Some drugs used empirically without approval for emergency use.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Examples of the applications include drug delivery, shape memory polymers, gene delivery, biosensor, tissue engineering, flexible electronic devices, antibacterial composites, photovoltaic devices, and physical sensors. Its excellent properties can be used to develop smart nanomaterials with enhanced properties for various advanced applications. There is no doubt that graphene-based nanomaterials are helping to develop next generation technologies with enhancing properties to change people's lifestyles. This book provides an overview of recent research and development of synthesis of graphene and its applications.",isbn:"978-1-83962-882-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-881-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-883-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73354",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"graphene-and-its-derivatives-synthesis-and-applications",numberOfPages:100,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"63a9783e678fc42ce981efb35be02096",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Fabian I. Ezema",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6845.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5516,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25524/images/system/25524.jpg",biography:"Ishaq Ahmad, PhD, is the director of Experimental Physics of NCP (National Centre for Physics), Islamabad, Pakistan. He has coauthored over 80 publications and supervised several master’s, PhD, and postdoctoral degree students. His research interests are focused on ion implantation, ion beam–induced modification of materials/nanomaterials, ion beam–induced welding of nanowires/nanotubes, and ion beam analysis of materials. He is an editorial board member and a reviewer of several well-known journals. He was a TWAS-UNESCO-iThemba LABS research associate from 2014 to 2016. He is a senior fellow of UNESCO UNISA AFRICA chair in nanosciences/nanotechnology and senior fellow of the Nanosciences African Network (NANOAFNET), an ICTP network.",institutionString:"National Center for Physics",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"253379",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabian",middleName:null,surname:"Ezema",slug:"fabian-ezema",fullName:"Fabian Ezema",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253379/images/system/253379.png",biography:"Fabian Ezema is a Professor at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. He obtained a PhD in Physics and Astronomy from University of Nigeria (UNN), Nsukka in the year 2000. His research interests are on several areas of Materials Science: synthesis and characterizations of particles, and thin film materials on energy and sensing applications. \n\nHe was a CV Raman Fellow at the Shivaji University Kolhapur India in 2011 and MIF Fellow at Tokyo University of Science, Japan in 2013. He is currently a visiting professor to NRS-EMT (MATECSS UNESCO Chair) in Varennes, Quebec, Canada and iThemba Labs South Africa. He is also a Fellow of UNESCO-UNISA South Africa Chair in Nanosciences and Nanotechnology (U2ACN2). He is awarded UNISA visiting researcher for 12 months to work on perovskite solar cells. He is the team leader of the Nano Research Group at UNN, an Acting Director, International Office of the University of Nigeria. He is the pioneer Dean of the Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Coal City University, Enugu on sabbatical leave. \n\nWith international collaborators from Canada, USA, Japan, South Africa, Singapore, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, etc, Fabian has published over 140 high impact papers in various national and international journals and gave over 30 talks at various conferences, workshops and seminars.",institutionString:"University of Nigeria",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Nigeria, Nsukka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"159",title:"Semiconductor",slug:"semiconductor"}],chapters:[{id:"67265",title:"Introductory Chapter: Graphene and Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86023",slug:"introductory-chapter-graphene-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:1287,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Raphael Mmaduka Obodo, Ishaq Ahmad and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67265",authors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"69195",title:"Water Remediation by G-/GO-Based Photocatalysts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85144",slug:"water-remediation-by-g-go-based-photocatalysts",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Graphene, a two-dimensional sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms, has shown to be the most fascinating and promising option among nanomaterials for a variety of applications, because of its unique structure and tunable physiochemical properties. It can be either in the pure form or in its modified derivatives that include graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), graphene-metal nanoparticle composites, graphene-polymer hybrids, and graphene/organic structures that showed improved results while maintaining inherent properties of the material. These modified nanostructures have a variety of applications as catalysts, energy storage/conversion, antimicrobial, and water decontaminant. In the field of environmental science, graphene has been widely used for molecular sieving involving gas phase separation and organic waste removal from water, due to its biocompatibility, various functional groups, and accessible surface area. Modified graphene can also serve as a semiconductor that can increase the efficiency of the photocatalytic ecosystems that results in the inactivation of the microorganisms causing the organic chemicals to degrade.",signatures:"Humaira Seema",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69195",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63951",title:"Enhancing Liquid Phase Exfoliation of Graphene in Organic Solvents with Additives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81462",slug:"enhancing-liquid-phase-exfoliation-of-graphene-in-organic-solvents-with-additives",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Graphene is the wonder carbon nanomaterial with excellent electrical, mechanical, chemical and optical properties suitable for the fabrication of modern electronics devices such as supercapacitors, sensors, FET etc. Liquid phase exfoliation is the economical, safe, facile method of graphene synthesis without the requirement of harmful chemicals, toxic gases. However, the low concentration of graphene (<0.01 mg/ml) obtained by this method limits its application in various fields. Various techniques have been employed for enhancing the graphene concentration in certain organic solvents. Addition of additives and salts can enhance the graphene concentration in organic solvents to some extent. In this chapter, the earlier work done in enhancing graphene concentration is explained. Further, this technique is employed for graphene concentration enhancement in solvents by using new salts and additives. The results obtained with various additives are compared and it was found that by adding anthracene in NMP solvent graphene concentration increases upto 0.04 mg/ml. This process can be easily scaled up for better performance, and resulting high concentration graphene can be used for the fabrication of the efficient modern electronics devices.",signatures:"Randhir Singh Bhoria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63951",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63064",title:"Graphene-Based Heterogeneous Electrodes for Energy Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80068",slug:"graphene-based-heterogeneous-electrodes-for-energy-storage",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As an intriguing two dimensional material, graphene has attracted intense interest due to its high stability, large carrier mobility as well as the excellent conductivity. The addition of graphene into the heterogeneous electrodes has been proved to be an effective method to improve the energy storage performance. In this chapter, the latest graphene based heterogeneous electrodes will be fully reviewed and discussed for energy storage. In detail, the assembly methods, including the ball-milling, hydrothermal, electrospinning, and microwave-assisted approaches will be illustrated. The characterization techniques, including the x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy will also be presented. The mechanisms behind the improved performance will also be fully reviewed and demonstrated. A conclusion and an outlook will be given in the end of this chapter to summarize the recent advances and the future opportunities, respectively.",signatures:"Ning Wang, Haixu Wang, Guang Yang, Rong Sun and Ching-Ping Wong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63064",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63064",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65428",title:"Graphene Acoustic Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81603",slug:"graphene-acoustic-devices",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 2011, Ren’s group has developed the first graphene sound source device in the world. This is the first time that the graphene applications have been extended into acoustic area. The graphene sound source can produce sound in a wide sound frequency range from 100 Hz to 50 kHz. After that, we have innovated the first graphene earphone, which can be used both for human and animals. In 2017, both the sound detection and sound emission have been integrated into one graphene device, which is called graphene artificial throat. In this book chapter, more details for developing those graphene acoustic devices will be introduced, which can help to boost the real applications of graphene devices.",signatures:"He Tian, Guang-Yang Gou, Fan Wu, Lu-Qi Tao, Yi Yang and Tian-Ling Ren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65428",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6140",title:"Accelerator Physics",subtitle:"Radiation Safety and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f68c778ce6d0271e05997c75618cd6b6",slug:"accelerator-physics-radiation-safety-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Maaza Malek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6140.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5802",title:"Ion Implantation",subtitle:"Research and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7a1bd893c9f0b454cf061b5906d99de",slug:"ion-implantation-research-and-application",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8188",title:"Ion Beam Techniques and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f212072e7141ba20788b6fe79d28370",slug:"ion-beam-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Tingkai Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6083",title:"Semiconductors",subtitle:"Growth and Characterization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53bed47ef5d839f8d10d5f1a3b050c49",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",bookSignature:"Rosalinda Inguanta and Carmelo Sunseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosalinda",surname:"Inguanta",slug:"rosalinda-inguanta",fullName:"Rosalinda Inguanta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8866",title:"Silicon Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7cfb39af7a429ef119b71a2e1f221e7",slug:"silicon-materials",bookSignature:"Beddiaf Zaidi and Slimen Belghit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8866.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230574",title:"Dr.",name:"Beddiaf",surname:"Zaidi",slug:"beddiaf-zaidi",fullName:"Beddiaf Zaidi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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After two millennia of recorded civilization, consideration of ethics and social values in all that we strive for is a long-overdue phenomenon. Therefore this is a journey that we’ve just embarked on thanks to the emergence of ADM/ALS and should not be treated as a destination in line with many other facets and emergent properties of products, services, and systems. This book informs policymakers and practitioners about best practices in technology ethics pertinent to many disciplines and sectors.",isbn:"978-1-83969-161-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-160-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-162-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92952",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"factoring-ethics-in-technology-policy-making-regulation-and-ai",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"eff20787f4c5417ea12367e8a6d72e92",bookSignature:"Ali G. Hessami and Patricia Shaw",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10576.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2092,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Prof. Hessami is leading the articulation, modeling, and specification of suites of ethical criteria for global assurance and certification of "autonomous decision making" (ADM) and "algorithmic learning systems" (ALS) through the world\'s largest technical professional institution, IEEE. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA), a fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), and a senior member of IEEE.',coeditorOneBiosketch:"Patricia Shaw is a non-practicing solicitor, public speaker, and writer in the area of AI and data ethics, and CEO and founder of Beyond Reach Consulting Limited, UK, a tech ethics (policy, governance, and legal) consultancy.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108303/images/system/108303.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ali G. Hessami is Director of R&D and Innovation at Vega Systems with extensive experience in the design and development of control systems for business and safety-critical industrial applications. \r\nUK representative on CENELEC & IEC safety and security systems standards committees and chairing IEEE Systems Council Chapter and SIGHT group in the UK and Ireland Section.\r\nTechnical Editor and Chair of the landmark IEEE 7000 standard on “Addressing Ethical Concerns in System Design”. \r\nThe VC and Process Architect of the IEEE‘s global Ethics Certification Programme for Autonomous & Intelligent Systems (ECPAIS). \r\nVisiting Professor at London City University and at Beijing Jiaotong University, also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA), Fellow of the UK Institution of Engineering & Technology (IET), and a Life Senior Member of IEEE.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"City, University of London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"330450",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",slug:"patricia-shaw",fullName:"Patricia Shaw",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/330450/images/system/330450.jpg",biography:"With twenty years of experience as a solicitor in technology, regulatory/government affairs, and risk management, Patricia Shaw advises on artificial intelligence (AI) and data ethics, policy, and governance, including ethics advisory boards. She is a public speaker and author, with contributions in The AI Book,1 The Law of AI,2 and Responsible AI: A Global Policy Framework Update 2021.3 She also chairs the UK Society for Computers and Law, sits on the board of and is vice-chair of the AI Committee for iTechLaw, and is an advocate for responsible AI through her work with ForHumanity, Women Leading in AI, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).",institutionString:"Beyond Reach Consulting Limited",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"267",title:"Ethics",slug:"ethics"}],chapters:[{id:"78545",title:"Introductory Chapter: AI’s Very Unlevel Playing Field",slug:"introductory-chapter-ai-s-very-unlevel-playing-field",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. 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According to GLOBOCAN estimates, about 14.1 million new cancer cases and 8.2 million deaths occurred in 2012 worldwide [1]. The incidence and mortality rates of cancer differ between countries. However, over the last decades, the burden of cancer has shifted to less developed countries due to later stage of diagnosis and unavailability of treatment. Currently about 57% of cancer cases and 65% of cancer deaths occurs in less developed countries [1, 2]. The cancer profile also varies between countries. The incidence rates of prostate, colorectal, female breast and lung cancer are several times higher in more developed countries compared with less developed countries. Liver, stomach, and cervical cancers are more frequent in less developed countries; these cancers are predominantly attributable to infection. However, lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death globally [1].
\nThe burden of cancer is rising because of the aging of the population, and increasing exposure to established carcinogenic chemicals, viruses and radiations, as well as adoption of unhealthy lifestyle behaviors such as smoking, alcohol intake, overweight, and limited physical activity. Moreover, the success of screening programs and earlier detection of cancer have contributed to the rise of cancer problem [1, 2].
\nCarcinogens are substances which induce cancer, by damaging the genome or through disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Carcinogens have usually an insidious toxic effect rather than an acute toxic effect. Carcinogens could be either from synthetic chemicals or natural substances. Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic agents according to mechanism of carcinogenesis. Genotoxins bind directly to DNA causing irreversible damage to the genome like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but could promote growth, like hormones and some organic compounds. Procarcinogens are not carcinogenic themselves, but turn into carcinogenic substances in the body, e.g. nitrates taken in the diet change into nitrosamines which is carcinogenic. Co-carcinogens are substances that promote the activity of other carcinogens in causing cancer but they are not carcinogenic on their own [3].
\nChemical carcinogenesis was first described in 1775 by an eminent English physician and surgeon, Percivall Pott who observed the occurrence of cancer of the scrotum in a number of his patients who were chimney sweepers when they were young [3, 4]. Accordingly, Pott suggested that the occupation of these men as young boys and their exposure to large amounts of soot could be the causative agent of the cancer. One hundred years later, the high incidence of skin cancer among certain German workers was recognized to be associated to their exposure to coal tar, the chief constituent of the chimney sweeps’ soot [5].
\nOnly after 140 years of Dr. Pott’s report of the association of epidermal cancer of the scrotum with the exposure to soot from the combustion of coal, the first experimental laboratory animal study on carcinogenesis was reported. In 1915, Yamagawa and Ichikawa first published a comprehensive paper describing the production of a malignant epidermal neoplasm by repeatedly applying crude coal tar to the ears of rabbits for a number of months [6]. Afterwards, several studies tried to define and isolate the causative carcinogenic substance from the crude tar. In 1930s, the first carcinogenic chemical compound, dibenz[a,h]anthracene was produced, followed by several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were isolated from active crude tar fractions.
\nSince 1971, The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has evaluated more than 1000 agents, and has classified them into five groups as follows [7]:
\nGroup 1: Carcinogenic to humans (120 agents).
Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans (81 agents)
Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans (299 agents)
Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans (502 agents)
Group 4: Probably not carcinogenic to humans (1 agent)
Carcinogenesis could be classified into four phases; initiation, promotion, progression and metastasis. Carcinogenic chemicals can initiate and/or promote this process by affecting the expression and activity of certain genes responsible for cell growth, differentiation, DNA repair, cell-cycle control, and apoptosis. Some compounds interact directly with DNA, while others are activated to reactive molecules that can bind with DNA by covalent adducts causing mutations in genes crucial to biological processes. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are known to cause cancer by forming covalent adducts with DNA, resulting in altered cell growth and repair [3].
\nChemical carcinogens can target certain genes termed proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which when become mutated, allow cells to grow without control like in breast, colon and lung cancers. Two well studied proto-oncogenes are MYC and RAS, which are responsible for regulation of the cell cycle and apoptosis. MYC function is involved in protein-protein interactions with various cellular factors such as in Burkitt’s Lymphoma. RAS function as GTP-binding protein; important in signal transduction cascade such as in Pancreatic, Colorectal, Bladder Breast, Kidney, & Lung Neoplasms; Leukemia; Melanoma [8, 9]. Mutations in these genes can cause dysregulated cell division. The mutant proteins maintain their normal functions but are no longer under control of orders that regulate these processes. The products of RAS gene are essential components of kinase signaling pathways that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Mutations in RAS can be caused by organochlorine pesticide and exposure to arsenic [3].
\nOne of the most well recognized tumor suppressor genes is p53 also known as TP53 or tumor protein (EC:2.7.1.37) is a gene that codes for a protein that regulates the cell cycle and hence functions as a tumor suppression. Under suboptimal conditions such as DNA damage, tumor suppressor genes produce products that inhibit cell division for growth. Mutations in p53 have been discovered in breast cancer and bronchial cancer exposed to organophosphorus pesticides and PAHs [10].
\nCigarette smoking is the most important carcinogen. Cigarettes are the predominant type of tobacco product consumed in the world. Worldwide, more than 1 million cancer deaths are attributed to cigarette smoking annually. Cigarette smoking is the major cause of lung cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone are likely to play major roles lung cancer induction [11].
\nCigarette smoking is a major risk factor for cancers of oral cavity, oropharynx hypopharynx and Larynx, and the risk is greatly increased by alcohol consumption. Most cases of esophageal cancer, sinonasal and nasopharyngeal cancer, liver cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, cervical squamous cell carcinoma, transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder, ureter, and renal pelvis and myeloid leukemia in adults are linked to cigarette smoking [12].
\nLaboratory studies clearly demonstrate that inhalation of cigarette smoke and topical application of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) cause cancer in experimental animals. Studies identified the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cigarette smoke and showed that CSC has both carcinogenic and cocarcinogenic (tumor-promoting activity) effect. Tumors are not induced by the PAHs alone, using doses equivalent to their concentrations in CSC. However, carcinogenesis appears to depend on the composite interaction of the tumor initiators such as PAHs and tumor promoters [12].
\nCigarette smoke contains more than 60 carcinogenic compounds that have been evaluated for carcinogenicity in laboratory animals, and 15 of them are considered as carcinogenic to humans. PAHs are a group of compounds produced from tobacco smoking. PAHs have a direct local carcinogenic effect. Benzo[a]pyrene, one of PAHs, has powerful carcinogenic activity to humans. Heterocyclic compounds are also combustion products and include nitrogen-containing analogues of PAHs such as furan, which is carcinogenic to liver [12].
\nN-nitrosamines are a large group of potent carcinogens. N-nitrosamines in cigarette smoke can induce lung tumors, tumors of the pancreas, nasal cavity, and liver and esophageal tumors. Aromatic amines such as 2-naphthylamine and 4-aminobiphenyl, which is the first identified carcinogens resulting from dye industry exposures, causes bladder cancer. Aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are commonly present in our daily life from smoking. Other carcinogens present in cigarette smoke are vinyl chloride, and ethylene oxide [12, 13].
\nCigarette smoke also contains oxidants such as nitric oxide and free radicals that are involved in oxidative damage produced by cigarette smoke. Cigarette smoke contains diverse carcinogens. PAH, N-nitrosamines, aromatic amines, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, aldehydes, and ethylene oxide are among the most important carcinogenic compounds present in cigarette smoke [12].
\nPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds composed of two or more fused aromatic (benzene) rings containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms. PAHs containing two and three rings are present in vapor phase in atmosphere as they have low molecular weight. However, PAHs with five rings or more are largely bound to particles and considered the most hazardous to humans. PAHs with intermediate molecular weight (four rings) are allocated between vapor and particulate phases. More than 11 carcinogenic PAHs were detected in the air of industrial countries. The most widely-spread PAHs compound is benzo[a]pyrene which is used as a marker for total exposure to carcinogenic PAHs. Polycyclic hydrocarbons differ in their carcinogenicity; some have weak carcinogenic effect like, the compound dibenzo[a,c]anthracene, while others have potent carcinogenicity like 3-methylcholanthrene and 7,12-dimethylbenzo[a]anthracene [14].
\nPAHs are released into the environment form the combustion of carbon containing materials at high temperature. Indoor air contamination by PAHs occurs from indoor emission sources such as smoking, cooking, domestic heating with fuel stoves and open fireplaces, as well as from intrusion of outdoor air [14].
\nPAHs emissions from motor vehicle, power generation plants, waste incinerators and open burning are considered the main component of outdoor sources in industrialized countries. In developing countries, cooking and heating with solid fuels such as wood, agricultural residues or coal remains the main contributing source of indoor PAHs air pollution [14].
\nIndividual exposure to PAHs occurs via inhalation of air, consumption of food and water, and dermal contact with soil and dust. Indoor air would be the major source contributing to the PAHs exposure through inhalation, as people spent 80–93% of their time indoors [14].
\nPAHs are easily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of human, as they are highly lipid soluble. Then they are rapidly distributed in a various tissues with a tendency for localization in fatty tissues. PAHs metabolized via the cytochrome P450s and epoxide hydrolase enzymes [14].
\nThe carcinogenic potential of PAHs has been well established for decades, and evidence to date has resulted in many of these compounds being labeled as reasonably carcinogenic. Lung tumors have been detected in animals exposed to PAHs. In vitro studies showed that c-myc expression, adduct formation, and cell-cycle progression are altered in lung epithelial cells exposed to PAHs [15].
\nThe mechanisms of carcinogenesis of PAHs have been extensively investigated. PAHs might cause DNA adducts. Recent studies indicate that PAHs can alter cell signaling cascades that control cell communication, growth, and immune functions. PAHs have been shown to act through nuclear receptors [15].
\nNitrosamines are a class of approximately 300 compounds and about 90% of them have been found to be carcinogenic. For example dimethylnitrosamine causes liver cancer, whereas some of the tobacco specific nitrosamines cause lung cancer. Nitrates and nitrites occur naturally in fruit and vegetables, which are considered as an important part of a healthy diet in most countries. Nitrates and nitrites are often used as food additives in processed meats such as ham, bacon, sausages and hot dogs to prevent toxin production by Clostridium Botulinum (the microorganism responsible for botulism), and preserve meat products recognizable appearance and flavor as well [13].
\nNitrosamines are produced by chemical reactions of nitrates or its reduced form nitrites with amines in the meat during its processing, storage, and cooking. N
Nitrates (NO3) and nitrites (NO2) are inorganic compounds, composed of a single nitrogen atom (N) and a number of oxygen atoms (O). It is believed that nitrates themselves are relatively inert, and activated by nitrate reductase enzyme from bacteria in the mouth into to nitrites. Then nitrites are converted to nitrous acid by the acidic juices in stomach, which further reacts with amines to form nitrosamines. The carcinogenesis of nitrosamines could be through gene mutation and DNA adductions. A high consumption of processed meats was correlated to an increased gastric cancer risk, and many people consider nitrates/nitrites as the main reason for that [13].
\nAflatoxin is a potent human carcinogen. It is a naturally occurring toxic metabolite produced by certain fungi (Aspergillus flavis). Aflatoxins are an interesting example of DNA damaging agents from a natural source. Among the aflatoxins of natural origin, aflatoxin B1 is the most potent hepatocarcinogen and considered to be the most toxic. Aflatoxins are regularly found in improperly stored staple commodities such as cassava, corn, cotton seed, millet, peanuts, rice, sesame seeds, and wheat [16].
\nAflatoxins may be metabolized in the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M1. Aflatoxins are commonly ingested through contaminated food. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into eggs, milk products, and meat. However the most toxic type of aflatoxin B1, can permeate through the skin. It has been suggested that aflatoxins induce p53 gene mutations in hepatocytes [16].
\nMany drugs have carcinogenic potential such as intercalating antibiotics or nitroimidazole derivatives like metronidazole. The mechanism of action of nitroimidazoles is through reduction of the nitro group in predominantly anaerobic environments leads to formation of reactive intermediate products and hence destruction of DNA strands. Antimicrobial agents can be directly toxic, can interact with other drugs to increase their toxicity, or can alter microbial flora to cause infection by organisms that are normally saprophytic [17].
\nThe majority of cytostatic agents (like: melphalan, nitrosourea, etoposide) are potentially carcinogenic. Certain tumors have been triggered by chemotherapy. Furthermore, some cytostatic agents have an immunosuppressive effect which renders the organism unable to eliminate mutated cells efficiently.
\nOwing to increased survival rates after chemotherapy, some patients develop years after primary therapy secondary malignancy. Most of secondary malignancies appear in the first 10 years after chemotherapy, especially after alkylating agents or nitrosourea derivatives. Of the alkylating agents, ALKERAN (melphalan), also known as L-phenylalanine mustard, phenylalanine mustard, LPAM, or L-sarcolysin, is a phenylalanine derivative of nitrogen mustard. According to previous studies, alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide, melphalan or procarbazine have the strongest leukemogenic potential [18].
\nPesticides are a group of biologically active natural and synthetic chemicals, which are used to kill unwanted harmful insects, fungi, rodents and plants. All pesticides contain biologically active compounds that are purposely designed to interfere with normal biologic processes in target organisms. Therefore, individuals exposed to certain pesticides may be at risk to the development of certain cancers. Exposure to these pesticides could be through occupational exposures, the ingestion of contaminated food and water, by absorption through the skin, or by inhalation during application [19].
\nCurrently, evidence supports that pesticides containing arsenic and ethylene oxide have the potential to cause cancer in humans. Pesticides may cause cancers by affecting cellular proliferation, apoptosis, and cell communication and inducing oxidative stress through nongenotoxic mechanisms. For example, 1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2-bis(
Though DDT was banned in the United State in the early 1970s, it is still used in other countries, and high levels of DDT has been detected in air, water, soil, plants, animals, and human tissues. The organochlorine pesticide 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)-ethane (DDT), is a well-known and widely dispersed “environmental estrogen” (World Health Organization Criteria no. 9; Geneva, Switzerland (1979)”.
\nInorganic arsenic has been suggested to be a human carcinogen since 1977. Arsenic is emitted into the atmosphere mainly from anthropogenic sources and a small amount from natural sources. Individuals may be exposed to arsenic compounds through contaminated food and drinking water or air emissions from industrial facilities that manufacture pesticides, glass, and cigarette tobacco [21].
\nEvidence suggests that there is a strong association between arsenic exposure and the development of skin, lung, bladder, kidney, liver, and colon cancers. The mechanism by which arsenic causes cancer is not well understood. It has been proposed that Arsenic does not interact with DNA, but indirectly causes chromosome aberrations, genomic instability, and aberrant DNA methylation in promoter regions of genes [22].
\nDioxins are a group of structurally related compounds produced from industrial and combustion activities such as bleaching of paper, the manufacture of some pesticides, waste incineration, and fuels burning. They could be released from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Dioxins are found in air, soil, water and food sources. Sufficient evidence from human epidemiologic and mechanistic studies showed an association between dioxins and various cancers including soft tissue sarcoma, lymphoma, leukemia, and Hodgkin disease. TCDD is the well-studied dioxin, which is known to be human carcinogen [23].
\nThe mechanism responsible for dioxin-mediated carcinogenesis is via activation of the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor resulting in a wide spectrum of biologic responses, including altered metabolism, growth, and differentiation. It has been suggested that Dioxin alters multiple integrated cell signaling pathways, namely, the MAPK-ERK pathway through activation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a) and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Others suggested mutations in the proto-oncogene H-ras [24].
\nAsbestos is a group of six naturally occurring fibrous silicate minerals, namely: chrysotile, actinolite, amosite, anthophyllite, crocidolite, and tremolite. Chrysotile constitutes about 90% of the commercially used asbestos worldwide. Asbestos is released into the environment from natural and man-made sources and has been detected in air, soil, drinking water, food, and medicines. Asbestos toxicity occurs after a long latent period of about 15–40 year after initial fiber exposure. Occupational exposure to any type of asbestos increases the risk of lung cancer and mesothelioma [25].
\nMore than 50 countries have banned the mining and/or use of all types of asbestos. However, past and current occupational asbestos exposures, and non-occupational domestic asbestos exposure originating from existing buildings that contain enormous amounts of the fibers and neighborhood exposures in communities living near asbestos mining, remains a global health challenge [26].
\nThe carcinogenesis of asbestos is not fully understood. However, asbestos is a genotoxic agent that can induce direct DNA damage, gene transcription, and protein expression important in modulating cell proliferation, cell death, and inflammation [25].
\nIn late 2019, cases of pneumonia from unknown origin were detected in Wuhan, China. It was concluded that the cause was a new coronavirus [1, 2]. The World Health Organization (WHO) named the virus SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 the associated disease [1, 2]. In the first months of 2020, this disease became a pandemic with a reported high lethality. Since then, the search for treatments has begun.
SARS-CoV-2 is a coronavirus of the beta family and is related to the previously known SARS-CoV [3]. It is transmissible from human to human. The primary transmission is via respiratory droplets. Even so, transmission by other fluids has been reported. The protein that mediates the entry to the host cells is the so-called spike protein. It uses the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a cellular receptor. It primarily affects the lungs and the respiratory system with flu-like symptoms presentation [3]. Nevertheless, it also causes a wide spectrum of conditions from diarrhea to loss of smell and taste. The chief complication due to COVID-19 that can lead to death is pneumonia.
Once the SARS-CoV-2 enters the host cell, the viral RNA is attached to the host ribosome, translating into two large coterminal polyproteins. These proteins are then digested into components by proteolysis for packaging new virions. The papain-like protease (PLpro) and the coronavirus main protease (Mpro) are two proteases involved in this process. SARS-CoV-2 employs RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) to replicate the genome of RNA. The four proteins: spike, Mpro, PLpro, and RdRp, are essential to virus assembly and pathogenesis. Mpro and RdRp are the targets for drugs against SARS-CoV-2 [4].
This pandemic has disrupted the global society. Besides global health, it has affected the economy and way of living since most of the interventions to stop the dissemination were non-pharmaceutical. Governments around the world exhorted people to stay at home and social distancing [5].
As a result of the global concern posed by this disease, some experiential recommendations emerged for its treatment. Social networks played a crucial role in the diffusion of these recommendations [6]. A couple of cases are hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin [7]. Much of the supposed evidence was absent or anecdotic. It generated false expectations and misinformation.
There were no previously approved therapeutics for COVID-19 since it was an emerging disease. Later in the pandemic, the WHO authorize the emergency use of some antivirals [8, 9]. The recommendations by other institutions of treatments for use outside of clinical trials were scarce. Such is the case for ivermectin [10].
This chapter aims to review the literature on therapeutics approved by the WHO for emergency use. It will also cover some of the treatments recommended and considered based on empirical results.
It was searched on the therapeutics guidelines published by the WHO [11] and the USA Federal Drug Administration (FDA) [12] for the management of infection by SARS-CoV-2. Based on these results, we searched for more literature in PubMed to obtain evidence from the drugs against SARS-CoV-2.
Besides searching for articles in Pubmed, we used the Google Scholar database to search about treatments against SARS-CoV-2 infection, including the words: Treatment, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, Therapeutics, WHO approved COVID-19 drugs, and FDA approved COVID-19 drugs.
The chief inclusion criteria were articles on treatments approved by WHO [11] and FDA [12]. The search also included treatments previously approved for human use but not for COVID-19 and, even so, were used.
There are reports on drugs used empirically for the treatment of COVID-19, and the WHO has made statements on these treatments.
Table 1 shows the drugs of empirical use without approval by the WHO and FDA, for their use against COVID-19 in humans, except in clinical trial settings.
Drug | Indication |
---|---|
Ivermectin | Antiparasitic |
Hydroxychloroquine | Antimalarial |
Nitazoxanide | Antiparasitic |
Azithromycin | Antibiotic |
Some drugs used empirically without approval for emergency use.
Ivermectin is a mixture of 22, 23-dihydroavermectin B1a, and 22, 23-dihydroavermectin B1b. It is macrocyclic lactose with a wide antiparasitic spectrum [10]. Its chemical structure [13], is shown in Figure 1.
Chemical structure of ivermectin. Source. Modified from: PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
It is considered that its action mechanism is by inhibiting the nuclear transport mediated by the heterodimer importin α/β1-responsible for the viral protein’s translocation (HIV-1, SV40)-, necessary for its replication [14, 15, 16]. It has been reported that ivermectin inhibits the SARS-CoV-2 in vitro without stating clearly how it happens [16]. Since then, it was considered a potential treatment.
Even as studies suggest a reduction in mortality, most have methodological deficiencies [17, 18, 19]. Hence, further and rigorous evidence on the use of ivermectin against COVID-19 is necessary. Currently, the use of ivermectin is just recommended in clinical trial settings. Also, the Food and Drug Administration does not recommend the ivermectin use against COVID-19 due to the lack of evidence [20]. The same conclusion is supported by the Sanitary Technologies Assess Department from the Clinical and Sanitary Efficacy Institute [21].
The Pan American Health Organization states that there is no certainty about the risks and benefits from the use of ivermectin [22].
Hydroxychloroquine is a 4-aminoquinoline drug aimed to treat malaria and rheumatologic conditions [22]. In Figure 2, its chemical structure is shown.
Chemical structure of hydroxychloroquine. Source: Modified from PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
Due to the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro, it was considered a potential treatment for COVID-19 [24]. Hydroxychloroquine received much public attention even at high political levels. It caused such a phenomenon that most random trials studying it were unable to finish properly, and those that were completed did not show any benefit [25].
Currently, the WHO makes a strong recommendation against its use in its latest therapeutics guidelines [11, 26].
Nitazoxanide and its metabolite Tizoxanide could inhibit the in vitro growth of the canine coronavirus S-378 [26]. Wang M et al. [25] have reported that Nitazoxanide could also inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 growth (Figure 3).
Chemical structure of Nitazoxanide. Source: Modified from PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
Early studies suggested a beneficial effect of Nitazoxanide by reducing the disease severity of COVID-19 [28, 29]. Rocco et al [30], reported that Nitazoxanide did not show a difference in preventing admission to the intensive care unit for COVID-19 patients with pneumonia. In this study, it was showed a difference in secondary outcomes such as hospital discharge.
There are few studies analyzing Nitazoxanide. So far, there is no evidence of a significant benefit for the COVID-19 treatment. The evidence on the use of nitazoxanide is scarce. The WHO does not include this drug in its living guideline for therapeutics and COVID-19 [11].
Azithromycin is an antibiotic mainly prescribed for bacterial diseases and belongs to the family of macrolide [31]. This drug has been considered for COVID-19 treatment due to in vitro results. Its chemical structure is shown in Figure 4.
Chemical structure of azithromycin. Source: Modified from PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
Oldenburg et al. [31], reported the results of a clinical trial involving azithromycin as a candidate. The primary outcome was the resolution of symptoms. It was not found a statistically significant effect between the experimental and the control group. From 23 secondary outcomes, only 5 showed statistically significant differences [33].
Azithromycin was chiefly used with other drugs. As it was used in combination with hydroxychloroquine, its effect and possible harms could not be clearly distinguished [34]. Nevertheless, so far, it is not recommended for COVID-19 treatment. The WHO only includes this drug tangentially in its therapeutics and COVID-19 living guideline while mentioning its use accompanied by hydroxychloroquine [11].
In the following sections, we review some of the therapeutics and their recommendation status by the WHO [11] and FDA [12]. Table 2 shows the drugs and treatments against COVID-19 treated in this section.
Drug | Indication | Dose | Observations |
---|---|---|---|
Molnupiravir | For patients with mild COVID-19 with hospitalization risk. | 800 mg (four pills) twice a day for 5 days | Do not administer in children or pregnant women. There are no data about its safety. |
Casirivimab-Imdevimab | Do not recommend for variants. | Intravenous. Ranging from 1200–2400 mg the total dose | The hospitalization risk decreases by 85%. |
Ritonavir-Nirmatrelvir | Recommended as early as possible within the first 5 days since the onset of symptoms. | 300 mg (two 150 mg tablets) of nirmatrelvir and 100 mg of ritonavir every 12 hours daily for 5 days | |
Remdesivir | Recommended as early as possible within the first 7 days since the onset of symptoms. | Intravenous administration for 3 consecutive days with the following scheme: Day one: 200 mg Day two and three: 100 mg | Conditional recommendation since the existence of potentially most beneficial treatments. |
Favipiravir | Not standardized yet | In animal models, it has potentiated the effect of molnupiravir. |
Drugs for the emergency use against COVID-19.
Molnupiravir is a drug originally designed to treat viruses such as influenza. In recent months, it has been proposed for use against COVID-19 [35]. The chemical structure is shown in Figure 5.
Chemical structure of Molnupiravir. Source: Modified from PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
In the study by Jayk Bernal et al. [37], the molnupiravir group had better outcomes than the placebo one. The chief outcome was hospitalization or death. Even as the sex was imbalanced, further analysis showed that the effect remained. There were no statistically significant differences regarding adverse events among the groups.
Singh et al. [35] conclude that the current evidence suggests that molnupiravir is effective for the prevention of hospitalization and deaths in mild COVID-19 patients. Nevertheless, further evidence is needed for the case of moderate and severe COVID-19 patients. Even far, Extance [38], mentions that the existence of only one pivotal study indicates that the evidence is very limited.
The WHO recommends the use of this drug conditionally due to the absence of data about long-term harms that may cause its use [11].
Casirivimab and imdevimab are monoclonal antibodies that target sites in the receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein [39]. The administration via has been one of the chief difficulties for their extensive use—its administration is intravenous.
The RECOVERY Collaboration Group included this treatment in their analysis [39]. They noted that casirivimab-imdevimab reduced the mortality significatively among seronegative patients (those without previously mounted humoral response).
The WHO recommends it conditionally. The reasons are that other drugs have proven to be more effective and safer. Also, these drugs are easiest to administer [11].
Nirmatrelvir is a drug designed to treat covid-19 by targeting its main protease [40]. It has been administered with ritonavir. Figure 6 shows the chemical structure of nirmatrelvir and ritonavir.
Chemical structure of: (A) nirmatrelvir; and (B) ritornavir. Source: modified from PubChem. National Library of Medicine [
Hammond et al. [40] report that the incidence of hospitalization or death was lower by approximately 6% points in the treatment group than in the control group—observed in the interim and final analysis. The difference among adverse events was not statistically significant.
Its first approval for conditional use was issued in the United Kingdom on December 31, 2021. Since then, other countries have approved this drug in different modalities, such as for emergency use [43].
It is one of the few drugs strongly recommended by the WHO [11].
It is a combination of drugs that aim to inhibit the protease of SARS-CoV-2 and its use was motivated by previous experiences against SARS [44]. Figure 7 shows the chemical structure of lopinavir.
Chemical structure of Lopinavir. Source: Modified from Pubchem. National Library of Medicine [
Cao et al. [44] did not find any statistically significant difference between the control and experimental group in their trial. The primary outcome they took was the decrease of two points on a severe scale or discharge. They recommend further studies to prove or discard benefits from ritonavir–lopinavir.
The WHO makes a recommendation against the use of this combination [11].
Remdesivir is another drug that inhibits SARS-CoV-2 and was considered for its use due to previous research on its effect on SARS and MERS [46]. The chemical structure is shown in Figure 8.
Chemical structure of remdesivir. Source: Modified from Pubchem. National Library of Medicine [
According to Beigel et al. [46], remdesivir outperformed placebo in their clinical trial, which consisted of 1062 patients. They took discharge or hospitalization for monitoring as primary outcome. The patients in the remdesivir group reached the primary outcome approximately 5 days before the patients in the placebo group. In their trial, they administered remdesivir intravenously for three consecutive days with the following regime:
Day one: 200 mg
Day two and three: 100 mg (each day)
Wang Y et al. [48] did not find a statistically significant benefit from the use of remdesivir. Nevertheless, the samples consisted of 237 participants, and a numerical difference among the groups was observed—supporting the use of remdesivir.
Spinner et al. [49], conducted a clinical trial comparing 5- and10-day treatment versus standard care for patients with moderate COVID-19. The differences in the primary outcome (degree on a seven-point scale) were statistically significant between the 5-day group and the standard care group. It was not observed for the differences between the 10-day group and the standard care group. Even though some results were statistically significant different, the authors are uncertain of the clinical importance.
The WHO conditionally recommends remdesivir. They suggest using it in the first 7 days after the onset of symptoms [11].
Favipiravir is a drug with an active agent that halts viral replication of SARS-CoV-2 [50, 51]; its chemical structure is shown in Figure 9.
Chemical structure of favipiravir. Source: Modified from Pubchem. National Library of Medicine [
Manabe et al. [51] conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the use of favipiravir against SARS-CoV-2. They found evidence supporting the use of favipiravir to clear the virus. It was observed in various studies a viral clearance around the seventh day after the start of treatment. However, they suggest further analysis and controlled clinical trials since the evidence was heterogeneous and not straightforwardly comparable. Also, they conclude it is necessary for further research on the dose regime to have definitive conclusions.
The WHO only mentions favipiravir tangentially as a drug that might improve the outcomes by combining it with molnupiravir, observed in animal models [11].
After the approval and research on treatments, there are two chief questions to address. The first question is how to distribute the drugs with equity. The other point is how they perform in the face of new SARS-CoV-2 variants.
Regarding the distribution of the treatments, the ones administered orally present clear advantages over the ones administered intravenously. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Bajaj and Stanford [53], there are important challenges to address. So far, the inequities detected are the manufacturing and pricing obstacles, and some countries buying most of the current stock [53].
In the face of new SARS-CoV-2, some studies have addressed the question on which therapeutics remain effective for COVID-19. According to the review made by Fernandes et al. [54], the currently approved antivirals, such as molnupiravir, ritonavir-nirmatrelvir, and remdesivir remain as effective for variants of concern as for the early versions of SARS-CoV-2. Mainly due to their mechanisms of action.
Two years ahead of the COVID-19 pandemic start, plenty of treatment options have been investigated. Only a few of them have resulted in effective and safe alternatives. The WHO [11] and the FDA [12] keep updated on the sources and status of the scientific evidence of each proposal. According to the WHO, ritonavir-nirmatrelvir outperforms other proposed therapeutics.
As SARS-CoV-2 continues mutating, an open question is whether these treatments will remain effective for these new versions. The evidence shows that they are for spike-mutated versions of the virus.
Finally, even though some drugs have been approved, availability is not even in the countries. The factors behind this include the distribution systems and logistics besides costs.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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In this context, this chapter presents key subjects while implementing a quality management system at materials science laboratories and some considerations on strategies for effectively implementing such systems.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Rodrigo S. Neves, Daniel P. Da Silva, Carlos E. C. Galhardo, Erlon H.\nM. Ferreira, Rafael M. Trommer and Jailton C. Damasceno",authors:[{id:"20571",title:"Prof.",name:"Erlon H.",middleName:null,surname:"Martins Ferreira",slug:"erlon-h.-martins-ferreira",fullName:"Erlon H. 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The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"62915",title:"Advanced Methods of PID Controller Tuning for Specified Performance",slug:"advanced-methods-of-pid-controller-tuning-for-specified-performance",totalDownloads:3528,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"This chapter provides a concise survey, classification and historical perspective of practice-oriented methods for designing proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers and autotuners showing the persistent demand for PID tuning algorithms that integrate performance requirements into the tuning algorithm. The proposed frequency-domain PID controller design method guarantees closed-loop performance in terms of commonly used time-domain specifications. One of its major benefits is universal applicability for both slow and fast-controlled plants with unknown mathematical model. Special charts called B-parabolas were developed as a practical design tool that enables consistent and systematic shaping of the closed-loop step response with regard to specified performance and dynamics of the uncertain controlled plant.",book:{id:"6323",slug:"pid-control-for-industrial-processes",title:"PID Control for Industrial Processes",fullTitle:"PID Control for Industrial Processes"},signatures:"Štefan Bucz and Alena Kozáková",authors:[{id:"21933",title:"Ms.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Kozakova",slug:"alena-kozakova",fullName:"Alena Kozakova"},{id:"213658",title:"Dr.",name:"Štefan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucz",slug:"stefan-bucz",fullName:"Štefan Bucz"}]},{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. 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Ribeiro-Barros",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171036/images/system/171036.jpg",institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",value:91,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:189,paginationItems:[{id:"221831",title:"Prof.",name:"Niansheng",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"niansheng-tang",fullName:"Niansheng Tang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221831/images/system/221831.jpeg",biography:"Niansheng Tang is a Professor of Statistics and Dean of the School of Mathematics and Statistics, Yunnan University, China. He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. 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The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology"},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions"},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"