s position. Moreover, the use of 3D laparoscopy is controversial as it seems to fail showing any advantages in colonic resection or other more complex procedures, as it is in its infancy and further comparative studies are necessary to assert whether it can reduce learning curve [16–18]. Robotic assistance may help performing an accurate lymphadenectomy thanks to motion scaling, tremor filtering, 7-degrees of freedom and the 3D magnified view, avoiding unnecessary vessel ligation or inadverted injuries to the surrounding organs. These results suggest that robotic assistance, associated to ICG imaging, may introduce the concept of “tailored” surgery and can facilitate surgical resection of splenic flexure colon cancer. Further studies on lymph flow pattern may lead to a “standardization” of this procedure. Fluorescence was integrated into the da Vinci Si HD System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) in 2010. The surgeon can quickly switch between normal viewing mode to fluorescence (near-infrared light) by pressing the pedal on the surgical console (\nFigure 17\n). Indocyanine green is a sterile, water-soluble protein-binding dye with low toxicity and fast biliary excretion. ICG fluorescence imaging system is a simple, safe, useful method and can be used in several fields of general surgery, particularly in oncologic surgery [13].
\nICG NIR-Fluorescence System. Fluorescence was integrated into the da Vinci Si HD System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) in 2010. The surgeon can quickly switch between normal viewing mode to fluorescence (near-infrared light) by pressing the pedal on the surgical console.
Laparoscopic transverse colon resection for middle cancers is a rare procedure as population suffering with it is too small. Moreover, transverse colectomy requires advanced laparoscopic surgical skills and, consequently, a longer learning curve than other colorectal procedures. Dissection of the middle colic vessels and locoregional lymphadenectomy are more challenging than in other laparoscopic colectomies as well as the complete mobilization of hepatic and splenic flexures, which is an essential step of transverse colectomy. Colic flexures takedown may help anastomosis fashioning; even though there is no statistical difference between the advantages of intracorporeal versus extracorporeal anastomosis, it is preferable to perform an intracorporeal colocolic end-to-end anastomosis because of some well-known advantages: better chance to choose the site of the minilaparotomy (suprapubic or median), especially in obese patients, low traction on the mesentery and avoidance of twisting of the mesentery [19–21]. Some authors argue that excessive mobilization of the colon, without the flexures takedown, can be avoided when adopting an intracorporeal anastomosis [22], but it can result in a unadverted traction on the anastomosis itself and a moderate risk of dehiscence in the postoperative, then, it is always preferable to take down both the two flexures even in an intracorporeal anastomosis. Robotic approach provides specific advantages in intracorporeal anastomosis sewing, thanks to the endo-wrist function and the stability of the robotic arms, thus reproducing all the steps as in open surgery, and the 3D magnified view. Initially, the lack of tactile sensation was considered a pitfall of the robotic system, and several studies of engineering are still ongoing in order to provide a tactile sensation by the robotic system. This aspect, however, was recently confuted as it was shown that visual feedback of an expert surgeon can successfully replace tactile sensation, without the need of a tactile-feedback device [23].
\nIn conclusion, few cases have been reported on robotic splenic flexure and transverse colon resection, but robotic assistance seems to provide several advantages on performing these procedures. Further studies are necessary to assess the real role of robotics in the treatment of the splenic flexure and mid-transverse colon cancers.
\nCereals play a pivotal role to satisfy the global food demand of growing population, particularly in developing nations where cereal-based production system is the only predominant source of nutrition and calorie intake [1, 2]. The nutri-rich cereal is grown in diversified environments; globally wheat occupies around 217 million hectares holding the position of highest acreage among all crops with an annual production hovering around 731 million tonnes [3]. Wheat (
India, being blessed and enriched with a diverse agroecological condition, ensuring food and nutrition security to a majority of the Indian population through production and steady supply particularly in the recent past, is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide [4, 5, 6]. The crop has been under cultivation in about 30 million hectares (14% of global area) to produce the all-time highest output of 99.70 million tonnes of wheat (13.64% of world production) with a record average productivity of 3371 kg/ha [7]. Having a significant share in consumption of food basket with a 36% share in the total food grains produced from India and ensuring not only food security but also nutrition security, wheat is extensively procured by the government and distributed to a majority of the population; it ensures not only food security but also nutrition security. The cereal is one of the cheapest sources of energy, provides a major share of protein (20%) and calorie intake (19%) from consumption. Wheat is accessible across the country and consumed as various processed forms from prehistoric times [4].
After independence, India was net deficit in food production and had to import wheat for domestic consumption. During 1966–1967, India adopted new strategy which led the ‘Green Revolution’, especially in the production of wheat and rice. Coordinated research and several developmental and food security-based programmes in various phases have made the nation to progress closer towards ‘food and nutrition for all’ by achieving record and surplus production of wheat. After the Green Revolution, the nation has maintained strategic distance from famine even during unfavorable weather conditions. The impact of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat improvement is explicit and contributed significantly to the nation’s food security [8].
The All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) was started in 1965 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, the nodal centre of the coordinated research. The AICWIP is one of the largest crop improvement network projects which set the dawn for the ‘Green Revolution’ in India. Under this project, several high-yielding wheat varieties have been developed which became extensively popular and adopted by the farming community. For instance, C 306, HD 2009, WL 711, UP 262, HUW 234, HD 2189, WH 147, Lok 1, HI 617 (Sujata), HD 2285, HD 2329, PBW 343, Raj 3765, PBW 502, HD 2733, HD 2967, HD 3086, DBW 17, PBW 550, GW 273, GW 322 and GW 496 in bread wheat and Raj 1555, PBW 34, HI 8498 and PDW 233 in durum wheat were developed and became the popular deliverables of the project. Apart from the aforementioned varieties, viz., NP 4, Kalyansona, Sonalika, Sharbati Sonora, WL 711, HD 1220, HD 1931 ‘SIB’, HD 2009, HD 2172, UP 262, etc., developed through the AICWIP were also cultivated beyond national borders. Several changes happened post inception of the AICWIP, and during 2017, the project has been renamed as the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Wheat and Barley with ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research as its headquarter based at Karnal (Haryana). It is a premier organization under the aegis of ICAR coordinating the multidisciplinary and multilocation testing of varieties in different AICRP centres across the different ecosystems for enhancing and sustaining the wheat production [8]. At present, there are 29 funded centres located in different agroclimatic regions across the country supporting the multidisciplinary research. The project, hitherto, has contributed in the release of around 448 high-yielding improved wheat varieties comprising bread, durum and dicoccum wheat. Over the years, prominent improvements have been made in the development arena post inception of the coordinated project (Figure 1).
Major developments in the country post inception of the AICRP.
Since the establishment of the AICRP, the productivity of wheat has increased by 2.5-folds (308%: +2.54 tonnes/ha) as furnished in Figure 2. A decadal analysis of productivity growth across major food commodities indicates that wheat production growth has outperformed rice and pulses for the past 5 decades since 1950. Overall scenario indicated that wheat production has grown at 4.72 percent per annum since 1950, the highest among other food grains [9].
Productivity trend in Indian wheat pre- and post-AICRP.
In India wheat crop is cultivated in
State/UT | Area (million ha) | Change (%) | Production (million tonnes) | Change (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | |||
Assam | 0.05 | 0.02 | −52.35 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −43.40 |
Bihar | 2.16 | 2.08 | −3.57 | 4.63 | 4.86 | 4.98 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.59 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 13.22 |
Gujarat | 1.12 | 1.09 | −2.85 | 3.20 | 3.22 | 0.60 |
Haryana | 2.50 | 2.55 | 2.21 | 11.35 | 11.24 | −0.93 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.36 | 0.34 | −4.26 | 0.53 | 0.66 | 24.79 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.29 | 0.29 | 1.83 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 10.52 |
Jharkhand | 0.12 | 0.19 | 50.99 | 0.22 | 0.38 | 70.04 |
Karnataka | 0.25 | 0.19 | −25.30 | 0.23 | 0.20 | −13.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 4.52 | 5.73 | 26.76 | 9.45 | 16.32 | 72.72 |
Maharashtra | 1.01 | 1.05 | 4.79 | 1.61 | 1.48 | −8.27 |
Punjab | 3.52 | 3.51 | −0.40 | 16.25 | 16.61 | 2.21 |
Rajasthan | 2.63 | 2.98 | 12.99 | 8.12 | 9.31 | 14.62 |
Uttar Pradesh | 9.66 | 9.75 | 0.94 | 29.33 | 27.93 | −4.77 |
Uttarakhand | 0.38 | 0.34 | −9.89 | 0.85 | 0.81 | −4.64 |
West Bengal | 0.32 | 0.29 | −8.33 | 0.85 | 0.80 | −5.94 |
Others | 0.04 | 0.04 | −20.64 | 0.12 | 0.12 | −3.54 |
All India | 29.04 | 30.54 | 5.16 | 87.39 | 94.57 | 8.22 |
Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
State/UT | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | Change (%) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 3009 | 3100 | 3.03 |
Punjab | 4617 | 4738 | 2.61 |
Haryana | 4544 | 4407 | −3.01 |
Others | 3083 | 3331 | 8.05 |
Rajasthan | 3038 | 3133 | 3.12 |
Gujarat | 2845 | 2922 | 2.69 |
Uttar Pradesh | 2724 | 2867 | 5.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 2698 | 2843 | 5.38 |
West Bengal | 2241 | 2754 | 22.90 |
Uttarakhand | 2144 | 2375 | 10.76 |
Bihar | 2091 | 2339 | 11.87 |
Jharkhand | 1790 | 2005 | 12.01 |
Himachal Pradesh | 1602 | 1911 | 19.28 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 1511 | 1656 | 9.58 |
Maharashtra | 1466 | 1400 | −4.53 |
Assam | 1180 | 1373 | 16.39 |
Chhattisgarh | 1149 | 1328 | 15.59 |
Karnataka | 914 | 1057 | 15.64 |
Statewise quinquennial average of wheat yield (kg/ha).
The production of wheat has also showed an increasing trend, from 87.39 to 94.57 million tonnes from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 with a magnitude of 7.18 million tonnes (8.22%). The major source of this increase in production is mainly attributed to expansion in area followed by marginal increase in productivity. Uttar Pradesh still holds the position of largest producer in the country accounting for about 28 million tonnes which is roughly 30% of the total production. Around 85 million tonnes (90%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing regions such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan [10]. The maximum quantum jump has been noticed in Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand which almost doubled their production from 9.45–16.32 million tonnes to 0.22–0.38 million tonnes. However, 1.4 million tonnes reduction was noticed in Uttar Pradesh during the same period which is a matter of serious concern.
The national productivity trend for wheat showed a marginal improvement, which has increased from 3009 kg/ha to 3100 kg/ha from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 (Table 2). This rise in productivity is due to adoption of high-yielding varieties coupled with other inputs. The traditional wheat-growing states Punjab and Haryana have highest productivity than the national productivity [10]. The maximum increase in productivity has been observed in nontraditional wheat-growing states like West Bengal (23%), Himachal Pradesh (19.28%) and Assam (16.39%). However, the productivity of Haryana has declined which pose a serious matter of concern.
Quinquennial data on wheat area, production and yield for India indicates that there is a variation in crop acreage that declined to 29.58 million hectare (Figure 3). However, the production of wheat has increased significantly from 95.85 to 99.70 million tonnes. Increase in production was largely attributed to rise in productivity levels registered across the wheat-growing regions.
Quinquennial scenario in area, production and yield of wheat.
Wheat is one of the predominant staple foods and a main cereal crop of many diets around the world. Table 3 furnishes the current scenario of area, production and yield of wheat in the world. Globally wheat is cultivated in an area about 220 million hectares with a record production of 763.06 million tonnes of grain. Maximum area under wheat is in India (14%), followed by Russia (12.43%), China (11.14%) and the USA (6.90%) which altogether accounts for about 45% of global area. However, China is the major producer of wheat with a record production of 136 million tonnes, followed by India (98.51mt), Russia (85mt) and the USA (47.35mt). Around 449 million tonnes (58%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing countries like China, India, Russia, the USA, Canada, Ukraine and Pakistan. The average yield per hectare is maximum in New Zealand (10 tonnes/ha), followed by Zambia (7 tonnes/ha) and Mexico (6 tonnes/ha). However, the average wheat yield in major wheat-growing countries is significantly low, and only China has maximum yield (5.48 tonnes/ha) followed by Ukraine, India and the USA. Despite India’s productivity being on par with the world average, the per day productivity is relatively high (20 kg/day) in comparison to other countries, viz. the USA, Uzbekistan, Hungary, Poland, Italy, Bulgaria and Romania, which predominantly cultivates winter wheat with crop cycle hovering around 275 days. However, in India, in comparison to its competing country, China, the per day productivity is almost the same. It should be noted that the winter wheat-cultivating countries do not deal with any other crop in a year, while in India, in which spring wheat cultivation occurs around 150 days duration, farmers has the choice to grow at the maximum two sole crops apart from wheat [8].
Countries | Area (million ha) | Production (million tonnes) | Yield (tonnes/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
China | 24.51 (11.14) | 134.33 (17.60) | 5.48 |
India | 29.58 (14.00) | 99.70 (12.91) | 3.37 |
Russia | 27.34 (12.43) | 84.99 (11.14) | 3.11 |
USA | 15.19 (6.90) | 47.35 (6.21) | 3.12 |
Canada | 8.98 (4.08) | 29.98 (3.93) | 3.34 |
Ukraine | 6.64 (3.02) | 26.98 (3.54) | 4.06 |
Pakistan | 8.97 (4.08) | 26.67 (3.50) | 2.97 |
Australia | 12.25 (5.57) | 21.30 (2.79) | 1.74 |
Turkey | 7.8 (3.55) | 21.00 (2.75) | 2.69 |
Kazakhstan | 11.91 (5.41) | 14.80 (1.93) | 1.24 |
World | 220 | 763.06 | 3.47 |
Area, production and yield of major wheat-producing countries (2017–2018).
Note: Figure within parenthesis indicates the percent to world.
The global wheat production has increased around 7 million tonnes (0.9%) in the year 2017–2018 in comparison to its past. The major source for the increase in production is mainly attributed to increase in productivity followed by marginal increase in area in major wheat-growing countries (Figure 4).
Annual growth in area, production and yield (2017–2018 over 2016–2017).
At the national level, there is a shift in area, production and yield under wheat during 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 vis-à-vis 2013–2014 to 2017–2018. Currently, wheat acreage is around 30 million hectares. Comparing the past two periods, the change was more prominent in wheat production, followed by area and yield (Tables 1 and 2). The average change in production was around 9%. The country on an average produced 7.3 million tonnes more than the past period. The major wheat-growing states like Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have witnessed positive change in area and yield and production [6]. Surprisingly, Jharkhand registered positive change in area, yield and production, while Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, the major traditional wheat-growing states, witnessed a negative change in production due to negative change in yield. Regional disparities in area and yield had a significant impact on the wheat production. Average production in Madhya Pradesh showed an increase by 6.87 million tonnes, followed by Rajasthan (1.2 million tonnes). However, the production has declined in Uttar Pradesh (1.41 million tonnes) and Haryana (0.11 million tonnes).
Statewise comparison of area and production for 2017–2018 shows that Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana were the major contributors to the national production (Figure 5). However, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh retained the status of higher productivity for many years. The scope for additional production of these states has been limited due to stagnation of wheat acreage and yield. This indicates that these states almost reached their saturation in wheat cultivation and production. Potential exists for states like Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh to explore for additional wheat production in the coming years. Area under these states has to increase in yield at farmers’ field so as to attain higher production. The current production from these states is around 29 million tonnes which has to be doubled by 2050 with an overall production target of 140 million tonnes [11, 12, 13].
Statewise comparison of wheat area and production (2017–2018).
Production constraints are manifold and vary from crop to crop and between regions. Burgeoning population vis-à-vis increasing demand for food; growing competition for cultivable land, irrigation water and energy; intensive cropping especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains resulting in irrational use of resources; pest-environment interaction; reduction of natural resource base; declining total factor productivity; and yield plateau (Figure 6) are the prominent challenges put forth against crop production [11, 12, 13, 14]. Wheat production not only faces the above routine challenges, but the intensity gets magnified in the context of climate change owing to its vulnerability [15, 16, 17, 18].
Production challenges in Indian setting.
In India a significant part of wheat area is under heat stress, and Gangetic plains and central and peninsular India are the most heat-stressed regions, whereas it is moderate in northwestern parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains [19]. Variability in climate is also one of the biggest environmental threats to Indian agriculture, potentially impacting the wheat production and security. In India, it has been predicted that with every rise in 1°C temperature, the wheat production will be decreased by 4–6 million tonnes. Rainfed wheat will experience a reduction in yield with 9–25% profit loss for every 2–3.5°C rise in temperature [20].
After the Green Revolution, the productivity of wheat has been significantly increased with the increase in input usage, plant protection chemicals and irrigated areas. The excessive use of fertilizer, chemicals and irrigation has degraded the fertility of the soil and also caused a reduction in groundwater table. The monocropping system led to deterioration in soil quality. If the current trend continues, the country will face a serious problem in utilization of scarce natural resources.
In India about 4.5 million hectares salt affected area is under wheat cultivation posing a major problem for canal irrigated areas [21]. Even though soil amendments and proper drainage are the more constructive solution, pace of reclamation is not substantial. This will significantly reduce the wheat yield.
As year passes, the pests of wheat have developed some resistance even though controlled under contingent situation. If not, a new range of pests and diseases have been emerging putting a serious constraint on the wheat productivity.
Adoption system and germplasm dissemination in India have been made in formal (organized) and informal (unorganized) ways [22]. Even though new improved varieties are developed and made available to farmers by NARS around, 80% of all seeds are saved by the farmers [19]. Further, a majority of farmers in India have lack of awareness of improved wheat varieties due to weak linkages [19]. The development and diffusion of improved varieties are crucial for achieving target production of wheat.
Volatility in prices of agricultural commodities has received considerable attention in the recent past among producers, consumers and policy makers. Price fluctuations create an uncertain farming situation threatening wheat production and have a negative impact on the welfare of wheat growers. Further, volatility in prices of wheat in international market hinders the smooth flow of trade across nations.
Over the years, a visible declining trend in farm holding size has been observed and is another major concern for the nation as a whole. This is caused by fragmentation of farmland owing to nuclear family system and decline in cultivable area due to urbanization. Estimate from the agricultural census (2010–2011) reports that the average operational holding in India was 1.16 ha. Among major wheat-growing states, average operational holding was highest in the case of Punjab (3.77 ha) and lowest in Bihar (0.39 ha). Declining farm size and conversion of farmland to residential area are the major setbacks with respect to food production in general and wheat production in particular.
A major concern among policy makers is the declining total factor productivity over the years owing to stagnating yield levels with increased use of inputs and resource services. It is a major concern in the intensive cropping areas wherein rice-wheat is widely under cultivation. This can be countered by adoption of improved technologies coupled with the use of optimal resources.
The constraints in wheat production are region-specific (Table 4), and it requires setting research priorities to address them. Rust, infestation of weeds such as
Zone | Major production constraints |
---|---|
Northern hills zone | Lack of accessibility of seed of newly released variety, |
Northwestern plains zone | High cost of inputs, low price of wheat, erratic power supply, |
Northeastern plains zone | Small land holdings, inadequacy of seeds of newly released variety, lack of information among the farmers about recently developed new technologies, late sowing, temperature fluctuations during growth, high-priced inputs, poor quality of seeds, non-availability of labour, low organic matter in the soil, non-availability of farm machinery |
Central zone | Non-availability of labour, imbalanced use of fertilizer, high temperature at maturity, limited accessibility to seed of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth, high cost of inputs, lack of irrigation facilities, small land holding, decline in water table, untimely rain |
Peninsular zone | Low price of wheat, irregular power supply, high cost of inputs, non-availability of labour, non-availability of electricity, higher rate of custom hiring, untimely rain, lack of facilities of canal irrigation, poor accessibility to seeds of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth |
Zone-wise production constraints in wheat.
With a limited scope for increasing the crop acreage besides the production threats and challenges at the forefront [12, 13], the production target has been fixed at 140 mt by 2050 (Figure 7) [11]. Under stable wheat acreage and given the optimistic production target, the existing average yield has to be increased from 33 to 47 Qtls/ha by 2050. Concerted research should focus to break the yield barriers in gradual manner and develop genotypes tailored for specific wheat-growing regions.
Existing production and target for 2050.
The following are the strategies set for increasing the crop productivity to achieve the set target of 140 million tonnes [9, 23, 24]:
Improvement of wheat under conventional methods
Exploitation of heterosis for developing the hybrids
Pre-breeding programme by broadening the varieties’ genetic base
Capitalizing exotic germplasm and extensive utilization
Precision phenotyping of germplasm
Mining novel alleles for genes of known function
Production of segregating populations for lines of interest identified in primary germplasm screens
Use of existing landrace x elite segregating populations to identify QTL controlling traits of interest
Production of NILs for QTL and allelic variants
Assessing agronomic performance of NILs
Development of informative genetic markers and their use in commercial wheat breeding programmes
Development of new plant types
Desired canopy structure
Rapid leaf area development
Rapid nutrient uptake
Increasing lodging resistance (robust stem)
Biotechnological interventions
Marker-assisted breeding
Wheat genome sequence and associated genomic tools
Allele mining on the basis of probing germplasm sets for specific gene sequences
Innumerable new molecular markers in genomic regions of choice to facilitate large-scale cloning of new genes
A plethora of approaches for understanding the function of each and every gene
Understanding temporal and tissue-specific gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues
Uncovering molecular basis of complex adaptation syndromes including tolerance to various abiotic stresses
Designing of a genome-wide perfect marker system based on SNPs in entire gene space of the species
Potential of wheat transgenics and possibilities of greater public acceptance
Functional characterization of genome
Tackling disease resistance
Tackling abiotic stress-climate change
Resource management
Quality improvement
Policy reorientation [6]
Price policy
Seed policy
Credit policy
Institutional innovations like e-National Agriculture Market
Extension: transfer of technology
Economic assessment of various improved technologies for upscaling and outscaling
Promotion of resource conservation technologies [25]
Awareness among farmers of new improved varieties and production technologies for yield as well as income enhancement [26, 27]
Wheat atlas: creation and updating regional-level database on parameters like area, production, yield, yield gaps and input usage.
Analysis of benefit-cost ratio (BCR) in wheat production and development
Access to critical inputs for timely sowing like improved seeds particularly in eastern UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh; access to fertilizers, irrigation water and farm machinery [28]
Infrastructure development (roads, storage structures, market)
Agriculture transformation is of utmost importance for regional development. Cutting-edge research involving multidiscipline is the need of the hour and is expected to develop superior genotypes breaking the yield barrier. Despite being cost-intensive, development is mandatory which warrants for higher public and private investment in R&D. In addition, productivity has to be increased through massive efforts from extension personnel who serve as change agents among the farming community. A reorientation in price policy (fair price system benefiting both producers and consumers, deficient payment system to producers for difference between the market and procurement price and cash transfers to producers under colossal loss), seed policy (quality seed production and ensuring its availability for all) and credit policy (timely distribution with minimum administrative work) is highly required to support the existing production system and to carry forward. Increased access to input and output markets, revamped distributions systems, investment in rural infrastructures and skilling of the rural labour force will help immensely to increase the crop productivity. On the whole, a synergy between research-extension-policy-institutions will play an impending role to achieve the desired level of production as well as to ensure food security for future generation. The realization of the expected increase in production in agriculture will only be possible with high efficiency, high quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and by offering them to the service of the farmer by improving the stable varieties in breeding programmes.
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\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
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\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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