Quantitative assessment of earthworm casts and soil resistance against copper contamination.
\r\n\trescue missions especially in difficult to access areas. Precise control of aerial robotic systems with multiple degrees of freedom arms is a challenging task due to the fact that the translational and rotational dynamics of the aerial vehicle are strongly coupled with the dynamics of the manipulator. In order to accomplish complex missions in presence of uncertainties in the environment, to achieve better maneuverability and precise 3D position and attitude control, nonlinear control techniques have been found effective. Swarm robotics (multiple robot working together) is another exciting application of the aerial robotics. This book intends to provide a wide range of readers in applied mathematics and various engineering disciplines an excellent survey of recent studies of aerial robotic systems.
",isbn:"978-1-78984-567-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-566-2",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53805f091c3107536edd2579c9987649",bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Dr. Geert De Cubber",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7792.jpg",keywords:"Nonlinear Dynamics, Lagrangian Formulation, Visual Tracking, Way Point, Lyapunov Technique, Backstepping, Surveilance, Emergency Response, Crop Monitoring, Sliding Mode Observer, Nonlinear Filter, Coordinated Control, Leader-Follower",numberOfDownloads:1023,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15068/images/system/15068.png",biography:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu is presently the Glaxo Wellcome Distinguished Professor of Engineering at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, North Carolina, USA. His extensive research makes use of advanced mathematical techniques and models that arise from fundamental physical principles. His major research interests are in the areas of nonlinear dynamical systems and control theory, with particular emphasis on applications to mechatronics and aerospace systems. He has edited 3 books, and authored/co-authored several book chapters and over 130 peer-reviewed journal/proceedings papers. He served on the IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control Editorial Board and on the IEEE Control Systems Society Conference Editorial Board as an Associate Editor. He also served as International Program Committee member for several conferences and as a member of AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Technical Committee. He is currently serving as an editor of International Journal of Aerospace Engineering.",institutionString:"University of North Carolina",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of North Carolina at Asheville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"81429",title:"Dr.",name:"Geert",middleName:null,surname:"De Cubber",slug:"geert-de-cubber",fullName:"Geert De Cubber",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81429/images/system/81429.png",biography:"Geert De Cubber works at the Unmanned Vehicle Centre of the Belgian Royal Military Academy, where he is leading the research activities of the research group on robotics for high-risk applications. The specialization of this research unit is the development of robots for applications like search and rescue and humanitarian demining. Geert’s main task is to apply computer vision techniques to mobile robots, rendering these robots able to perceive, analyze, and – to some degree – understand their environment.\nGeert was the coordinator of the EU-FP7-ICARUS projectnwhich was a large-scale EU-project dealing with the development of unmanned tools (aerial, ground and marine robots) which can assist search and rescue workers to save human survivors after a major crisis (earthquake, tsunami, typhoon, shipwreck, etc.).",institutionString:"Royal Military Academy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"242",title:"Aerial Robotics",slug:"aerial-robotics"}],chapters:[{id:"67435",title:"A System for Continuous Underground Site Mapping and Exploration",slug:"a-system-for-continuous-underground-site-mapping-and-exploration",totalDownloads:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"67297",title:"Decentralised Scalable Search for a Hazardous Source in Turbulent Conditions",slug:"decentralised-scalable-search-for-a-hazardous-source-in-turbulent-conditions",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"67003",title:"Vision-Based Autonomous Control Schemes for Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle",slug:"vision-based-autonomous-control-schemes-for-quadrotor-unmanned-aerial-vehicle",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"68391",title:"Robotic Search and Rescue through In-Pipe Movement",slug:"robotic-search-and-rescue-through-in-pipe-movement",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194666",firstName:"Nina",lastName:"Kalinic Babic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194666/images/4750_n.jpg",email:"nina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6651",title:"Nonlinear Systems",subtitle:"Modeling, Estimation, and Stability",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"085cfe19a4bd48a9e8034b2e5cc17172",slug:"nonlinear-systems-modeling-estimation-and-stability",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6651.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5708",title:"Computational and Experimental Studies of Acoustic Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"518d2ac3c49f5c4c48d4f3f3b0729232",slug:"computational-and-experimental-studies-of-acoustic-waves",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5708.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5513",title:"Dynamical Systems",subtitle:"Analytical and Computational Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ba4129f30ef1b92fd4b7ae193781183",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5513.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51905",title:"Environmental Role of Earthworm (Lumbricidae) in Formation of Soil Buffering Capacity Against Copper Contamination in Remediated Soil, Steppe Zone of Ukraine",doi:"10.5772/64722",slug:"environmental-role-of-earthworm-lumbricidae-in-formation-of-soil-buffering-capacity-against-copper-c",body:'\nEnvironmental protection, natural resource management, ensuring of environmental safety of human life are essential conditions for sustainable economic and social development of the European countries. Among the densely populated areas in the steppe zone of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk region is characterized by high level of metallurgic and agricultural production. Active mining extraction inevitably accompanied by diminishing of fertility in ordinary and southern chernozem, despite this soil has a great potential for agricultural exploitation. The harmfulness of such processes consists not only in reducing the square of arable land, but also in significant deterioration of ecological status on the entire territory within Dnieper steppe. As a result, increasing rate of coal extraction leads to enlargement of disturbed land area. The most significant changes are taking place with the land fund during development of coal deposits. Under such conditions, the soil cover degraded completely; new forms of relief and landscapes, having fundamental changes of properties and regimes were formed instead. Man-made landscapes connected with the activities of mining and smelting complex often formed by the low-biogenic phytotoxic rocks, this is part of the reason for their low biological productivity [7, 10, 28].
\nForest remediation is one of ways for optimization of such technogenic landscapes [1]. According to the modern concept of land remediation, forest remediation is carried out in the absence of reasonability to recycle the land for agricultural use. The main purposes of forest remediation are the forest fund increasing and improvement of environment. Environmentally, the main task of the forest remediation is creation of sustainable forest plantations that have a powerful environment-forming effect on technogenically disturbed sites [4, 8]. Forest remediation is the most effective method to recovery disturbed lands under steppe conditions; after its performing will be a dramatic increase in the forest area of the damaged territory, because the forest provides a reliable water retention, reduces wind strength, redistributes better the summer and winter precipitation, conversion surface runoff waters into deep runoff waters, leveling of temperature regimes, etc. [5].
\nSince soil is the basis of any terrestrial ecosystem that determines direction of development and features of ecosystem functioning, the rate of its formation determines the rate of recovery of all other ecosystem components and functioning conditions (bacteria, plant and animal communities). Therefore, the efficiency of forest ecosystem recovery can be estimated by the rate of soil formation and environmental properties of the root layer created during the remediation process. We mean soil-forming process as the way of the initial substrate transformation by interaction of all soil-forming factors.
\nDecomposers, also referred to as reducers, are an important component of any ecosystem [21]. Among the decomposers, soil saprophages play a crucial role; their trophic activity causes environment-transforming (zoo pertinent) effect on artificial forest ecosystem within remediated lands, contributing to destruction of plant debris. They provide the ecosystem services such as waste recycling and detoxification, encouraging improvement of soil environment state. Healthy soil is one of the main conditions needed for successful growth of forest plantings within steppe territory and for maintenance of ecologically sustainable agricultural production. Healthy soil is a key point of condition for successful forest growth; it forms an environment for root zone stimulating of soil biota activity and allows the roots to spread maximally within soil space.
\nCoal industry activity is considered to be one of the most powerful factors leading to deterioration of natural landscapes variety. Steppe zone of Ukraine comprises a major coal-mining area: the Donetsk Coal Basin (Donbass). When deeply buried deposits of Cretaceous period are moved onto the surface, it initiated the processes of physical weathering, oxidation, dissolution, hydrolysis, and burning. A number of other negative factors are also determined, such as high concentration of soluble toxic salts, heavy metal contamination, alkalinity level rise, low absorbency and permeability, high spoil density, low carbon, and plant-available nitrogen. For example, coal wastes contain organic and mineral substances with a high content of some elements threat to human health (Ni, V, Mn, Cu, etc.); it leads to formation of the phytotoxic flows at water erosion, and strong aerial technogenic pollution at deflation, causing negative effect on all living organisms [22, 23].
\nAmong all biota, soil mezofauna plays a crucial role in development of the resistance mechanisms in artificial forest plantations; in particular, representatives of the saprotrophic complex (earthworms) contribute greatly in such process. These invertebrates effect significantly to transformation of soil properties because their tropho-metabolic activities, acting as a biological factor in soil organic farming. Such invertebrates are called ‘ecosystem engineers’ and are able to influence the habitat and soil biota community through this activity; they can cause ecosystem succession [11, 25]. Among soil invertebrates, earthworms have a leading role in formation of stability mechanisms in soil. As a result of their life activity, earthworms make a significant ecological contribution to transformation of soil characteristics and properties. Tropho-metabolic activity of earthworms is considered to be an important element in formation of soil environmental properties that cause maintaining of buffer properties in artificial soil against copper contamination within remediated areas.
\nCopper (Cuprum, Cu) is the chemical element of the first group in Mendeleev\'s periodic law. Serial number: 29, atomic mass: 63.54. Copper content in the Earth\'s crust is about 0.01%. It is found in a free state in the form of nuggets that sometimes attain a large size (up to several tons). However, native copper ore is relatively uncommon, and currently it is produced not more than 5% of copper from the total world production. Copper is a sulphophilous (chalcophilous) element; 80% of it is present in the Earth\'s crust in the form of compounds with sulfur [6, 12]. The average copper content (according to A. P. Vinogradov and D. M. Malyuga) in the lithosphere is 47 mg/kg, in soil from 6 to 75 mg/kg, in plant tissues from 2 to 70 mg/kg. Among the sedimentary parent rocks, the highest content of copper is characteristic of the loess, loess-like loams and clays of different origin (20–25 mg of Cu per 1 kg of soil), the least – sands (5–12 mg/kg) [14, 27]. Regional clark of copper in soil of the steppe zone in Ukraine is equal to 27 mg/kg with a range of variation 10–64 mg/kg [3].
\nThe share of mobile forms of copper compounds in the upper horizon of soils of the European part of the CIS countries is on average 10–12% of its total content [29]. Red soil and yellow Podzolic soil are better provided with copper; sandy soil and soil enriched in organic matter contain smaller amounts of copper [15]. Humic substances are involved in the fixation of copper by soil [16]. Copper usually accumulates within the upper soil horizons, reflecting its bioaccumulation and contemporary technogenesis. Contamination by copper is the result of usage of substances containing this element, particularly of fertilizers, agricultural and municipal wastes. Enterprises of nonferrous metallurgy are significant sources of soil pollution with copper, in addition.
\nPlants accumulate most of copper into their leaves and seeds, less in roots, and very little in stems [13]. Copper is a component of numerous enzymes insuring normal cells functioning; it takes part in process of chlorophyll formation and other oxidation-reduction processes into plant cells. Copper deficiency in plants causes lowering activity of synthetic processes and leads to accumulation of soluble carbohydrates, amino acids, and other degradation products of complex organic substances; such process leads to withering, turgor loss, chlorosis, delayed shooting stage, and poor seed formation [2]. In animals, copper involved in processes of enzyme activation and it is part of the respiratory proteins such as hemoglobin and hemocyanin [22]. Living organisms-concentrators of copper are well known among both plants and animals (tea plant, mollusks, spiders, etc.). Many animals and plants experience toxicity from copper excess [19]. In most cases, trace elements (particularly copper) come to the animals through trophic chains. Considering representatives of saprophages, it should be noted that copper as a trace element is always presented in their body and excreta [17].
\nThe goal of the article was evaluation earthworm (Lumbricidae) tropho-metabolic effect in maintaining capacity of remediated artificial soil to resist from copper contamination. This paper determines quantitatively buffer capacity of artificial soil and earthworm casts from copper contamination, and make a comparison of immobilization capacity between earthworm casts and remediated soil. Soil buffering capacity is maintaining the chemical soil state unchanged under the influence of chemical compounds flow. Assessments of rates of Lumbricidae impact on the environment, particularly the effect of tropho-metabolic activity of earthworms on buffer capacity of the remediated soil are of scientific and practical interest in relation to soil fertility management.
\nSite description. Field data were sampled by the investigators on the site of forest remediation in Western Donbass (Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk region). Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–10 cm, and fresh excreta (casts) of earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny, 1826) were sampled at the surface on the remediation site in a plantation of Norway maple (Acer platanoides) (second and third variants of remediation). The first variant of remediation was represented by filling of mining spoil unsuitable for growth of arboreal plants. Top layer of the second variant sampled for assay was represented by humus-free loess-like loam; and top layer of the third variant was represented by a humic filling layer of ordinary chernozem (Figure 1).
\n\nEarthworm A. caliginosa is referred to endogeic soil worms. It is classified as a saprophage, secondary decomposer, nitrogen liberator, and humificator [20, 24].
\nGeneral description of the forest vegetation and filling remediated soil on the site of mine dump forest recultivation located within the territory of the Western Donbass (Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk oblast) is shown as follows:
\nFirst variant. Platform of dump mine spoil was coated with a layer of the same spoil 2 m in thickness. Such variant of remediation was created with the aim to identify environmental suitability or unsuitability of mining spoil for the forest plantation growing. By 2005, trees and bushes had been died off completely within this variant of remediation. Mine spoil of the Western Donbass is a mass heavy loamy in granulometric composition, consisting of aleurolites and argillites; it contains 16–20% of organic carbon. The mine spoil is unsuitable for plant growth in its physicochemical, water, air, and mechanical properties and composition. It is absolutely impermeable, have a higher density, hardness, viscosity, stickiness, and adhesiveness. Such spoil dries to cement condition, and when wet it turns into viscous clay with a high water capacity and lack of air. Agrochemically, mining spoil is represented by nitrogen-free compounds, with trace amount of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, and minor-nutrient elements. Against this background, pyrite provides especially negative effect (1.5%), contributing to decrease of actual acidity to 3.0 units. Fresh, thrown to the daylight surface, mine spoil has an evaporated residue of not more than 0.4%.
\nSecond variant. Type of forest growing conditions: DL0–1 (dryish loam). Stratigraphic structure of soil profile: loess-like loam: 0–50 cm; tertiary sand: 50–100 cm; mine spoil: 100–700 cm. Planting with Norway maple. Type of light structure: half-shade. Type of timber-stand: 10 N. m., height: 8–10 m, average trunk diameter: 100–120 mm, crown closure: 0.6–0.7. Litter from maple leaves is poorly developed; it is mainly accumulated between the tree lines in the relief depressions. The grass cover is missing.
\nThird variant. Type of forest growing conditions: DL0–1 (dryish loam). The remediated bulk soil has the following stratigraphical characteristics: humic topsoil of ordinary chernozem: 0–50 cm; loess-like loam: 50–100 cm; tertiary sand: 100–150 cm; mine spoil: 150–700 cm. Planting with Norway maple. Type of light structure: half-lightened. Type of timber-stand: 10 N. m., height: 8–10 m, average trunk diameter: 100–120 mm, crown closure: 0.5–0.6. The litter layer is well developed; leaves are almost completely decomposed. The topsoil is moist to the touch, well structured. With a depth of 30 cm, it is compacted, occupied densely by maple roots to a depth of 50 cm. The grass cover is missing.
\nSampling and experimental procedures. Definition of zoogenic participation in the process of stability formation in soil as a saprophages habitat (earthworms, Lumbricidae) against contamination by copper was performed by adding different amounts of copper with it absorption from copper solutions. As the methodological basis, recommendations developed by researchers of the National Scientific Center ‘Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research named after O.N. Sokolovsky’ were applied [9, 26]. Air-dry sample specimens of soil and earthworm excreta (casts) were placed in cylindrical vessels, filled with a solution of copper sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4 5H2O contained copper in scalar concentrations (from 5 to 40 mg Cu/L), in a ratio of weigh/solution of sulfate of 1/10; suspension has been stirred for 2 h and left to stand for 1 day and filtered. The remaining soil onto the funnel filter was transferred to a glass box and dried to air-dry state. Samples were selected from samples prepared in such manner to determination of mobile forms of copper compounds. As extractant, it used ammonium-acetate buffer (pH = 4.8). Content of extractable copper was determined by the method of atomic spectrophotometry. Quantitative determination of area under curve that characterizes the sustainability of earthworm casts and soil to the flow of toxicant was performed by means of numerical integration using Simpson\'s formula [18].
Variants of artificial soil in experimental-production area of forest reclamation and their stratigraphic structure.
To determine the zoogenic environmental-forming function in formation of soil resistance against copper contamination, we studied immobilization (immobility)-mobilization (mobility) of copper amount in earthworm casts and bulk soils, and participation of earthworm casts in formation of resistance against contamination with copper. To assess the impact of earthworms’ tropho-metabolic activity for maintaining resistance of their habitats to copper pollution, we used effect and toxicant immobilization efficiency.
\nEffect of earthworm excreta (casts) on the soil resistance from flow of toxic agents such as high concentrations of copper was investigated on earthworm casts sampled in Norway maple planting. Graphic model of earthworm casts resistance to copper contamination (second and third variants of remediation) are represented in Figures 2 and 3. It indicates higher buffering capacity of casts in humus variant.
\nGraphic model of earthworm casts resistance to copper contamination (second variant, humus-free loess-like loam): 1 – Earthworm casts (humus-free loess-like loam, second variant); 2 – Reference.
Graphic model of earthworm casts resistance to copper contamination (third variant, humic layer): 1 – Earthworm casts (humic layer, third variant); 2 – Reference.
Characteristics | \nReference area, nom. units (Sref) | \nSample area, nom. units (Ssamp) | \nEffect (S ref – Ssamp) nom. units | \nEffectiveness of toxicant immobilization | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Earthworm casts on humus-free loess-like Loam (second variant) | \n857.1 | \n659.6 ± 1.55 | \n77.0 | \n197.5 | \n23.0 | \n
Humus-free Loess-like Loam (second variant) | \n857.1 | \n686.5 ± 0.85 | \n80.1 | \n170.6 | \n19.9 | \n
Earthworm casts on humus layer of ordinary Chernozem (third variant) | \n857.1 | \n483.7 ± 5.65 | \n56.4 | \n373.4 | \n43.6 | \n
Humus layer of ordinary Chernozem (third variant) | \n857.1 | \n513.4 ± 3.25 | \n59.9 | \n343.7 | \n40.1 | \n
Quantitative assessment of earthworm casts and soil resistance against copper contamination.
Results of the study show that in the range of Cu concentration from 50 to 400 mg, effect of casts (Sref – Ssamp) on copper immobilization in the humus-free loess-like loam (second variant) was less than the effect of casts in the humic layer of ordinary chernozem (third variant), with a high level of statistical significance (p = 0.0011), and is 197.5 and 373.4 area units, respectively (Table 1). The effectiveness of immobilization that reflects resistance degree to contamination by this metal was increased from 23.1% (casts onto the humus-free loess-like loam) to 43.6% (casts on bulk humic layer from ordinary chernozem in the plantings of Norway maple). This, apparently, is due to the fact that the casts formed on loess-like loam is represented by the soil-forming rock that contain no organic matter (particularly humus), while the earthworm casts that formed on filling humic layer includes soil organic matter. Furthermore, the presence of humic compositions in earthworm casts is a powerful factor in process of stability formation in remediated soil against the effects of toxic concentrations of copper.
\n\nIn the context of soil-casts system, effect of casts (Sref – Ssamp) on copper immobilization within concentration range of Cu from 50 to 400 mg is more than the effect of initial bulk soil (respectively 170.6 and 197.5 area units on the second variant with humus-free loess-like loam; 343.7 and 373.4 area units on the third variant with humic layer of ordinary chernozem). In both cases, difference between average effects was statistically significant; values of significance level were 0.03 and 0.045, respectively (Table 2).
\n\nEfficiency of immobilization in the studied casts (humus-free and humic variants) was more (23 and 43%, respectively) than the efficiency of immobilization in the initial soil: loess-like loam and chernozem (19.9 and 40.1% respectively, see Table 1). Efficiency of copper immobilization by casts compared with the corresponding initial soil (variants with loess-like loam and ordinary chernozem coating) was more by 3.1% (the difference between 23 and 19.9%) and 3.5%, respectively (the difference between 43.6 and 40.1%). It evidences for the positive environment-forming role of earthworms (particularly their tropho-metabolic activity) in development of protective and buffer shield of remediated soils and enhances the immobilization ability of the zoogenic soil neoformations—casts—within sites of forest remediation. Thus, earthworm tropho-metabolic activity within different variants of forest remediation sites affects the soil immobilization capacity maintenance (buffering capacity to heavy metals, including copper).
\n\nItem \t | \nCasts (loess-like loam, second variant) | \nLoess-like loam, second variant | \nCasts (humic layer of ordinary Chernozem, third variant) | \nHumic layer of ordinary Chernozem, third variant) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Casts (Loess-like loam, second variant) | \n– | \n\n | \n | \n |
Loess-like loam, second variant | \n0.03* | \n– | \n\n | \n |
Casts (humic layer of ordinary Chernozem, third variant) | \n0.0011 | \n0.0012 | \n– | \n\n |
Humic layer of Ordinary Chernozem, third variant) | \n0.0006 | \n0.0009 | \n0.045 | \n– | \n
Statistical evaluation of differences between effects of earthworm cast and bulk soil against copper contamination.
Note: The table shows significance level to compare pairs of objects.
Ecosystem effectiveness of vital activity of soil saprophages (earthworms, Lumbricidae) was shown to be effected for increasing of buffering capacity in remediated soil against copper contamination. Resistance from concentrations of copper was increased in casts within the following range: from humus-free loess-like loam to humic layer of ordinary chernozem.
\nEffectiveness of copper immobilization by earthworm casts increased from 3.1 to 3.5% in comparison with the initial remediated soil. Thus, efficiency of process of land remediation increases with enrichment by earthworm casts; it leads to improvement of ecological quality in remediated soil. Earthworm ecoservice activity changes positively environmental features of remediated soil and speed up naturalization of artificial edaphotopes within remediated lands in steppe zone.
\nNanotechnologies aim to ease and to satisfy the needs of regenerative medicine1 by providing multifunctional, theranostic, and stimuli-responsive biomaterials [1, 2]. In particular, stimuli-responsive biomaterials such as magneto-responsive biomaterials are devices capable of reacting to an external magnetic field spatiotemporally in a specific way [3]. This powerful class of biomaterials is a promising candidate as active and therapeutic scaffolds for advanced drug delivery and tissue regeneration applications [3, 4].
\nMultifunctional magnetic-responsive materials can be manufactured by modifying or functionalizing traditional materials employed in tissue engineering or by incorporating magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in the biocompatible matrix [4, 5]. Table 1 reports examples of several magnetic biomaterials synthesized in the literature [6]. An approach to create a magnetic biomaterial is the impregnation of a polymer or ceramic (e.g., \n
Type of scaffold | \nSynthesis technique | \nM\n | \nType of MNPs | \nr\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
HA/collagen | \nImpregnation | \n0.35–15 | \nFe\n | \n200 | \n
HA/collagen | \nImpregnation | \n0.50 | \n\n\n | \n10–50 | \n
HA/PLA | \nElectrospinning | \n0.05 | \n\n\n | \n5 | \n
\n\n | \nImpregnation | \n0.6–1.2 | \nFe\n | \n250 | \n
Chitosan/PVA membrane | \nElectrospinning | \n0.7–3.2 | \nFe\n | \nn.s. | \n
Calcium silicate/chitosan | \nMixture | \n6–10 | \nSrFe\n | \n500 | \n
PMMA | \nMixture | \nn.s. | \nFe\n | \n10 | \n
Silicate | \nMixture | \nn.s. | \n\n\n | \nn.s. | \n
Fe-doped HA | \nChemical substitution | \n4 | \nHA-Fe\n | \n10–14 | \n
Fe-hardystonite | \nChemical doping | \n0.1–1.2 | \nFe\n | \n20–60 | \n
Bredigite | \nMilling | \n7–25 | \nCa\n | \n120 | \n
HA | \nImpregnation | \n12–20 | \nFe\n | \n200 | \n
HA | \nImpregnation | \n1–2.5 | \n\n\n | \n8 | \n
HA | \nImpregnation | \nn.s. | \n\n\n | \n5 | \n
Chitosan | \nIn situ precipitation | \n4 | \n\n\n | \nn.s | \n
\n\n | \n3D Bioplotting | \n0.2–0.3 | \nFe\n | \n25–30 | \n
PLGA | \nElectrospinning | \n2–10 | \nFe\n | \n8.47 | \n
Magnetic scaffolds divided by composition, production, and MNPs embedded. Redrafted from [5].
In alternative, a stable, repeatable, and controllable manufacturing technique of magnetic-responsive biomaterial is the chemical doping of or substitution with F\n
Given these methods, the magnetic biomaterial can be processed to develop a tissue-guiding structure or a tissue scaffold, i.e., a device intended to be implanted in an injured site for supporting and withstanding the cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, in order to restore tissue continuity and functioning [10]. Magnetic scaffolds (MagS) have been proposed for the following three main applications, as presented in Figure 1 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]:
To provide a controlled mechanical stimulation of tissues and boost the healing response
To develop a smart and reliable magnetic drug delivery system (MDD)
To generate therapeutic heat and perform local hyperthermia (HT) against cancer cells
Magnetic scaffolds are obtained by the combination of biomaterials and MNPs. They are multifunctional and theranostic nanocomposites. The potential biomedical applications of MagS are shown.
The mechanical stimulation of injured tissues using magneto-responsive scaffolds found application in bone tissue engineering, where static magnetic field (SMF) or low-frequency magnetic field is used to elicit osteoprogenitor cells [1, 2, 3, 4].
\nThe rationale of employing magnetic scaffolds as part of a MDD system is the need to have an “attraction platform” to target and control the attraction of magnetic liposomes or MNPs bio-conjugated with growth factors (GFs) [6, 11]. Indeed, recently several magnetic carriers of biomolecules capable of acting on cell function were developed. However, using an external SMF their delivery to deep tissue and to the site of damage is complicated, and the MNPs tend to distribute where the magnetic force is maximum, i.e., at the body surface, where the field is applied [12]. Having a MagS implanted in the injured tissue allows to attract the MNPs and the GFs while controlling their spatial distribution [13].
\nFinally, if the external magnetic stimulus is a radio-frequency (RF) magnetic field, the population of MNPs embedded in the biomaterial dissipates a huge amount of heat. The deposited power can be exploited as therapeutic heat, enabling to use the magnetic scaffold as a thermo-seed able to perform HT treatment against cancer cells [14].
\nTo date, magnetic scaffolds have been synthesized and characterized in terms of chemical and physical properties while proving experimentally their powerful and promising potential in regenerative medicine and oncology [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, to translate the use of these nanostructured biomaterials in the clinical practice, several limitations have to be overcome, and further investigations are required to predict their behavior [4]. The potential use of magnetic scaffolds as tissue substitutes needs the combined work of material scientists, biomedical engineers, and biologists. In particular, since in the literature there is a clear lack of mathematical and numerical models, which relate the physical properties of these nanocomposite biomaterials with the magnetic drug delivery or the hyperthermia, in this chapter, two mathematical models for their use as hyperthermia agent and as a tool for magnetic drug delivery are provided.
\nSection 2 briefly reviews the use of MagS as magneto-responsive biomaterials for the stimulation of tissues, in particular bone tissues. In Section 3 the nonlinear chemico-physical properties of magnetic scaffolds are presented, described, and used to introduce a recent in silico model for the planning of bone tumor hyperthermia [14]. Finally, in Section 4 the use of MagS as tool for active magnetic drug delivery is discussed. Furthermore, a mathematical model able of providing insights into the parameters of influence of the phenomenon is presented and analyzed [13]. The complete description of magnetic scaffolds favors the assessment of their effectiveness and their potential clinical impact.
\nMagnetic scaffolds have been tested both in vitro and in vivo, using animal models, demonstrating that they can transduce an external magnetic signal in mechanical stimulation to the cells attached to the biomaterial surface (Figure 1) [1, 2, 3, 4]. MagS have been investigated for bone, cartilage, cardiovascular and neuronal regeneration, and repair [2]. The most studied tissue is bone. The injury of skeletal tissue by traumas and diseases, such as osteoporosis, or by a tumor resection calls for the need of a bone substitute or scaffold to guide cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation [15]. Moreover, the bone tissue requires a continuous mechanical stimulation. Therefore, the magneto-responsive biomaterials in Table 1 can deliver a direct mechanical stimulation if exposed to SMF, to low-frequency magnetic field (strengths from to 18 \n
To understand the magnetization dynamic and the power losses of magnetic scaffolds, it is necessary to introduce the physical and mathematic descriptions of the response to a RF magnetic field of the MNPs embedded in it. If a population of magnetic nanoparticles in a solution is exposed to a harmonic RF magnetic field, they start to dissipate power due to the hysteresis loss but also to the magnetic dipole and to the Brownian relaxations [16]:
\nwhere \n
The term \n
where \n
where M\n
The term \n
The time required to the magnetic dipole moment to align with the direction of the external magnetic field is called the Néel relaxation time, \n
The pre-exponential factor \n
where K\n
In a FF, the nanoparticles are allowed to rotate and move according to Brownian motion in the viscous medium where they are dispersed. When subject to a time-varying magnetic field, the particles rotate to orient with the direction of the external energy source, thus contributing to the relaxation process. The Brownian relaxation time can be evaluated as [16]:
\nbeing \n
With Eqs. (1) to (9), it is possible to describe the frequency response and the power dissipation of a population of MNPs dispersed in a solution. This set of equations constitutes the theoretical basis for the understanding of magnetic scaffold behavior. However, since MagS are solid nanocomposites, the behavior of their magnetic phase is rather diverse than a FF. In the following, the experimental findings related to material characterizations and a new mathematical framework to account for their response are provided.
\nHyperthermia (HT) is a thermotherapy which aims at increasing the temperature of a target tissue between 41 and 46 C for about 60 min. For biological tissues, especially neoplasms and cancers, these temperatures are sufficient to damage the DNA of cells, altering its replication and also the repair pathways while determining cytotoxicity and activating the response of the host immune system [18, 19]. The rather chaotic vascular architecture of tumors is the reason of the thermo-sensibility of these pathologic tissues. The aforementioned biological effects can lead to the death of cancer cells, but, in the clinical practice, HT is exploited as a coadjuvant therapy combined with chemotherapy or/and radiotherapy rather than as a standalone therapy [19]. The hyperthermia can be induced using different types of energies, such as ultrasounds or electromagnetic (EM) field [14]. Currently different therapeutic modalities are available for HT induced by EM field. In particular, it is thoroughly investigated the local and in situ treatments using nanoparticles or magnetic scaffolds by exposing the target are with an external magnetic field.
\nSeveral magnetic scaffolds from Table 1 demonstrated to be capable of noticeable temperature increases when exposed to magnetic field working at the frequencies from 100 kHz to 1 MHz and with amplitude ranging from 8 to 25 kAm\n
These composite nanomaterials are identified as optimal candidates for local bone tumor hyperthermia [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14]. However, their therapeutic potential must be investigated in a critique way. The understanding and the modeling of the heat dissipation of the MNPs embedded in the biomaterial are essential to allow an effective treatment planning.
\nThe physical explanation of the relevant and significant temperature increases measured for MagS is not trivial. Moving from the theory explained in Section 3.1, the resonant Debye model cannot be applied to a system in which highly concentrated MNPs are fixed and embedded in a solid matrix and lattice or constrained in a highly viscous medium [13]. Indeed, the long-range interactions between the magnetic nanoparticles become relevant [20]. The following index \n
where the cubic power of the particle diameter, \n
Therefore, in MagS the only relaxation time is the Néel one.
\nThe influence of long-range interactions between particles, the modified distribution of anisotropy energy, and the different Néel relaxation dynamic are the factors that contribute to enhance the power dissipation of magnetic scaffolds, and all of them can help to explain the hyperthermia behavior of MagS, such as for the magnetic hydroxyapatite and the Fe-doped PCL scaffolds [7]. Relying on the magnetic susceptibility spectra of MNPs in agarose gel measured by Hergt et al. [21], a Cole-Cole model for magnetic scaffolds [13]:
\nEquation (12) can fit the susceptibility data, with a 1.5% relative error, as shown in Figure 2, whereas the Debye model cannot (Eq. (2)). In Eq. (12) \n
Results of the fitting of the magnetic susceptibility spectra of MNPs embedded in agarose: a) real part (in-phase) and b) imaginary (out-of-phase) components are presented [21]. The Debye and Cole-Cole models are used and compared Taken from [13].
With Eqs. (1)–(8), but using Eq. (12) instead of Eq. (2), it is possible to evaluate and estimate the power losses of magnetic scaffolds. At this point it should be noted that the magnetic susceptibility \n
Temperature variation of the pre-exponential term \n\n\nτ\n0\n\n\n and the Neel relaxation time \n\n\nτ\nN\n\n\n. The influence on the equilibrium and the complex magnetic susceptibility \n\n\nχ\n0\n\n\n and \n\nχ\n\nf\n\n\n is represented. The curves are obtained for a magnetic scaffold filled with the 0.2% of magnetite nanoparticles (r\n\n\n\n\nmnp\n\n\n=10 nm, M\n\n\n\n\ns\n\n\n(0) = 2 emu\n\n⋅\n\ng\n\n\n\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, T\n\n\n\n\nb\n\n\n=150 K).
Given the potential of magnetic scaffolds to be used as local heat source for setting the hyperthermia treatment of cancers, the most studied biological and clinical target of the nanosystems under investigation are bone cancers. Indeed, in clinical practice, currently available techniques such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and osteotomies presented a 15% probability of tumor recurrence, and therefore the hyperthermia treatment was proposed as adjuvant therapy [24]. Furthermore, since the surgical intervention causes a bone damage which calls for a graft or bone substitutes, magnetic scaffolds as theranostic, multifunctional, and magnetic-responsive biomaterials can be employed and can express their clinical potential [14].
\nBone tumors are neoplasms mostly affecting subjects with age between 10 and 25 years old, causing impairment and pain, thus ruining the quality of life [23]. Malignant bone cancers such as osteosarcoma (OST) and fibrosarcomas (FIB) are known to affect long bone extremities [23]. OST and FIB are two different forms of bone cancer. The OST is big, aggressive and highly vascularized, whereas FIB is a poorly vascularized neoplasm. The survival rate for patients affected by OST and FIB may vary from 28–40% [14, 23, 24]. To overcome these clinical issues, oncologist investigated the use of immunotherapy or smart nanocarriers of drugs, but local hyperthermia stands out as a very promising therapy [14]. The rationale is to implant a MagS after the bone tumor resection or reduction and then perform a local and in situ hyperthermia treatment by applying an external RF magnetic field. The residual cancer cells would be killed or increase their sensibility to drugs or radiations. Finally, the scaffolds would serve as supporting architecture for healthy cells, favoring tissue repair [14].
\nWith the knowledge of the mechanism of power dissipation of MNPs embedded in a scaffold, recently a numerical scenario, with layered geometry, was proposed to investigate using finite element methods (FEM) the effectiveness of magnetic scaffolds in treating the residual bone cells of OST and FIB tumors [14].
\nAs shown in Figure 4, imagining a surgical intervention of a bone cancer in distal femur, a spherical magnetic scaffold, with radius r\n
Simplified layered geometry for modeling the hyperthermia treatment of bone tumors using magnetic scaffolds. The MagS with radius r\n\n\n\n\ns\n\n\n = 5 mm is surrounded by a surgical fracture gap (r\n\n\n\n\nf\n\n\n = 0.1 mm), the area where residual cancer cells are present (r\n\n\n\n\nt\n\n\n = 0.1 mm–0.5 mm), and the healthy bone tissue (r\n\n\n\n\nb\n\n\n = 5 mm). Taken from [14].
With respect to the geometry in Figure 4, the HT treatment using MagS is carried out applying an external RF magnetic field with strength H\n
where \n
The EM problem is solved employing the RF module of the commercial FEM software COMSOL Multiphysics (COMSOL Inc., Burlington, MA). The MagS studied are the intrinsic magnetic hydroxyapatite and the PCL loaded with magnetite [7], as in [14]. The dielectric properties of scaffold and tissues at T\n
Material or tissue | \nRe[\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|
Magnetic hydroxyapatite | \n12.5 | \n2.1\n | \n
\n\n | \n2.20 | \n10\n | \n
Fracture gap–inflamed | \n3580 | \n0.545 | \n
Fracture gap–ischemic | \n1321 | \n0.196 | \n
Bone tumors: OST and FIB | \n8000 | \n0.280 | \n
Bone | \n192 | \n0.0214 | \n
Electromagnetic properties of scaffolds and tissues [14].
The power deposited by the MagS and conducted to the tissues in the system of Figure 4 modifies the temperature (\n
where \n
Eq. (14) was implemented in COMSOL using the Bio-Heat transfer module. The initial temperature T\n
Material or tissue | \nk, Wm\n | \nC\n | \nQ \n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Magnetic hydroxyapatite | \n1.33 | \n700 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n\n | \n0.488 | \n3359.2 | \n— | \n— | \n
Fracture gap–inflamed | \n0.558 | \n2450 | \n5262.5 | \n\n\n | \n
Fracture gap–ischemic | \n0.558 | \n2450 | \n5262.5 | \n\n\n | \n
Bone tumors: OST and FIB | \n0.32 | \n1313 | \n57,240 | \n2.42\n | \n
Bone | \n0.32 | \n1313 | \n286.2 | \n0.262\n | \n
Heat transfer properties of scaffolds and tissues [14].
The solution of Eq. (14) is a new temperature field. As previously discussed, the different system temperature determines a change in the magnetic and heat dissipation properties of the scaffolds. Also the dielectric and thermal properties of tissues vary with temperature [14]. To account for the influence of these variations on the outcome of HT treatment, the solution of Eq. (14) should be used to evaluate the EM power solving Eq. (13) for the next time step; then the next temperature distribution can be calculated considering the changed physical properties. This solution scheme is justified by the rather different dynamic of the EM and thermal fields [14].
\nIn the temperature range 37\n
The dielectric properties are assumed to increase linearly with c = 3% C\n
In this condition the strength, frequency, and envelope of the external RF magnetic field required to treat both osteosarcoma and fibrosarcoma cells were investigated.
\nThe temperature pattern resulting from the exposure to the homogeneous RF field is uniform and radial, as shown in Figure 5a. This is a consequence of the homogeneous distribution of the MNPs in the biomaterials [7, 14]. After 60 min of treatment, it can be noticed that the temperature in the healthy bone can reach 47\n
(a) 2D temperature distribution after 60 min of treatment using a RF magnetic field of 30 mT and working at 293 kHz. A OST with r\n\n\n\n\nt\n\n\n=0.5 mm is considered. (b) Average temperature in the region with residual FIB cells. (c) Average temperature in the region with residual OST cells. (MHA = magnetic hydroxyapatite).
Magnetic scaffolds were conceived as a multifunctional platform for tissue engineering applications (see Figure 1) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. As presented in the Introduction, they are a platform for magnetically targeted drug delivery of growth factors to control and enhance tissue healing, such as in the case of bone tissue [1, 11]. The bio-nanotechnology research developed magnetic carriers of biomolecules such as VEGF or TGF-\n
Considering the geometry of Figure 4, the analysis domain is limited to the scaffold and the fracture gap, neglecting the bone tumor and assuming that only healthy bone is present, in a way similar to [13]. The MagS and the gap have a radius of 5 mm. An external uniform and static magnetic flux density field of strength B\n
where all symbols have the previous definition. As presented in Table 1, the magnetization response of the scaffolds varies from a minimum of 0.4 emu\n
Due to the presence of the magnetic material, the magnetic field flux lines concentrate in the prosthetic implant, implying that the norm of the gradient of magnetic density field between the MagS and the diamagnetic tissues is relevant [6]. In the literature, it is reported that if the magnetic density field gradients are higher than 1.3 Tm\n
where M\n
where r\n
After having solved Eq. (17) and calculated Eqs. (18) and (19), the spatiotemporal distribution of the concentration of MNPs (C\n
D\n
The magnetic field distribution (Eq. (17)) is derived by solving numerically the magnetostatic problem for the geometry depicted in Figure 4 using the Magnetic Fields No Currents package from the AC/DC module of COMSOL Multiphysics. Then \n
Now, we assume that the MDD system is constituted by an active GF with concentration C\n
Given C\n
Similar to Eq. (20), Eq. (22) is subject to Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions, i.e., the diffusive flux of cell population should be null at the scaffold surface, and the cell concentration at host bone is set to a constant value of C\n
With this set of equations, it is possible to model the role of magnetic scaffolds as part of a MDD system studying the influence on the cellular migration and the scaffold colonization, providing valuable insight into the use of MagS as a tool in tissue engineering.
\nThe magnetic scaffolds exposed to the static magnetic flux density field B\n
(a) Normalized magnetic field distribution (\n\n\nH\n¯\n\n/\n\nH\n0\n\n\n). (b) Normalized MNP concentration profile after 48 h (\n\n\nC\nmnp\n\n/\n\nC\n\nm\n,\n0\n\n\n\n). (c) MSC density after 24 h (\n\n\nC\nc\n\n/\n\nC\n\nc\n,\n0\n\n\n\n).
This chapter presented an innovative family of nanocomposite magnetic biomaterials and their biomedical applications. Mixing magnetic nanoparticles with traditional biomaterials, e.g., polymer or ceramics, or chemically doping them allows the manufacturing of a magnetic-responsive biomaterial with multifunctional properties. The so-called magnetic scaffolds have been studied for their ability to transduce an external magnetic signal into mechanical and biological outcome, thus proving to be a powerful platform for cell and tissue stimulation [1, 2, 3, 4]. Exploiting the ability of the MNPs embedded in the biomaterial to dissipate power when exposed to a radio-frequency magnetic field makes MagS a valid candidate to perform local hyperthermia treatment on residual cancer cells. In this chapter the physical properties and the magnetic susceptibility of these novel composite nanosystems are investigated. Then an in silico model to study the feasibility of employing MagS in the treatment of bone cancers, such as osteosarcomas and fibrosarcomas, is presented [14]. The results indicate that further research on the nanomaterial is required to develop an effective and tailored magnetic scaffold. Finally, the potential of MagS to serve as an in vivo attraction site to enhance the magnetic drug delivery of growth factors is faced. To predict the final concentration pattern, a mathematical model which relates the nonlinear magnetic problem and the mass transport issue is presented. Furthermore, the link between these two aspects and the biological influence on cellular migration is challenged [13]. The results indicate that MagS are able to attract MNPs and exert an indirect action on MSCs in a way dependent on the geometrical and material properties.
\nThe authors would like to sincerely thank Prof. G. Mazzarella for the helpful discussions and suggestions to this work.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nbone morphogenetic protein-2
\ndynamic light scattering
\nextracellular matrix
\nfibrosarcoma
\nfinite element method
\nferrofluid
\ngrowth factor
\nmagnetic scaffold
\nmagnetic drug delivery
\nmagnetic field
\nmagnetic hydroxyapatite
\nmesenchymal stem cell
\nmagnetic nanoparticle
\nosteosarcoma
\npoly-caprolactone
\nradio frequency
\nstatic magnetic field
\ntricalcium phosphate
\ntransmission electron microscope
\nvascular endothelial growth factor
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5313},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4819},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1468},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9362},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14778}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108153},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8452",title:"Argumentation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0860d5da35173d066fe692466ccc4487",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8525",title:"LGBT+ Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6cb260b7524f548de18dac8fd97d5db7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8525.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7821",title:"Penology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2127505059817f762d95d38e83fa4b58",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7821.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9036",title:"Social Policy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4266fa2d0a91696ade5421a773b40ec7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9036.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9037",title:"Types of Nonverbal Communication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cc8207a08817f9049b2706066fb9ecd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9037.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9038",title:"Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3761e38ada032e79742e548afe09a389",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9038.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9041",title:"Active Reinforcement Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10d7900003c7af88a8d62946cd0dd920",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9041.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9542",title:"Social Welfare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f87eca1e1da98d96aa76e55ab97eeb90",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9542.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9538",title:"Generational Gap",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cf567fd09f3be48bf8dc6337fa13df6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9538.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9533",title:"Capitalism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5c20736ce60a5d627594d8036b8d64a7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9533.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9543",title:"Poverty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f1ced86a0f516c65e633cb59f944ae0e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9543.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9539",title:"Social Enterprise",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ace77329fc7d282621439e01547ec5c0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9539.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:35},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:75},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:37},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:142},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:28},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4392},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7187",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Mechanisms, and Translational Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89096359b754beb806eca4c6d8aacaba",slug:"osteosarcoma-diagnosis-mechanisms-and-translational-developments",bookSignature:"Matthew Gregory Cable and Robert Lawrence Randall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7187.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265693",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Cable",slug:"matthew-gregory-cable",fullName:"Matthew Gregory Cable"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a76c3ef7718c0b72d0128817cdcbe6e3",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"505",title:"Electrochemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-electrochemistry",parent:{title:"Physical Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry"},numberOfBooks:17,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:423,numberOfWosCitations:300,numberOfCrossrefCitations:158,numberOfDimensionsCitations:410,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-electrochemistry",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6778",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",subtitle:"Theory to Design",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0bee36d692b3ce00b11fef507609d521",slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",bookSignature:"Abhijit Ray, Indrajit Mukhopadhyay and Ranjan K. Pati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6778.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174737",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"abhijit-ray",fullName:"Abhijit Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5913",title:"Redox",subtitle:"Principles and Advanced Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc323da5a080b0f626da4c6099b5193a",slug:"redox-principles-and-advanced-applications",bookSignature:"Mohammed Awad Ali Khalid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5913.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5381",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Progress and Developments in",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e87c37c4d014c11121453605e6d0f37a",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",bookSignature:"Scott Handy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42658",title:"Prof.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"Handy",slug:"scott-handy",fullName:"Scott Handy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4599",title:"Ion Exchange",subtitle:"Studies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e45cfed818bc38f70a214561b0a1e21",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",middleName:null,surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4524",title:"Field Effect Electroosmosis",subtitle:"A Novel Phenomenon in Electrokinetics and its Applications in Capillary Electrophoresis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"565f91c26b8f3a3c73d9e28145d7b269",slug:"field-effect-electroosmosis-a-novel-phenomenon-in-electrokinetics-and-its-applications-in-capillary-electrophoresis",bookSignature:"Kiumars Ghowsi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145098",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiumars",middleName:null,surname:"Ghowsi",slug:"kiumars-ghowsi",fullName:"Kiumars Ghowsi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2437",title:"Electrochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d77896d92a0b2f69168537e0b57c8ab",slug:"electrochemistry",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2437.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40312",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"Awad",surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3476",title:"Developments in Electrochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0d070ce0c17777f7605b91a0beac07e",slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry",bookSignature:"Jang H. Chun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2549",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5d70a346ca433c501e5968f54286740",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",middleName:null,surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2264",title:"Scanning Probe Microscopy",subtitle:"Physical Property Characterization at Nanoscale",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a969e2a47b3e08d1e8c1ff3c3503fcf",slug:"scanning-probe-microscopy-physical-property-characterization-at-nanoscale",bookSignature:"Vijay Nalladega",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2264.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105093",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Nalladega",slug:"vijay-nalladega",fullName:"Vijay Nalladega"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1455",title:"Electroplating",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18ec8cf0e50c5e8170a9d0b20af09b7f",slug:"electroplating",bookSignature:"Darwin Sebayang and Sulaiman Bin Haji Hasan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1455.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",middleName:null,surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2282",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",subtitle:"Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"17fb7c8076806f6aca457071b7e7ce10",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",bookSignature:"Victor Bellitto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2282.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111789",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Bellitto",slug:"victor-bellitto",fullName:"Victor Bellitto"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1430",title:"Electrochemical Cells",subtitle:"New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d6940c11056ad45b64997133a536a0f",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yan Shao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39811",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Shao",slug:"yan-shao",fullName:"Yan Shao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:17,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:19908,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:45,book:{slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:17479,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:41,book:{slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"25422",doi:"10.5772/28293",title:"Electrochemical Polymerization of Aniline",slug:"electrochemical-polymerization-of-aniline",totalDownloads:10657,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"electropolymerization",title:"Electropolymerization",fullTitle:"Electropolymerization"},signatures:"Milica M. Gvozdenović, Branimir Z. Jugović, Jasmina S. Stevanović, Tomislav Lj. Trišović and Branimir N. Grgur",authors:[{id:"73400",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",middleName:null,surname:"Gvozdenović",slug:"milica-gvozdenovic",fullName:"Milica Gvozdenović"},{id:"78801",title:"Dr.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Jugović",slug:"branimir-jugovic",fullName:"Branimir Jugović"},{id:"78807",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Stevanović",slug:"jasmina-stevanovic",fullName:"Jasmina Stevanović"},{id:"120374",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",middleName:null,surname:"Trišović",slug:"tomislav-trisovic",fullName:"Tomislav Trišović"},{id:"120376",title:"Prof.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Grgur",slug:"branimir-grgur",fullName:"Branimir Grgur"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55292",title:"On the Titration Curves and Titration Errors in Donor Acceptor Titrations of Displacement and Electronic Transference Reactions",slug:"on-the-titration-curves-and-titration-errors-in-donor-acceptor-titrations-of-displacement-and-electr",totalDownloads:1171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"redox-principles-and-advanced-applications",title:"Redox",fullTitle:"Redox - Principles and Advanced Applications"},signatures:"Julia Martín, Laura Ortega Estévez and Agustín G. Asuero",authors:[{id:"190870",title:"Dr.",name:"Agustín G.",middleName:null,surname:"Asuero",slug:"agustin-g.-asuero",fullName:"Agustín G. Asuero"},{id:"190871",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"julia-martin",fullName:"Julia Martín"},{id:"203696",title:"Ms.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega Estévez",slug:"laura-ortega-estevez",fullName:"Laura Ortega Estévez"}]},{id:"61933",title:"Theoretical Basis of Electrocatalysis",slug:"theoretical-basis-of-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:1015,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Chi Ho Lee and Sang Uck Lee",authors:null},{id:"40697",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:17479,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:41,book:{slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"55442",title:"Redox Flow Batteries: Fundamentals and Applications",slug:"redox-flow-batteries-fundamentals-and-applications",totalDownloads:1822,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"redox-principles-and-advanced-applications",title:"Redox",fullTitle:"Redox - Principles and Advanced Applications"},signatures:"Ruiyong Chen, Sangwon Kim and Zhenjun Chang",authors:[{id:"199502",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruiyong",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"ruiyong-chen",fullName:"Ruiyong Chen"},{id:"205906",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangwon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"sangwon-kim",fullName:"Sangwon Kim"},{id:"205907",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenjun",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"zhenjun-chang",fullName:"Zhenjun Chang"}]},{id:"62242",title:"Oxygen Reduction Reaction",slug:"oxygen-reduction-reaction",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Lindiwe Khotseng",authors:null},{id:"61784",title:"Active Sites Derived from Heteroatom Doping in Carbon Materials for Oxygen Reduction Reaction",slug:"active-sites-derived-from-heteroatom-doping-in-carbon-materials-for-oxygen-reduction-reaction",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Winston Duo Wu and Dan Xu",authors:null},{id:"52110",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:1952,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]},{id:"40709",title:"The Role of Ion Exchange Chromatography in Purification and Characterization of Molecules",slug:"the-role-of-ion-exchange-chromatography-in-purification-and-characterization-of-molecules",totalDownloads:11424,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Hidayat Ullah Khan",authors:[{id:"140538",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"hidayat-khan",fullName:"Hidayat Khan"}]},{id:"40696",title:"Investigation of Sorption and Separation of Lanthanides on the Ion Exchangers of Various Types",slug:"investigation-of-sorption-and-separation-of-lanthanides-on-the-ion-exchangers-of-various-types",totalDownloads:8650,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Dorota Kołodyńska and Zbigniew Hubicki",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"53307",title:"Ionic Liquids/Ionic Liquid Crystals for Safe and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems",slug:"ionic-liquids-ionic-liquid-crystals-for-safe-and-sustainable-energy-storage-systems",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Renjith Sasi",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"187915",title:"Mr.",name:"Renjith",middleName:null,surname:"Sasi",slug:"renjith-sasi",fullName:"Renjith Sasi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-electrochemistry",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6837",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea7789260b319b9a4b472257f57bfeb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mitsunobu Sato, Dr. Li Lu and Dr. Hiroki Nagai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179615",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9423",title:"Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process Industry Automation, Heat and Power Generation and Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10ac8fb0bdbf61044395963028653d21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis and Prof. Erik Dahlquist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9423.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35868",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kyprianidis",slug:"konstantinos-kyprianidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyprianidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Romeral Martinez, Dr. Roque A. Osornio-Rios and Dr. Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10107",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Oncology Drug Discovery & Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"043c178c3668865ab7d35dcb2ceea794",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John Cassidy and Dr. Belle Taylor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10107.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244455",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"john-cassidy",fullName:"John Cassidy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/45650/aike-qiao",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"45650",slug:"aike-qiao"},fullPath:"/profiles/45650/aike-qiao",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()