\r\n\tRadiation monitoring deals with the sampling and measurement of different products found in different radiation pathways from the environment ending with consumption in humans. Gamma-spectroscopy is the main tool for measurement of these radiations.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to investigate the radionuclide concentrations in the most consumable food products, air, water and soil. Particularly, it is essential to investigate the radiations level in the surroundings of a nuclear facility.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f28404d284d64cf01d21820a3fc44c64",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Muhammad Zubair",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11144.jpg",keywords:"Radioactivity Investigation, Aerosols, Water, Food Products, Health Effects, Tritium, Scintillation Counter, Alpha-Beta Radiation Monitoring, Gamma Spectroscopy, Radioactive Sampling, Environmental Effects, Activity Concentration",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 27th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 15th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate Professor at the University of Sharjah, the United Arab Emirates whose interests include nuclear reactor safety, accident analysis, reliability, risk analysis, digital instrumentation and control, and radiation detection and measurements.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320007/images/system/320007.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Zubair is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Prior to this role, Dr. Zubair worked as an assistant professor and graduate program coordinator at the University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan.\nDr. Zubair’s interests include nuclear reactor safety, accident analysis, reliability and risk analysis, digital instrumentation and control, and radiation detection and measurements. He has a strong research background supported by publications in international journals, conferences, and book chapters. He is engaged in different research projects including one coordinated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The relationship between plants and microorganisms has been classified as a symbiosis; however, when referring to endophytic yeasts, this association takes a mutualistic character. While the plant is providing the yeast a propitious space to live, the yeast offers benefits to the plant, which are mainly related to the biological control of pathogens, encouraging their use as an alternative method for the management of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables [1].
\n
Nevertheless, the knowledge regarding the dynamics of host colonization by the endophyte to understand this mutualistic relationship as well as the evaluation of the inoculated host is still limited. Isaeva et al. [2] state that the research on endophytic yeasts has not been carried out in a systematic way, so the existing information is incomplete. They also identify the need to know the distributional patterns and biological properties of endophytic yeast, in order to understand the ecological characteristics of these yeasts and propose solutions to various postharvest problems.
\n
The fact that endophyte yeasts can live in the host involves studying the dynamics of colonization within the host and establishing whether it is affected by providing a habitat for the yeast surviving, so it is necessary to use alternative methodologies that allow visualizing both the yeast and the host, as well as changes inside it.
\n
Accordingly, the results obtained by implementing techniques of microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in order to evaluate the interaction between a host and an endophyte yeast are explained below. These pieces of evidence allow to deepen the knowledge of this mutualistic relationship and to propose another mode of action of the yeasts in which these indirectly contribute to prolonging the useful life of the host.
\n
\n
\n
2. Endophytic yeasts and plants: a mutualistic action
\n
Etymologically, the word endophyte means “within the plant.” This definition encompasses a wide variety of residents and hosts, this last including bacteria, fungi, insects and algae among others [3]. Among the definitions proposed for the term endophyte is “Fungus that colonizes plant tissue without causing any immediate negative effect” [4]. Even so, some authors consider that this definition excludes other microorganisms such as bacteria and algae. In this context, Stone et al. [5] argue that a more wide-ranging definition should emphasize the asymptomatic nature of the infection without taking into account a particular group of organisms. That is why Petrini [6] explains endophyte from a topographical perspective: “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of it is host without causing damage.”
\n
Xin et al. [7] ponder all these aspects and characterize endophytic yeast as: “Unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding—without a hyphal phase or with a reduced hyphal phase—and can live in their host without generating apparent harm.” Pieces of research show that these yeasts can be isolated from different parts of plants (see \nTable 1\n).
In recent years, there has been an increase in research on how endophytic yeast benefits the host; it has been established that in some cases, it contributes to the protection against pathogens. Therefore, it is possible to use them successfully as agents for biological control [8, 9]. Also, some studies have shown that these yeasts foster the growth of plants by means of bringing out auxins, as reported by Nassar et al. [10], who isolated the endophytic yeast Williopsis saturnus and found that it is capable of producing indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), a growth hormone. In addition, Zhao et al. [11] discovered that exogenous administration of Pichia guilliermondii improved the postharvest lifetime and the quality of cherry tomato fruits stored.
\n
This association between plant and microorganisms is denominated symbiosis, a term coined by Anton De Bary as: “The association, at least for part of its life cycle, between two or more specifically different organisms” [12]. For the host plant, this relationship can be positive (mutualism); neutral (neutralism), or negative (parasitism or competition). For the symbiotic microorganism, the association can be positive (mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism), neutral (neutralism), or negative when there is competition. A symbiosis is successful provided that it involves at least the following three events: (i) the symbiont’s entrance into the tissues; (ii) their colonization and (iii) the expression of one of the symbiotic relationships mentioned above. The symbiont must be able to have a relationship with the host to establishing a compatible interaction, which implies that it overcomes or manipulates the host defense system [13].
\n
It has been verified that in the case of endophytic yeast, the association is closer to mutualism than to parasitism [2] since yeast can bring to the plant several of the above benefits mentioned. On the other hand, yeasts as copiotroph organisms find in the host plant the nutrients and the suitable environment for their development. Here the question is: how do you experimentally identify whether an endophytic yeast is related in a mutualistic way to its host? It could be answered if we adapt Sieber’s proposal [14] of using the Koch’s four postulates, modified as follows:
\n
The appearance of an endophyte should be associated with a benefit to the host.
The endophyte should be isolated from the tissue in which the benefit was observed and grown in a culture medium.
The endophyte that has grown in the culture medium should generate the same benefit when it is reintroduced into a host free of the endophyte.
Then, again the endophyte should be isolated from the experimentally inoculated host.
\n
In order to identify new endophytic yeast, it is possible to apply these postulates experimentally.
\n
Concerning asymptomatic colonization, characteristic of endophytic yeasts, Schulz et al. [3] suggested a hypothesis in which the absence of negative symptoms is associated with a balance of antagonists: host and endophyte. The endophytes have mechanisms to infect and colonize the host; this, in turn, responds with its defense system. The balance between the “infection system” and the “defense system” generates an asymptomatic interaction; if the balance is broken, diseases can occur for the host or death of the symbiont. However, the verification of this balance, which is an experimental challenge, is not solved in the study of endophytes yet.
\n
\n
\n
3. Endophytic yeasts and their projection in agro-industry
\n
During the postharvest period, the quality of fruits and vegetables is deteriorated due to different factors: manipulation and improper storage, metabolic events, and phytopathogen attacks generating economic losses of more than 25% of the total production in industrialized countries and more than 50% in developing countries [15, 16].
\n
In the case of fruits, most of these losses are caused by the attack of several fungal pathogens, controlled mainly with synthetic fungicides, which has generated concern regarding possible health risks derived from the consumption of food treated with agrochemicals [17], as a consequence, the demand of organic fruits and vegetables has increased. To deal with this need, healthier and environmentally friendly strategies have been evaluated to control the attack of plant pathogens and to maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables, in that context, microbial antagonists, such as yeasts have emerged as a viable option [18].
\n
To understand how the yeast can be used to solve this problem, we can identify different interactions with the host and with the phytopathogen. In relation to the host, the yeast can colonize the fruit surface for long periods; some of them produce extracellular polysaccharides that contribute to the fruit survival and to restrict the growth of pathogens; they can use nutrients from the environment and proliferate at a high rate. In addition, their activity does not involve the production of toxic metabolites and are less affected by fungicides [1, 19]. When a yeast colonizes the internal tissues of the host without generating damage or is in the interior contributing to lengthen its useful life, this kind can be classified as an endophyte. These aspects make yeast a potential microbial agent able to control postharvest diseases.
\n
In the interaction, the yeast with the phytopathogens is possible to determine different kinds of interactions such as nutrients and space competition, mycoparasitism, secretion of antibiotics, lytic enzymes, and other antifungal compounds. The importance of any one mode of action can vary between biocontrol systems (pathogen, yeast, and host).
\n
Among all the yeasts’ modes of action identified, the competition for nutrients and space is considered the most common because yeasts have the ability to grow and survive faster in the environment (host) than pathogens; thus, the bio-controlling activity is associated with an increase in the concentration of the antagonist and a decrease in the concentration of the pathogen [20]. In other cases, yeasts have the ability to adhere to fungal hyphae by restricting pathogen proliferation [21, 22], which is called parasitism and, in some cases, occurs with the production of lytic enzymes, which help bring about degradation of the cell wall of the pathogen. Other yeasts produce antibiotic compounds, case in which the control mechanism is associated with the production of secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth of pathogens [23, 24].
\n
When studying the problem focusing on the host, it has been established that plants have the capacity to defend themselves against pathogen attacks by triggering their defense system, which can be activated by some yeasts; as a result, it is another way of action in which the yeast helps indirectly to reduce the growth and development of the pathogen.
\n
Punja and Utkhede [25] have stated that this process can take place through the production of elicitors (signal compounds) or because of tissue colonization reducing the development of the pathogen. They have pointed out what has been reported by some researchers that the internal colonization of the tissues without causing apparent damage to the cells—characteristic associated with the endophytic yeasts—triggers the defense system of the host.
\n
The entomologists define biocontrol like “the control of the organism by other organism,” but when we talk about control of plant’s diseases by yeast, the definition of biocontrol is wider because the plant’s diseases are a process that involves three elements: pathogen, host, and micro environment. Then, studying the use of yeast in this context implies studying the host to and how this can change by the yeast action.
\n
Therefore, in the case of studies on endophyte yeasts, it is necessary to characterize the host surface and its inner for establishing if it is modified and if so, define the relationship between the changes and the benefits. In regard to the production of elicitors, as a mode of action in biocontrol, this can be understood like a process in which the yeast helps the plant to activate its defense system against the attack of pathogens, however, the association between the induction of the defense system and the endophyte yeasts is not fully understood.
\n
These aspects should also be taken into account when evaluating situations in which an endophyte yeast colonizes its host, generating in this one a different benefit from biological control. In approaching the problem from this perspective, it is possible to obtain additional information from this mutualistic relationship, which allows proposing solutions to practical problems associated with the postharvest period.
\n
Recent investigations on the yeast Candida guilliermondii isolated from a heterograft tomato crop (HGTC) in Sogamoso (Boyacá, Colombia) have shown that it is able to colonize its host without generating damage to the cell walls; on the contrary, it delays loss of water; in addition, its effectiveness in biological control against Rhizopus stolonifer was determined [24]. These results, together with the definition of endophyte, allow us to classify this yeast as an endophyte yeast of interest in agro-industry, due to the possibility of using it in a promising way to prolong the useful life of its host.
\n
Indeed, this endophytic yeast contributes to lengthening the useful life of its host and also can be used as an antagonist offers the possibility of using it to study this mutualistic relationship and obtain information that allows solving problems associated with the postharvest period, such as fruit quality, storage, and phytopathogen biocontrol.
\n
However, the following questions arise: is it possible that as a result of the endophytic yeast-host interaction, changes will occur in the host? What can these changes be? Are there new modes of action of these yeasts in activating the plant defense system?
\n
Searching for answers to these questions is possible to implement alternative methodologies that allow researchers to assess the dynamics of yeast colonization, identifying and quantifying changes in the host, and to propose another mode of action of the endophytic yeast.
\n
\n
\n
4. Evaluating the action of an endophyte yeast on its host
\n
Traditionally, to check the efficiency of a microbial antagonist and/or to evaluate a colonization process, the researchers quantify the number of microorganisms present in a plant in terms of colony forming units (CFUs). To get such measurements, it is necessary to dilute the sample, take an aliquot of it and, finally, transfer it to an appropriate medium that allows the microorganisms to grow in visible colonies [26–28].
\n
Other investigations have proposed the direct observation of endophytic yeasts inside the plant tissues using microscopy techniques. For instance, Isaeva et al. [29] studied the distribution and species diversity of yeast in the storage tissues of fruits, seeds, and roots and found that the yeast cells were most often located in the intercellular space or in cells with intact membranes. These results suggest that internal storage tissues of plants are usually habitats of yeast and can be used as a model for studies of coevolving plant-microbe associations.
\n
Nassar et al. [10] used light and transmission electron microscopy to observe maize root inoculated with W. saturnus and stained with 0.1% toluidine blue. The images show the distribution of yeast cells within the root cortex, intercellular spaces, and xylem vessels.
\n
On the other hand, it is possible to characterize, with a vertical resolution of 10−9 m, the topography of fruits and vegetables from the observation of tissue samples using the atomic force microscope (AFM) [30, 31]. This methodology has also been used to evaluate the formation of antimicrobial films [32]. For their part, Isaacson et al. [33] evaluated the biomechanical properties as well as the resistance to microbial infections of tomato fruit cuticles. Because of its resolution, this microscope can be used to visualize the cell surface topography and to determine cell wall nanomechanical properties of yeast mutants [34].
\n
In addition, evaluating the interaction of endophytic yeasts with their hosts—and taking into consideration the definition of endophyte—implicates characterizing both the surface and the interior of the host, yet it is necessary to use different methodologies from the traditional ones. From this perspective, MRI offers a non-destructive and non-invasive technique that can be used to obtain two-dimensional images of fruits and/or vegetables from which it is possible to evaluate in vivo changes inside, changes that take place as a result of own metabolic processes during the development and/or maturation, or associated with modifications by external agents [35–38].
\n
According to the preceding points, the use of microscopy and MRI makes it possible to characterize qualitatively and quantitatively the host changes by the endophytic yeast action, providing information that can contribute to understanding this mutualistic relationship and to think about other conceivable action modes. Below are some of the results found when using these methodologies; for its implementation, and according to Koch\'s postulates, the tomato fruit was used as a host, and it was inoculated with the endophytic yeast C. guilliermondii.
\n
\n
4.1. Formation of endophytic yeast biofilms
\n
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) enables researchers to study at a nanometric scale the distribution of endophytic yeast on the host surface as well as the topographic changes in it. Although plant tissue samples are commonly used for the implementation of this methodology, surface modifications are not only brought about by the external agent action (endophyte) but also come from the different tissues that make up the host’s interior. Because of that, whole tomato fruits were used to evaluate the topography and to analyze before and after inoculation by being sprinkled with yeast C. guilliernondii. This methodology allows the researchers to study in vivo the time-related evolution of the colonization process evaluating images—taken both in contact mode and in intermittent contact mode—of the host surface.
\n
The 3D images of the uninoculated whole fruit (zero time) surface, taken in contact mode, show that its topography is not homogeneous since it has ridges and valleys whose average value is 700 nm from the center line. It is also possible to observe bright areas associated with the epicuticular waxes, as shown in \nFigure 1a\n. From these images, it was determined that the average surface roughness was 240 nm.
\n
Figure 1.
Images of the host surface (uninoculated fruit) obtained by AFM. (1a) 3D image taken in contact mode; the epicuticular waxes are shown in red, the vertical scale corresponds to ±0.5 μm. (1b) 2D image of the surface taken in tapping mode. (1c) Phase map. (1d) In the histogram phase for the surface of the host, there is only one phase whose value is between 120 and 135°.
\n
The topographic characterization of the host obtained from the images taken in contact mode plus the images of the surface taken in tapping mode or intermittent contact (measuring the phase difference between the signal received when the microscope tip does not interact with the sample and the one received when the tip interacts with the sample—tap), allow to obtain information about changes in the local properties of the surface.
\n
\n\nFigure 1b\n shows the two-dimensional image of the surface of the uninoculated fruit taken in tapping mode; \nFigure 1c\n, its corresponding map, and \nFigure 1d\n, its histogram phase. The results indicate that the surface has only one phase corresponding to host surface.
\n
From the topographic images obtained 5 hours after inoculating the fruit with the yeast, it is determined that on the surface some areas associated with yeast clusters randomly appears, whose average height to the midline is 1600 nm (see \nFigure 2a\n). In the images of the host surface taken in tapping mode, areas of similar characteristics are observed, both in the 2D image and in the phase map (see areas surrounded by circles in \nFigure 2c\n).
\n
Figure 2.
Host surface images taken 5 hours after inoculation with C. guilliermondii endophytic yeast. (2a) 3D Image taken in contact mode, the vertical scale corresponds to ±0.5 μm. (2b) 2D Image of the surface taken in tapping mode. (2c) Phase map. (2d) In the histogram phase, the two peaks confirm that the surface of the host has two phases.
\n
It should be noted that the value of the phase for the yeast clusters is between 80 and 90°, a result that differs from host surface before inoculation. Additionally, the histogram phase reveals two different phases on the surface: one associated with the yeast and another associated with the surface of the fruit.
\n
Finally, 72 hours after inoculation, the surface of the host does not present clusters as the ones described above; on the contrary, less roughness is seen, suggesting that the yeast has been colonizing and homogenizing the surface of the host (see \nFigure 3a\n). When calculating the roughness parameter, it is found that it has decreased to a value of 120 nm.
\n
Figure 3.
Host surface images obtained 72 hours after inoculation. (3a) 3D Image taken in contact mode, the vertical scale corresponds to ±0.5 μm. (3b) 2D Image of the surface taken in tapping mode. (3c) Phase map. (3d) In the histogram phase, only one phase associated with the yeast is detected.
\n
Concerning the map and the histogram phase, only one phase appears again, but now the value of this parameter is between 80 and 95°, for the same as the yeast clusters. This indicates that the endophyte adhered to its host formed a biofilm.
\n
The assessment of the host’s topography allows asserting that the endophytic yeast modifies its host, reducing its surface roughness, which implies a lower adhesion of phytopathogens. In relation to the images captured in tapping mode, the results are visible how the endophytic yeast adheres to its host forming a biofilm that contributes to water retention inside the host.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Dynamics of colonization within the host
\n
As stated by the Petrini’s definition [6] “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of its host without causing damage,” the evaluation of optical microscopy images of transverse sections of the host inoculated with the yeast enables researchers to establish if a yeast effectively is included in this definition.
\n
In addition, this methodology allows assessing the colonization dynamics with the purpose to determine the pathways of the yeast and its average speed of migration into the host’s, as well as to identify possible damage in the plant tissue and/or modifications in its structures by the endophytic action. Following the methodology proposed by Infante, Marquinez, and Moreno [39], cross-sectional images of the host can be obtained for each time after inoculation, in which the plant tissue and the yeast are simultaneously visualized, making it possible to determine the aforesaid parameters.
\n
\n\nFigure 4\n shows transverse cuts of the fruit rind inoculated with the yeast at different times after inoculation. In the control samples, the presence of endophytes is not observed. In contrast, in the inoculated samples, an increase in the number of yeasts found on the surface of the host is observed over time: in the epidermis, yeasts are observed 8 hours after the inoculation, and in the parenchyma, after 22 hours.
\n
Figure 4.
Cross-sectional images of tomato fruit stained with Toluidine blue, different times postinoculation. (4a) Control sample; (4b) 22 hours; (4c) 48 hours; (4d) 48 hours.
\n
The images display the absence of lesions in the tissue both in the outer cuticular layer and in the cells of the epidermis and parenchyma. In relation to the yeast’s pathway into the host, it is possible to establish that this endophyte, after entering, moves along the cuticular layer and then travels via apoplast, in a linear order, occupying the intercellular spaces of both the epidermis and the parenchyma as well (see \nFigure 4d\n).
\n
The presence of yeast inside the host 72 hours after inoculation proves that it provides the yeast with nutrients and adequate conditions to survive, which confirms the notion of a mutualistic relationship between the endophytic yeast and the plant.
\n
Additionally, changes by the action of the endophyte yeast in the host structures were evaluated. The results reveal an average decrease of 3 μm in the thickness of the outer cuticular layer of the bark of the tomato fruit inoculated in comparison with that of the control fruits. The outcomes are shown in \nFigure 5\n. The decrease in the cuticular layer thickness implies an upsurge in density, which favors the retention of water inside the fruit.
\n
Figure 5.
It measured the thickness of the outer cuticular layer of the tomato fruit rind to different times postinoculation. The differences in thickness between the control fruits and the inoculated ones are statistically significant.
\n
Simultaneous observation of inoculated tissues and endophyte yeasts looks into a new approach to assessing this mutual symbiosis identifying the benefits for the symbionts involved, taking into account the structural changes in the host as well as the yeasts paths and distribution patterns.
\n
\n
\n
4.3. How an endophytic yeast modifies the interior of its host
\n
The results reported in relation to the yeast C. guilliermondii have shown that it adheres to the host forming a biofilm and colonizes its interior without causing damage to the cell walls. Instead, it contributes to decreasing both the phytopathogens attacks and the water loss. As this is an endophyte yeast, it is interesting to identify changes in the internal structures of the host and its relation to the benefits that it receives, with the intention of deepening the knowledge of this symbiosis.
\n
To study these alterations, it is advisable to use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—a non-invasive technique—which enables investigators to see changes in vivo inside the host triggered by the endophyte’s action, as in the case of the modifications that happened in the tomato fruit inoculated with C. guilliermondii. On the minus side, MRI does not permit researchers to observe simultaneously the host and the yeast—unlike the techniques of MRI microscopy—since in this case, the scale resolution is the tenth of a millimeter.
\n
The main advantage of this technique is the possibility to obtain images weighted by different parameters—relaxation times (T2), proton density, and diffusion, among others—which correspond to the characteristics of the evaluated system. With the aim to see the temporal evolution of the host, images of tomato fruits inoculated by sprinkling with the yeast C. guilliermondii were taken at different times after inoculation.
\n
Changes in the dimensions of the host were evaluated. The results obtained indicate that the most affected fruit region by the yeast is the pericarp; also, the diameter of the inoculated fruits decreases more slowly; however, the pericarp thickness diminishes more in comparison with the control fruits (\nFigure 6\n). This suggests that there are structural changes by the action of the endophyte in this region of the fruit, which can contribute to water retention and, as a consequence, delay the loss of turgor. This is the reason why the decrease of its size is slower compared with the control fruits. Nevertheless, it is necessary to evaluate parameters such as relaxation time (T2) and mobility to confirm these assertions.
\n
Figure 6.
High-resolution images of a cross-section of the inoculated tomato fruit. (6a) Zero time. (6b) 14 days postinoculation.
\n
With the propose of establishing the biochemical changes within the host, T2-weighted images were taken; the results indicate differences in the values associated with this parameter for the different regions of the fruit (see \nFigure 7\n). It was also found that T2 decreases in both control and inoculated fruits, signifying molecular variations associated with postharvest processes. However, this decrease occurs in the inoculated fruits more rapidly, which evidences lessening of mobility due to molecular modifications inside the fruit.
\n
Figure 7.
T2 map in a cross-section of the fruit. High values of T2 (more than 250 ms) specify zones with water molecules that can move easily; on the contrary, low values (70 ms) indicate the presence of different molecules.
\n
Finally, the diffusion-weighted images allow establishing changes in the mobility of molecules, which is a fundamental aspect in this case because the yeast helps to retain water inside the host. From the obtained images, the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was calculated. It is lower in the pericarp region of the inoculated fruits than for the control ones, which indicates that the host is modified by the action of the endophyte, reducing the movement of the water molecules inside. This result, combined with that reported for the T2 parameter, allows to state that in the fruits inoculated with the yeast the water molecules present in the pericarp region are surrounded by different molecules that limit their mobility.
\n
Evaluating the images obtained by MRI, it is possible to sustain that the endophytic yeast modifies the interior of the host; in the case of the inoculated tomato fruit, a decrease in its thickness was observed for the pericarp region in comparison with the control fruits, fact that correlates with biochemical changes that help to reduce the mobility of the molecules in this region. These aspects together favor the retention of water inside the host contributing to maintaining the quality of the fruit.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Another approach on endophytic yeasts’ action
\n
Reported research has shown that endophytic yeasts can be used in different agro-industrial applications contributing to host and/or pathogen control improvements, however, some aspects remain unclear. For instance, the way the yeast triggers the defense system in the host, where the relationship between the elicitors and the antagonist provides a field to be explored. Another aspect that has drawn attention is the formation of biofilms and how these can be used to improve biological control [16]; additionally, it is necessary to evaluate the changes produced in the host by the yeast’s action and its incidence. All of them are topics that to date have been little explored.
\n
The relationships established between yeast, pathogen, host, and metabolic changes that occur in the host during the postharvest period allow to understand the plant-endophyte mutualistic association and define other modes of action.
\n
Evaluating these relationships focusing on the host, it was found that the metabolic processes associated with the postharvest period—such as starch degradation, water loss, and disassembly of cell walls—lead to changes that affect the quality of the product. Concerning its interactions with pathogens, these colonize the host generating various diseases, to which the host can respond by activating its defense system and producing antifungal compounds. On the contrary, their relation with the endophytic yeasts is of mutualistic character, since these generate a benefit for the host while it offers to them optimal conditions for their survival.
\n
The relationships described above are shown in \nFigure 8\n; the arrows indicate direct interactions; however, when it comes to endophytic yeasts, it is necessary to consider indirect relationships, in which the yeast can modify its host generating benefits in it, helping solve some of the postharvest period problems.
\n
Figure 8.
Interactions between host, yeast, pathogen, and postharvest processes. The blue arrow indicates a yeast–host mutualistic relationship; the question mark points to a possible indirect relationship between the yeast and postharvest period.
\n
In the previous section, the results obtained when evaluating changes in the host (tomato fruit) by the action of the endophyte yeast (C. guilliermondii) were presented. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), it could be established that the surface roughness of the inoculated host diminishes when a yeast biofilm is formed, besides it contributes to retaining the water inside the host prolonging its useful life.
\n
On the other hand, when the samples inoculated with the yeast were evaluated by optical microscopy (OM), it was determined that the thickness of the outer cuticle layer showed an average decrease of 3 μm in comparison with the control samples, suggesting an increase in the density of the same and, therefore, changes in its permeability.
\n
It should be noted that in relation to cuticle evaluation and its function in resistance to phytopathogens, Curvers et al. [40] studied a mutant of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) with reduced abscisic acid (ABA) production, and established that it presents increased resistance to the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. They further compared the thickness of the cuticle of the mutant with that of other evaluated tomato fruits, identifying that the cuticular layer of the first one presents a decrease in the thickness, which favors the signaling processes.
\n
Previous studies about yeast C. guilliermondii determined its effectiveness in the control of Rhizopus stolonifer and its production of secondary metabolites; this outcome together with the results found by means of microscopy techniques allow to affirm that the effectiveness of an endophyte yeast in the biological control could be associated with more than one mode of action, one of which may be related to structural changes in the host by action of the endophyte.
\n
Lastly, from MRI, it was determined that with respect to the control fruits, in the fruits inoculated with the endophytic yeast appear a decrease both in the thickness of the pericarp and in the mobility of the molecules present in this region of the fruit; changes that favor the retention of water inside. \nFigure 9\n shows the modifications generated in the different structures of the host by the action of yeast and its relation to the observed benefits.
\n
Figure 9.
Physical modifications in the host (tomato fruit) by the action of the endophyte yeast (C. guilliermondii).
\n
According to the abovementioned determination, it is possible to highlight several aspects that contribute to deepening the knowledge of endophyte yeasts and their use in the search for solutions to problems typical of the postharvest period.
\n
The first one refers to the fact that the endophyte yeast colonizes not only the surface of the host but also enters into it and remains inside it without causing damage: evidence of the mutualistic relationship between the symbionts.
\n
In addition, from the results found, it is possible to propose another mode of action of the endophytic yeasts: they generate propitious structural changes in the surface and the interior of the host, which reduce phytopathogen attacks and loss of water. Therefore, it can be said that the endophytic yeasts could be used to help solve some of the problems relevant to agro-industry.
\n
It is noteworthy that this mutualistic coexistence of plant-endophytic yeast can be applied to develop healthy and friendly alternatives that are advantageous to the environment, offering organic food to the consumers and avoiding the use of agrochemicals and genetic engineering intended to enhance the quality of fruits and vegetables.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
This chapter shows a new way to understand the endophytic yeasts, analyzing variations in their host looked through microscopy and the magnetic resonance imaging. The results confirmed the Petrini’s definition: “An endophyte colonizes and can live inside the living tissues of its host without causing damage” additionally —observing the inoculated host— it is thinkable to propose a new mode of yeast action in which the physical characteristics of the surface and the inside of the host change by the action of the yeast, contributing to improve their quality during the postharvest period, without causing health problems to the humans beings, because by this way the use of chemicals to control phytopathogens is avoided.
\n
The new information about endophytic yeast opens the possibility to new researches: how the host “understand” that this microorganism is good for it?; how is the process in the host that allows the entry of the endophytic yeast?; how can this kind of yeast be used to obtain organic products in order to improve the health?; how does the biochemical environment of the host changes by the yeast?
\n
I hope that these new methodologies and information about the endophytic yeast contribute to solve these questions.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"biocontrol, endophytic yeast, mode of action, mutualism, postharvest",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56627.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56627.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56627",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56627",totalDownloads:1240,totalViews:220,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:47,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 10th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 5th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 13th 2017",dateFinished:"July 29th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Recent studies have shown that endophytic yeasts benefit their host, which has stimulated their use in different applications in agribusiness. The research has focused on evaluating the effectiveness of handling these yeasts to solve problems such as biocontrol of pathogens, plant growth and/or improvements in the quality of fruits and vegetables. However, in order to obtain information that contributes to the selection and the implementation of a yeast able to interact with a broader spectrum of hosts and to help solve postharvest problems, it is necessary to deepen the knowledge on the association of these symbionts and to establish possible changes in the host, the issues that are covered in this chapter. The results show that the endophytic yeasts can generate structural changes in the host as a starting point for further applied research and to propose other mechanisms of action.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56627",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56627",book:{id:"6007",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions"},signatures:"Esperanza del Pilar Infante Luna",authors:[{id:"203704",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Esperanza Del Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Infante Luna",fullName:"Esperanza Del Pilar Infante Luna",slug:"esperanza-del-pilar-infante-luna",email:"einfanteluna@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"District University of Bogotá",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Endophytic yeasts and plants: a mutualistic action",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Endophytic yeasts and their projection in agro-industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Evaluating the action of an endophyte yeast on its host",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Formation of endophytic yeast biofilms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Dynamics of colonization within the host",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. How an endophytic yeast modifies the interior of its host",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Another approach on endophytic yeasts’ action",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSharma RR, Singh D, Singh R. Biological control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables by microbial antagonists: A review. Biological Control. September 2009;50(3):205-221. [Internet]. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1049964409001236 [Accessed: November 6, 2012]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nIsaeva OV, Glushakova AM, Garbuz SA, Kachalkin AV, Chernov IY. 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[Internet] Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19144488 [Accessed: January 20, 2013]\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nZhang L, McCarthy MJ. Measurement and evaluation of tomato maturity using magnetic resonance imaging. Postharvest Biology and Technology. May 2012;67:37-43. [Internet] Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0925521411002912 [Accessed: September 5, 2014]\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nDefraeye T, Lehmann V, Gross D, Holat C, Herremans E, Verboven P, et al. Application of MRI for tissue characterisation of “Braeburn” apple. Postharvest Biology and Technology. January 2013;75:96-105. [Internet] Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0925521412001913 [Accessed: September 29, 2014]\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nInfante E, Marquinez X, Moreno G. Tomato peel (Solanum lycopersicum L.) colonization by the endophyte yeast Candida guilliermondii (Castellani) Langeron et Guerra. Agronomía Colombiana 2012;30(3):388-394\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nCurvers K, Seifi H, Mouille G, de Rycke R, Asselbergh B, Van Hecke A, et al. Abscisic acid deficiency causes changes in cuticle permeability and pectin composition that influence tomato resistance to Botrytis cinerea. Plant Physiology. October 2010;154(2):847-860. [Internet] Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2949027&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract [Accessed: July 22, 2014]\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Esperanza del Pilar Infante Luna",address:"epinfantel@udistrital.edu.co",affiliation:'
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá, Colombia
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1. Introduction
After 40 years of the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes autoimmune deficiency disease syndrome (AIDS), HIV remains a critical public health concern, particularly among racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minority populations. During the intervening years, there have been enormous advances in biomedical prevention strategies (e.g., pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and treatment therapies antiretroviral therapy (ART) that have transformed HIV from a death sentence to a chronic condition. Yet, despite these lifesaving treatments and therapies, the benefits have not been equally shared. There are still alarming numbers of new infections disproportionately impacting racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minorities, particularly Black gay and bisexual men in the United States. Notably, Blacks represent less than 13% of the population, but Black MSM accounts for 42% of all new HIV infections [1]. There are marked racial/ethnic disparities in health in the US, with Blacks or African-Americans faring substantially worse compared to their white counterparts, including diabetes prevalence, colorectal cancer incidence and death, and mortality due to coronary heart disease and stroke [2, 3, 4]. These disparities are particularly acute in HIV, particularly for Black men who have sex with men (Black MSM). It is estimated half of Black MSM in the U.S. can be expected to become HIV positive in their lifetime [5]. Current surveillance data show that most of the HIV cases are clustered in the Southern U.S., a region marked by racial and structural inequalities as a result of racialized chattel slavery and Jim Crow segregation, where a large majority of the Black population continues to live in neighborhoods, that are divided and unequal reflecting previously codified racial divisions in housing, employment, education, healthcare, public utilities, and infrastructure [6].
While studies have shown African Americans do not have higher rates of sexual risk behaviors than their white counterparts and biomedical advances are effective at prevention and transmission of HIV/AIDS, at issue is accounting for the enormous racial/ethnic disparities in HIV-related outcomes [7]. In this perspective chapter, we explore the evidence underpinning the relationship between structural racism and high rates of HIV among racial and sexual minority populations in the U.S., particularly Black men who have sex with men (MSM). We examine the social, economic, and political policies and practices that engender a social and structural, and built environment that may increase or reduce an individual’s HIV vulnerability to exposure to HIV. An examination of structural racism and HIV is timely given the ongoing debates around race and Covid-19, the Black lives matter movement and the ending the HIV epidemic initiative [8, 9, 10]. This work builds on previous work on race and HIV by incorporating emerging research employing an intersectional lens to understand the role of multiple identities and interlocking oppressions in explaining differential outcomes around HIV [11, 12, 13]. Frist we will review the origins of HIV using a social-ecological lens to better understand the influence of structural factors on increasing barriers to HIV prevention, care, and treatment services among racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minorities. Next, we provide an overview of the types of structural racism followed by a description of the intersectional stigma framework that underpins our conceptualization of how structural racism operates to increase HIV vulnerability. Then we embark on a review of the literature providing evidence linking structural racism and HIV-related disparities. Finally, we end with conclusions, key policy recommendations, and future directions of research to address the unique needs and structural barriers that create the conditions ripe for HIV to flourish among racial and sexual minority populations. While this chapter focuses primarily on the experience of Black sexual minority men in the U.S., it is our hope this information will have broader relevance to other populations and settings to inform the development and implementation of structural level programs and interventions to reduce the number of new infections among racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minority populations, both in the U.S. and beyond.
2. Understanding the structural origins of the HIV epidemic
Significant success in the prevention of HIV infection in the United States has been achieved. However, those successes were hard-won with significant opposition from hostile government officials, religious groups, and the public at large. In the early days of the AIDS epidemic, there was widespread misinformation about AIDS with many believing it was a disease that affected only homosexuals and was a punishment from God for their turning away from the teachings of the Bible. Alongside these common misinterpretations, longstanding homophobia and anti-gay stigma and discrimination were the norm. It was within this socio-political context of government inaction and societal scapegoating where HIV went undiagnosed and untreated and allowed to flourish within the Black community, particularly among Black MSMs.
Much of the initial response was largely limited to activities organized by LGBT community-based organizations and the gay community focusing primarily on behavioral change and lifestyle factors including harm reduction (e.g., drug and substance use, sexual risk behavior) or uptake of biomedical therapies (e.g., condoms). The first community-led activities were launched in San Francisco and New York City where the first cases of HIV occurred [14]. These early activities were designed to increase awareness and to educate the gay community about how the virus is transmitted and risk reduction strategies to prevent HIV.
As time progressed, the government stepped in launching HIV prevention programs to reduce the spread of the disease. These early government initiatives led by the CDC continued the focus on individual-level programming around behavioral change including: (1) the development of the National AIDS Information Line (1983), (2) National AIDS Clearinghouse (1987), (3) America Responds to AIDS, a national public information campaign (1987), and (4) the development and dissemination of Understanding AIDS (1988). Understanding AIDS was groundbreaking, being the first public education campaign utilizing the U.S. postal service to deliver health literacy information to every home in the United States [15]. However, early approaches in delivering basic HIV education and awareness, changing attitudes, and harm reduction among most-at-risk populations often did not address the unique needs and realities of racial/ethnic communities. These programs targeted priority populations deem at elevated risk including high-school and college-aged persons, pregnant women, and healthcare workers [16]. While important advances were made in the gay community benefitting the white gay community, however, they did not substantially reduce HIV risk for African American and LatinX communities. In the late 1980s, we start to see the development of more targeted evidence-based interventions such as the five-city CDC AIDS Community Demonstration Projects (1989), CDC HIV Prevention Research Synthesis Project, and the CDC Diffusion of Effective Behavioral Interventions (DEBI) project [17, 18]. While these studies and interventions were more tailored for marginalized populations such as injection drug uses, sex workers, and racial/ethnic minorities, they were primarily individual-level behavioral change initiatives with only a few structural interventions.
3. A conceptual framework for the association between structural racism and HIV
Researchers in the area of public health, sociology, geography, and urban planning have shown macro-level factors at the structural level can influence health on a number of health-related outcomes including mental health, cardiovascular disease, maternal health, diabetes, and HIV [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. According to Link and Phelan in their theory of fundamental causes they argue that structural factors, that is, socioeconomic status (SES) contribute to inequalities in health [27]. Extrapolating from this premise and building on socio-ecological frameworks, we posit that the broader dynamic and interactive macro-level social, political, and economic processes structure access to societal resources and opportunity structures which are mediated through the built environment has profound consequences influencing sexual risk behavior and access to HIV prevention, care and treatment services. Our model draws inspiration from the following structural frameworks: Structural violence, social determinants of health, neighborhood effects, weathering and intersectionality [13, 28, 29, 30]. Each of these theories and frameworks center upstream, macro-level factors as foundational to health disparities and provides a useful conceptual lens to understand the spatial legacies of chattel slavery and contemporary effects of racial capitalism and structural racism. Farmer’s theory of structural violence emerged from Paul Farmer’s groundbreaking work in HIV in Haiti and argues that structural consequences, for example, slavery, colonialism, Jim Crow, and other forms of oppression have profound material consequences for individuals and populations, particularly racial and ethnic minorities. Next, social determinants of health argues that unequal access to basic needs and resources (i.e., employment, education, housing, and healthcare) disadvantages certain individuals and groups affecting their health outcomes [28]. Diex Roux’s neighborhood effects framework highlights the importance of spatial and geographical variations in health arguing the larger structural environment shapes neighborhood/community conditions and features that may influence health outcomes [29]. Finally, we include Geronimus’ Theory of weathering which helps us to better understand how effects of structural racism (e.g., residential segregation, poor-quality schools, environmental racism) ‘gets under the skin’ creating stress in the form of allostatic load which has been shown to affect health outcomes [30]. These active and ongoing adjustments necessary to manage these multiple interacting structural forces and stressors can create wear and tear on the body leading to poor health outcomes, particularly increasing HIV vulnerability for historically marginalized and stigmatized groups such as Black MSM. Moreover, we employ an intersectional approach to emphasize the intersections of multiple and intersecting identities (e.g., race, gender, and sexual orientation) and interlocking systems of oppression (e.g., racism, homophobia, and classism) that may influence an individual’s behavior and access to resources and opportunities that impact their health and well-being [11, 12, 13]. By utilizing an intersectional perspective, it allows us to center the multiple stigmatized identifies and contend with the insidious and harmful direct effects of intentional and unintentional state-sanctioned race-based, structural factors and processes that distribute resources and opportunities that increase HIV vulnerability for Black sexual minority men. Our conceptual model presented in Figure 1 is informed by the aforementioned socioecological frameworks and divided into three levels: (1) structural level, (2) neighborhood level, and (3) individual level, representing the multilevel and multivalent nature of structural racism. The structural level is defined as macro-level forces (e.g., social, political, economic, and legal policies) developed by governments and powerful institutions that govern the organization and structure of society. The structural racism interpretation of HIV proposes that macro-level structural level forces are paramount in understanding HIV-related health disparities and as such foundational to explaining differential HIV-related outcomes. Neighborhood level refers to the community environment including both social and built environment aspects of neighborhoods. The construct of the neighborhood is derived from the neighborhood effects framework which explicitly acknowledges that relative deprivation in the form of neighborhood structural disadvantage (e.g., access to employment, housing, public transportation, etc.) may influence health-seeking behavior and limit access to HIV prevention, care, and treatment services. Finally, the individual level includes both sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., race, gender, age, and education) and risk factors (e.g., condom use, number of sexual partners) that are derived out of an unequal distribution of resources and exposure that create barriers to healthy behaviors and access to healthcare. Illustrated in Figure 1 are pathways that are represented by arrows in the diagram modeling key risk factors theorized as having a significant impact on HIV vulnerability and explaining differential HIV-related outcomes, particularly among Black MSM. The arrows indicate the dynamic and interactive nature of structural racism which has both direct and moderating effects that either reduce or increase an individual’s exposure to HIV.
Figure 1.
Structural racism and HIV vulnerability conceptual framework.
4. Evidence linking structural racism and HIV
While there is growing recognition of structural racism and its impact on health, yet there is limited research examining the relationship between structural level factors impact on health HIV-related outcomes. A full accounting of structural racism and HIV disparities among sexual and racial minorities is beyond the scope of this chapter; rather instead we will provide an overview of the research focusing on the role of structural racism in fostering conditions that increase HIV vulnerability for Black MSM. We also acknowledge there is significant diversity within the Black MSM rubric (e.g., gay, bisexual, transgender, gender non-conforming; and same-gender-loving) with each subgroup experiencing varying levels of structural racism at the intersection of race, class, sexual, and gender identity, gender expression and HIV. Several researchers have critiqued the use of the term MSM because of who it includes and excludes, however again due to the limited scope of this chapter, we use the more traditional definition of Black MSM—an individual who identifies as Black or African American, assigned male at birth (MAB) and gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with other men [31, 32, 33]. In this section, we divide structural racism into five key domains: (1) Neighborhood Effects, (2) Social Determinants of Health, (3) Access to HIV Prevention Care and Treatment Services, (4) Incarceration, Criminal Justice System and HIV, and (5) Stigma, Cultural Competency, and Medical Mistrust. We will attempt to address each in turn.
5. Neighborhood effects and HIV
Research has shown characteristics of the neighborhood can shape HIV risk environments with differential impacts, particularly among sexual and racial/ethnic minority populations [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. Segregated residential patterns concentrate high rates of HIV and community viral load in a small geographical region increasing a person’s likelihood of having a sex partner who is HIV-positive and not virally suppressed [41, 42, 43]. A study of Black MSM in Chicago found that an additional infected person into your sexual network increases the odds of seroconversion by a factor of thirteen [43]. The Chicago Metropolitan Statistical Area is ranked 5th in the nation with a dissimilarity score of 83.6. The index of dissimilarity is a measure of residential segregation that measures how one racial group is distributed across census tracts in the metropolitan area compared to the other group. Scores ranging from 0 to 100 with a value of 60 or above is considered very high. In Chicago, a score of 76.9 indicates a high level of segregation which aligns with low viral suppression rates, thereby increasing HIV vulnerability for Black MSM [44]. Residential segregation has also been shown to affect the choice of sexual partner’s by limiting their social network contributing to increased levels of HIV transmission and susceptibility among the Black MSM population. A study of the effect of partner characteristics on HIV infection in Los Angeles found Black MSM are more likely to have Black sexual partners than other groups, thus increasing their potential of encountering an HIV-positive sexual partner [45]. In this study, Black MSM were 4.4 times more likely to be HIV positive than their white counterparts. Moreover, data suggest an association with neighborhood conditions and HIV-related outcomes. Another study of Black MSM residing in New York City found a measure of neighborhood physical disorder (e.g., boarded up and vacant housing) was associated with lower odds of serodiscordant condom less intercourse (AOR = 0.43; 95% CI 0.19, 0.95) among Black MSM suggesting the physical environment foster conditions and situations that influence sexual risk behavior [46].
6. Social determinants of health
Poverty-related factors (e.g., low-income, unstable housing, incarceration, etc.) have been shown to be a driver of the HIV epidemic creating significant barriers to access to HIV prevention services and poorer HIV-related outcomes [47, 48, 49]. Housing instability has been shown to be negatively associated with risk of HIV infection; viral suppression and uptake and retention of PrEP and ART [50, 51, 52]. One study of Black MSM in Massachusetts found those with unstable housing were four times more likely to report engaging in unprotected sex. A systematic review of housing status and HIV-related outcomes found lack of stable, secure, adequate housing is a significant barrier to consistent and appropriate HIV medical care, access and adherence to antiretroviral medications, sustained viral suppression, and risk of forward transmission [53]. In a recent six-city study of Black MSM, 12.1% had experienced homelessness in the last 12 months and reported difficulty in maintaining adherence to ART compared to stably housed respondents [54]. Millet et al. found housing instability, income, and marijuana use explained higher rates of HIV among Blacks compared to whites [44]. In another study of Black MSM in Atlanta, one-third of respondents reported experiencing unstable housing with the majority of those being homeless [55]. Being unstably housed was associated with declines in viral suppression. In addition to housing, the study found living below the federal poverty level, and being incarcerated in the last 12 months was also associated with statistical differences in viral suppression between Black and White MSM [55]. For many racial/ethnic and sexual gender minorities maintaining health-promoting behaviors and/or medication regimens such as PrEP compete with other survival needs, such as securing stable housing.
7. Access to HIV prevention care and treatment services
Historically, African Americans have faced significant challenges obtaining affordable, quality healthcare and often delaying seeking healthcare resulting in an expensive emergency room visit and increased morbidity and mortality [56]. Due to their stigmatized and marginalized status as Black, gay and poor, Black MSM in particular face a myriad number of challenges to accessing affordable culturally competent, quality healthcare across the HIV continuum. Access and uptake of HIV prevention biomedical therapies (e.g., HIV testing, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and antiretroviral therapy (ART)) is essential to improving HIV-related outcomes for people living with HIV (PLWIH) and as an effective HIV prevention strategy to eliminate transmission of HIV [57]. However studies show Black men are less likely to use ART and have low rates of adherence. In 2017, a study found Black MSM were less likely to secure ART, after controlling for less education, lower-income and access to healthcare [58]. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), which has been found to be highly effective at reducing the transmission of HIV, remains alarmingly low among Black MSM [59]. A recent study found approximately 500,000 African Americans could benefit from PrEP, but only 7000 prescriptions (0.014%) were filled [60]. Several studies have found Black MSM are less likely to use PrEP than their White counterparts [61, 62]. For example, a study utilizing the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance survey conducted in San Francisco among MSM showed only 7.7% of Blacks used PrEP compared to 22.9% of their White counterparts.
There is growing evidence that suggests structural racism-related access to social and economic resources affects access to HIV prevention, care, and treatment programs among Black MSM. Numerous studies have shown Black MSM face significant barriers to accessing health insurance. In a meta-analysis of risk factors associated with disparities in HIV infection among MSM in Canada, UK, and the USA, Millet e al. found Black MSM were less likely to have health insurance compared to their white counterparts [63]. In this same study, the authors found pronounced disparities across a number of structural barriers that increase HIV vulnerability for Black MSM. Black MSM was more likely to be unemployed, have low educational attainment, have lower income, and ever been incarcerated which exacerbate efforts to obtain healthcare. A study examining access to healthcare found expansion of Medicaid was associated with a decline in new HIV diagnoses [64]. A recent study of Black MSM found 31% had no access to health insurance [65]. Another study found an association between having health insurance and being unaware of one’s HIV status demonstrating the importance of having a primary healthcare provider [66].
8. Incarceration, criminal justice system and HIV
There is growing recognition that incarceration is a major structural factor in increasing HIV vulnerability among Black MSM. Structural inequities in the criminal justice system (e.g., stop and frisk, race-based sentencing, bail bonds) have led to disparities in incarceration rates for racial/ethnic minorities, for both Black men and Black MSM [67, 68, 69, 70]. Research has shown correctional facilities are sties of HIV infection where HIV prevalence rates are 5 times that of the general population, yet only 20 states conduct HIV testing at the point of admission [71]. A study conducted in North Carolina showed only 31% of male inmates received a voluntary HIV test [72]. While some facilities provide HIV prevention education, it is often inconsistent [73, 74, 75]. Also, despite high rates of unprotected sex and HIV infection within the prison system, the provision of condoms is not routine. Only two state prison systems and five county jails make condoms available to their male inmates [76]. Among Black MSM inmates who reported engaging in anal sex, 90% indicated they did not use a condom [77]. Furthermore, a prior history of incarceration is associated with non-adherence to HIV treatment [78]. Over incarceration of African American men and lack of access to HIV prevention, care and treatment create conditions that drive the transmission of HIV among racial/ethnic minority populations, particularly Black MSM [79].
9. Stigma, cultural competency and medical mistrust
While having insurance and a primary healthcare provider are important in increasing access to needed HIV prevention, care, and treatment services, it does not always guarantee access. For HIV prevention therapies to be prescribed both patients and healthcare providers must be ready and willing to discuss sexual health. Institutional cultural competency and subsequent patient-provider communication have been shown to influence uptake and use of PrEP. Cultural competency and the healthcare provider at the institutional level play a critical role in creating access to HIV prevention care and treatment for Black MSM. Despite advancements in LGBT inclusion and rights, many healthcare providers lack awareness and sensitivity in relation to sexual and gender minorities, particularly Black MSM. Evidence has shown healthcare providers often fail to discuss sexual health as a part of routine medical care which can lead to missed opportunities for critical HIV prevention education, testing, and counseling [66].
Additionally, stigma and discrimination in healthcare settings have been shown to create barriers to care among Black MSM [80, 81, 82]. Black MSM who experience institutional racism or health care provider stigma and discrimination are less likely to engage in health-seeking behavior [83, 84]. Research has shown stigma is not only a deterrent to accessing care, but it can lead to longer lapses in care among those who experience it [85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91].
10. Conclusions
There is a growing recognition that structural racism contributes to HIV-related outcomes, particularly for Black MSM [92]. This year CDC declared structural racism a public health concern [93]. Several initiatives to advance our understanding of structural racism and its effect on health have been implemented including NIH Unite Initiative whose primary goal is to address structural racism and promote racial equity and inclusion at NIH and within the larger biomedical research enterprise [94]. In the area of HIV, NIH has recently convened an HIV-Related Intersectional Stigma Research Advances and Opportunities Working Group to develop measures and resources that better help to identify and measure HIV-related stigma and discrimination at multiple levels that pose a critical barrier to the prevention, care, and treatment of HIV; and negatively affect the quality of life in those living with HIV [95].
In an effort to build on these initiatives, we call on national, state, and local governments, policymakers, and community-based organizations to implement the following structural HIV prevention interventions to reduce the number of new infections among Black MSM, marginalized and highly stigmatized population:
10.1 Development and implementation of structural competency training and policy
While there is a growing recognition of structural factors (i.e., structural racism) in shaping HIV-related outcomes, there is an urgent need for training and implementation of structural-based programs and interventions that complement biomedical therapies that address social determinants of health to improve HIV-related outcomes among Black MSM. The importance of a culturally competent healthcare professional in providing quality health care is well established [96]. Cultural competency is an evidence-based framework utilized by healthcare care systems, agencies, and organizations that establishes a set of behaviors, attitudes, and policies that enables effective cross-cultural communication between healthcare professionals and vulnerable populations leading to improved health outcomes [97]. Similarly, there is a need for the development and implementation of structural competency training including a theoretical framework setting out a set of constructs, measures, and strategies on establishing and maintaining structural competency for health care systems and healthcare professionals.
10.2 Increase and expand HIV patient navigation services
We call for the development and implementation of patient navigation services that are culturally and structurally tailored to meet the unique needs of Black MSM who are disproportionately impacted by HIV. Evidence has shown patient navigation services increase patient engagement and patient linkage to needed HIV prevention, care, and treatment services [98, 99, 100]. Structurally-appropriate HIV services might include provision of non-clinical services, for example, transportation, clothing, food, rental assistance, housing, and workforce development. Additional research and investments in addressing social determinants of health are critical if we are to reach our goals of ending the HIV epidemic by 2030.
10.3 Implementation of innovative HIV structural interventions
There is growing evidence that structural-level interventions reduce HIV vulnerability and improve HIV-related outcomes. There are a number of HIV structural interventions that have been shown to be effective including comprehensive sex education, access to healthcare, and housing assistance. However, there are other examples that may not be widely known, we list a few here to provide you examples of novel and innovative programs that can be scaled up and/or adapted for Black MSM. The Max Clinic in Seattle, WA and Open Arms Healthcare Center (OAHCC) in Jackson, MS are two examples of health centers that have been designed to meet the needs of racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minority populations by providing culturally competent, quality healthcare across the HIV Continuum [101, 102]. Both clinics offer a range of clinical and non-clinical services. OAHCC utilizes an integrated HIV care model consisting of five care components: (1) case management, (2) HIV health care (including primary health care), (3) behavioral health care (i.e., mental and substance abuse screening and treatment), (4) adherence counseling (a pharmacist-led intervention), and (5) social support services (transportation, emergency food assistance, housing, and legal assistance). The Max clinic is based on high intensity, low threshold incentivized care model including walk-in service (no appointment necessary), primary care services, food vouchers, cash incentives, no-cost bus passes, cell phones, as well as intensive case management with cross-agency coordinated care.
10.4 Expand youth friendly HIV Services (YFHS)
Both in the U.S. and globally, adolescents and young people represent a growing share of the newly infected. In the U.S., Black youth make up one-third of the newly diagnosed [103]. There is a large body of evidence supporting the effectiveness of providing youth friendly services that improve the delivery of sexual and reproductive health services. Given youth, particularly young Black gay and bisexual men, are at elevated risk of HIV, there is an urgent need to implement HIV prevention programs targeting Black MSM early in their pre-teen years. Delivery of quality services that are tailored to young Black MSM may reduce sexual risk behavior and improve adherence to HIV prevention methods such as condoms, PrEP and ART. The WHO has implemented guidelines recommending YFHS should be accessible, acceptable, equitable, appropriate, and effective [104].
10.5 Implementation of multi-level, intersectional, trauma-informed HIV prevention, care and treatment programs and services
Due to structural racism, discrimination, and stigma, Black MSM face a myriad of traumas (e.g., poverty, early childhood adverse events, that is, sexual and/or child abuse, mental health disorder, substance disorder, environmental hazard, poor educational system, lack of healthcare, and substandard housing) which have been shown to have negative effects on an individual’s mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being and consequently has shown to be associated with HIV vulnerability [105]. There is an urgent need for evidence-based, structural-level trauma-informed interventions to address structural racism and its effects on sexual risk behavior that increase the risk of HIV transmission. Sub-Saharan Africa has been at the forefront of the implementation of structural level, trauma-informed interventions including addressing gender norms and HIV, intimate partner violence, and the use of microfinance to reduce HIV risk among young women [106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111].
If we are to meet the goal of ending the HIV Epidemic [112] by 2030, then we must radically shift how HIV prevention services are designed and implemented. Evidence supports the rapid roll-out and scale-up of structural-level HIV prevention programs: including comprehensive sex education, stigma reduction, universal condom availability, expanded syringe access for drug users, mental health counseling, and free access to PrEP and PEP. We call for increased investments in programs and policies that address social and structural determinants of health and fundamentally shift political and policy priorities, rethink social norms, and empower and transform historically marginalized communities. A number of structural approaches have been used or may be adapted to address racial/ethnic disparities in HIV including, free healthcare, affordable housing, a living wage, guaranteed income, reforming of the criminal justice system, early childhood education, and free tuition to college. These programs and policies from a wide range of fields and disciplines, including, education, economics, and public health could be used and adapted to address racial/ethnic disparities in HIV [113]. Figure 2 presents a conceptual model for an integrated, trauma-informed HIV service delivery system. Using an ecological framework, we construct a multilevel, intersectional trauma-informed HIV service delivery model. The fundamental premise of the model is that broader, dynamic, and interlocking oppressions derived out of a distorted, racially-determined political economy, mediated through structural level processes, increase HIV vulnerability by creating barriers to access to HIV prevention, care, and treatment. We have divided the framework into three major constructs (i.e., structural, community and individual). To date, the majority of interventions have been focused on the individual level and to lesser extent community-level interventions. We propose policymakers, researchers and public health officials increase investments in the development and implementation of structural level interventions that will complement HIV prevention efforts. The effects of structural racism are foundational to our understanding of racial/ethnic and sexual gender disparities in HIV and as such it requires a structural level, systems approach to address the underlying structural, political, and economic processes that structure HIV vulnerability for Black, sexual minority men.
Figure 2.
A multilevel, intersectional trama-informed HIV service delivery model.
Conflict of interest
PB has no conflict of interests.
Funding
N/A
Availability of data and material
Any datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality concerns but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Code availability
N/A
\n',keywords:"structural racism, structural discrimination, Black MSM, men who have sex with men, MSM, Black sexual minority men, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), sexual and gender minorities, racial and ethnic minorities, stigma and discrimination",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79934.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79934.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79934",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79934",totalDownloads:100,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 21st 2021",dateReviewed:"November 7th 2021",datePrePublished:"January 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 6th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Structural racism is a fundamental cause of health disparities in the United States among racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minorities. Although there are well-documented disparities in the access of HIV prevention, care, and treatment services, the impact of structural racism on HIV/AIDS remains not well understood. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a detailed description of (1) the theoretical underpinnings of the link between structural racism and HIV, (2) a review of the evidence of these associations, and (3) a culturally appropriate, trauma-informed agenda that addresses intersectional, multi-level structural racism and its myriad manifestations to reduce HIV vulnerability for racial/ethnic and sexual/gender minorities, particularly Black sexual minority men.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79934",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79934",signatures:"Paul A. Burns",book:{id:"10914",type:"book",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-283-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-282-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-284-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Understanding the structural origins of the HIV epidemic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. A conceptual framework for the association between structural racism and HIV",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. 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American Psychologist. 2013 May-Jun;68(4):225-236'},{id:"B106",body:'Abramsky T, Devries K, Kiss L, Nakuti J, Kyegombe N, Starmann E, et al. Findings from the SASA! study: A cluster randomized controlled trial to assess the impact of a community mobilization intervention to prevent violence against women and reduce HIV risk in Kampala, Uganda. BMC Medicine. 2014;12(1):1'},{id:"B107",body:'Wagman JA, Gray RH, Campbell JC, Thoma M, Ndyanabo A, Ssekasanvu J, et al. Effectiveness of an integrated intimate partner violence and HIV prevention intervention in Rakai, Uganda: Analysis of an intervention in an existing cluster randomised cohort. The Lancet Global Health. 2015;3(1):e23-e33'},{id:"B108",body:'Reza-Paul S, Lorway R, O’Brien N, Lazarus L, Jain J, Bhagya M, et al. Sex worker-led structural interventions in India: A case study on addressing violence in HIV prevention through the Ashodaya Samithi collective in Mysore. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2012;135(1):98'},{id:"B109",body:'Jewkes R, Nduna M, Levin J, Jama N, Dunkle K, Puren A, et al. Impact of stepping stones on incidence of HIV and HSV-2 and sexual behaviour in rural South Africa: Cluster randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal. 2008;337:a506. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.a506'},{id:"B110",body:'Pronyk P, Hargreaves J, Kim JC, Morison LA, Phetla G, Watts C, et al. Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: A cluster randomised trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1973-1983. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69744-4'},{id:"B111",body:'Pronyk PM, Kim JC, Abramsky T, Phetla G, Hargreaves JR, Morison LA, et al. Combined microfinance and training intervention can reduce HIV risk behaviour in young female participants. AIDS. 2008;22:1659-1666. DOI: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e328307a040'},{id:"B112",body:'Office of Infectious Disease and HIV/AIDS Policy, HHS. Ending the HIV Epidemic in the U.S. (EHE). 2021. Available from: https://www.hiv.gov/federal-response/ending-the-hiv-epidemic/overview [Accessed: September 21, 2021]'},{id:"B113",body:'Adimora AA, Auerbach JD. Structural interventions for HIV prevention in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2010;55:S132-S135. DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181fbcb38'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Paul A. Burns",address:"pburns@umc.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Population Health Science, John D. Bower School of Population Health, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States
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Hence, successful management of stored grain pests becomes necessary to prevent these from insect pests. Current approaches for their management are one of the promising goals, as it includes preventive practices, monitoring, sanitation, and identification of main pathogens. Different management strategies of all the common stored grain pests viz. grain weevils, grain borers, grain moths, flour moths, mealworms, grain and flour beetles, booklice, mites, and parasites are enlisted here.",signatures:"Rayees Ahmad, Shafiya Hassan, Showkat Ahmad, Syed Nighat, Yendrambamb K. Devi, Kounser Javeed, Salma Usmani, Mohammad Javed Ansari, Sait Erturk, Mustafa Alkan and Barkat Hussain",authors:[{id:"319667",title:"Dr.",name:"Barkat",surname:"Hussain",fullName:"Barkat Hussain",slug:"barkat-hussain",email:"bhatbari@rediffmail.com"},{id:"444975",title:"Dr.",name:"Rayees",surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Rayees Ahmad",slug:"rayees-ahmad",email:"dummy+444975@intechopen.com"},{id:"444976",title:"Dr.",name:"Shafiya",surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Shafiya Hassan",slug:"shafiya-hassan",email:"dummy+444976@intechopen.com"},{id:"444977",title:"Dr.",name:"Showkat",surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Showkat Ahmad",slug:"showkat-ahmad",email:"dummy+444977@intechopen.com"},{id:"444978",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Nighat",fullName:"Syed Nighat",slug:"syed-nighat",email:"dummy+444978@intechopen.com"},{id:"444979",title:"Dr.",name:"Yendrambamb",surname:"K. Devi",fullName:"Yendrambamb K. Devi",slug:"yendrambamb-k.-devi",email:"dummy+444979@intechopen.com"},{id:"444980",title:"Dr.",name:"Kounser",surname:"Javeed",fullName:"Kounser Javeed",slug:"kounser-javeed",email:"dummy+444980@intechopen.com"},{id:"444981",title:"Dr.",name:"Salma",surname:"Usmani",fullName:"Salma Usmani",slug:"salma-usmani",email:"dummy+444981@intechopen.com"},{id:"444982",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Javid",surname:"Ansari",fullName:"Mohd Javid Ansari",slug:"mohd-javid-ansari",email:"dummy+444982@intechopen.com"},{id:"444983",title:"Dr.",name:"Sait",surname:"Erturk",fullName:"Sait Erturk",slug:"sait-erturk",email:"dummy+444983@intechopen.com"},{id:"444984",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Alkan",fullName:"Mustafa Alkan",slug:"mustafa-alkan",email:"dummy+444984@intechopen.com"}],book:{id:"10899",title:"Postharvest Technology",slug:"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"53233",title:"Dr.",name:"Samira A.",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"samira-a.-mohamed",fullName:"Samira A. Mohamed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"193889",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryusuke",surname:"Oishi",slug:"ryusuke-oishi",fullName:"Ryusuke Oishi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Meikai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"203571",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Félix Hahn Schlam",slug:"federico-felix-hahn-schlam",fullName:"Federico Félix Hahn Schlam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chapingo Autonomous University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"420531",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahesh Prasad",surname:"Thakur",slug:"mahesh-prasad-thakur",fullName:"Mahesh Prasad Thakur",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420664",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra Shekhar",surname:"Shukla",slug:"chandra-shekhar-shukla",fullName:"Chandra Shekhar Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420665",title:"Dr.",name:"Harvinder K",surname:"Singh",slug:"harvinder-k-singh",fullName:"Harvinder K Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"422290",title:"Dr.",name:"Shepard",surname:"Ndlela",slug:"shepard-ndlela",fullName:"Shepard Ndlela",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"422875",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"TRINA",surname:"ADHIKARY",slug:"trina-adhikary",fullName:"TRINA ADHIKARY",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"426729",title:"Mr.",name:"Ch. Durga Hemanth",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ch.-durga-hemanth-kumar",fullName:"Ch. Durga Hemanth Kumar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"429463",title:"Mr.",name:"Nelson L.",surname:"Mwando",slug:"nelson-l.-mwando",fullName:"Nelson L. Mwando",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kenya"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"attribution-policy",title:"Attribution Policy",intro:"
Definition of Terms:
\n\n
Book - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
",metaTitle:"Attribution Policy",metaDescription:"DEFINITION OF TERMS",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/attribution-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\\n\\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\\n\\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
\\n\\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
\\n
\\n\\n
In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\\n\\n
1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
\\n\\n
All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\\n\\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\\n\\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
\\n\\t
The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\\n\\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
\\n\\t
Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
\\n\\t
Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
\\n\\t
Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\\n
\\n\\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\\n\\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\\n\\t
Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\\n\\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\\n\\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\\n\\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\\n\\n
All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\n\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
\n
\n\n
In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\n
1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
\n\n
All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\n
\n\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\n\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\n\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
\n\t
The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
\n\t
Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
\n\t
Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
\n\t
Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\n\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\n
\n\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\n\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\n\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\n
All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Kim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7661",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",subtitle:"Advances in Science and Technology Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c29b5c2ce24925a935ca52b8344fbb99",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",bookSignature:"Alfredo Iranzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7661.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67352",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Iranzo",slug:"alfredo-iranzo",fullName:"Alfredo Iranzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67726",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86322",title:"CFD Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer for Climate Control in Greenhouses",slug:"cfd-simulation-of-heat-and-mass-transfer-for-climate-control-in-greenhouses",totalDownloads:1120,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Greenhouse plant production involves a number of processes such as transpiration, condensation, photosynthesis, and climate control. Such processes, in turn, set off mass and heat transfer phenomena that influence not only the quality and quantity of crop production but also its environmental cost. While these processes have considerably been analyzed in separate, they strongly interact with one another. For instance, increased radiation (mainly thermal infrared) increases temperature, reduces humidity, consequently increases transpiration, and affects CO2 exchange as well as other reaction rates. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical tool with a solid physical basis which allows, through the construction of a computational model, to simulate the fluid flow environment. Heating, ventilation, and condensation have been analyzed in the greenhouse environment with CFD techniques. The current challenge is the interaction of these processes and their impact on the production system. The present work summarizes some CFD investigations carried out in this topic, in order to analyze the processes of heat and mass transfer in a greenhouse for agronomic purposes.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Cruz Ernesto Aguilar Rodriguez and Jorge Flores Velazquez",authors:[{id:"173578",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Velazquez",slug:"jorge-flores-velazquez",fullName:"Jorge Flores-Velazquez"}]},{id:"66158",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84706",title:"Numerical Solution to Two-Dimensional Freezing and Subsequent Defrosting of Logs",slug:"numerical-solution-to-two-dimensional-freezing-and-subsequent-defrosting-of-logs",totalDownloads:620,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Two-dimensional mutually connected mathematical models have been created, solved, and verified for the transient non-linear heat conduction in logs during their freezing and subsequent defrosting. The models reflect the influence of the internal sources of latent heat of both the free and bound water on the logs’ freezing process and also the impact of the temperature on the fiber saturation point of wood species, with whose participation the current values of the thermo-physical characteristics in each separate volume point of the subjected to freezing and subsequent defrosting logs are computed. The chapter presents solutions of the models with explicit form of the finite-difference method and their validation towards own experimental studies. Results from experimental and simulative investigation of 2D non-stationary temperature distribution in the longitudinal section of beech and pine logs with a diameter of 0.24 m and length of 0.48 m during their many hours freezing in a freezer and subsequent defrosting at room temperature are presented, visualized, and analyzed.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Nencho Deliiski and Natalia Tumbarkova",authors:[{id:"43040",title:"Prof.",name:"Nencho",middleName:"Stanev",surname:"Deliiski",slug:"nencho-deliiski",fullName:"Nencho Deliiski"},{id:"284649",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yordanova",surname:"Tumbarkova",slug:"natalia-tumbarkova",fullName:"Natalia Tumbarkova"}]},{id:"67626",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86738",title:"The Boundary Element Method for Fluctuating Active Colloids",slug:"the-boundary-element-method-for-fluctuating-active-colloids",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The boundary element method (BEM) is a computational method particularly suited to solution of linear partial differential equations (PDEs), including the Laplace and Stokes equations, in complex geometries. The PDEs are formulated as boundary integral equations over bounding surfaces, which can be discretized for numerical solution. This manuscript reviews application of the BEM for simulation of the dynamics of “active” colloids that can self-propel through liquid solution. We introduce basic concepts and model equations for both catalytically active colloids and the “squirmer” model of a ciliated biological microswimmer. We review the foundations of the BEM for both the Laplace and Stokes equations, including the application to confined geometries, and the extension of the method to include thermal fluctuations of the colloid. Finally, we discuss recent and potential applications to research problems concerning active colloids. The aim of this review is to facilitate development and adoption of boundary element models that capture the interplay of deterministic and stochastic effects in the dynamics of active colloids.",book:{id:"8416",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",fullTitle:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics"},signatures:"William E. Uspal",authors:[{id:"279308",title:"Prof.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Uspal",slug:"william-uspal",fullName:"William Uspal"}]},{id:"66487",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85735",title:"Mean Aspects Controlling Supercritical CO2 Precipitation Processes",slug:"mean-aspects-controlling-supercritical-co-sub-2-sub-precipitation-processes",totalDownloads:736,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The use of supercritical CO2 is an excellent alternative in extraction, particle precipitation, impregnation and reaction processes due to its special properties. Solubility of the compound in supercritical CO2 drives the precipitation process in different ways. In supercritical antisolvent process, mass and heat transfers, phase equilibria, nucleation, and growth of the compound to be precipitated are the main phenomena that should be taken into account. Mass transfer conditions the morphology and particle size of the final product. This transfer could be tuned altering operating conditions. Heat transfer in non-isothermal process influences on mixing step the size of generated microparticles. In rapid expansion of supercritical solution, phenomena as the phase change from supercritical to a CO2 gas flow, rapid mass transfer and crystallization of the compound, and expansion jet define the morphology and size of the final product. These phenomena a priori could be modulated tuning a large number of operating parameters through the experiments, but the correlations and modeling of these processes are necessary to clarify the relative importance of each one. Moreover, particle agglomeration in the expansion jet and CO2 condensation are determinant phenomena which should be avoided in order to conserve fine particles in the final product.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Antonio Montes, Clara Pereyra and Enrique J. Martínez de la Ossa",authors:[{id:"55991",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Montes",slug:"antonio-montes",fullName:"Antonio Montes"},{id:"55992",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",middleName:null,surname:"Pereyra",slug:"clara-pereyra",fullName:"Clara Pereyra"},{id:"55993",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez De La Ossa",slug:"enrique-martinez-de-la-ossa",fullName:"Enrique Martinez De La Ossa"}]},{id:"66317",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85254",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66878",title:"Design of Industrial Falling Film Evaporators",slug:"design-of-industrial-falling-film-evaporators",totalDownloads:1753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The high performance evaporators are important for process industries such as food, desalination and refineries. The falling film evaporators have many advantages over flooded and vertical tubes that make them best candidate for processes industries application. The heat transfer area is the key parameter in designing of an evaporator and many correlations are available to estimate the size of tube bundle. Unfortunately, most of the correlation is available only for pure water and above 322 K saturation temperatures. Out of these conditions, the areas are designed by the extrapolation of existing correlations. We demonstrated that the actual heat transfer values are 2–3-fold higher at lower temperature and hence simple extrapolated estimation leads to inefficient and high capital cost design. We proposed an accurate heat transfer correlation for falling film evaporators that can capture both, low temperature evaporation and salt concentration effectively. It is also embedded with unique bubble-assisted evaporation parameter that can be only observed at low temperature and it enhances the heat transfer. The proposed correlation is applicable from 280 to 305 K saturation temperatures and feed water concentration ranges from 35,000 to 95,000 ppm. The uncertainty of measured data is less than 5% and RMS of regressed data is 3.5%. In this chapter, first part summarized the all available correlations and their limitations. In second part, falling film evaporation heat transfer coefficient (FFHTC) is proposed and model is developed. In the last part, experimentation is conducted and FFHTC developed and compared with conventional correlations.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Muhammad Burhan and Kim Choon Ng",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"},{id:"249811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Burhan",slug:"muhammad-burhan",fullName:"Muhammad Burhan"},{id:"254696",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim Choon",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-choon-ng",fullName:"Kim Choon Ng"}]},{id:"66102",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer of Additive Manufacturing Processes for Metals",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-of-additive-manufacturing-processes-for-metals",totalDownloads:1302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Additive manufacturing (AM), a method in which a part is fabricated layer by layer from a digital design package, provides the potential to produce complex components at reduced cost and time. Many techniques (using many different names) have been developed to accomplish this via melting or solid-state joining. However, to date, only a handful can be used to produce metallic parts that fulfill the requirements of industrial applications. The thermal physics and weld pool behaviors in metal AM process have decisive influence on the deposition quality, the microstructure and service performance of the depositions. Accurate analysis and calculation of thermal processes and weld pool behaviors are of great significance to the metallurgy analysis, stress and deformation analysis, process control and process optimization etc. Numerical modeling is also a necessary way to turn welding from qualitative description and experience-based art into quantitative analysis- and science-based engineering branch. In this chapter, two techniques for producing metal parts are explored, with a focus on the thermal science of metal AM: fluid flow and heat transfer. Selective laser melting (SLM) is the one that is most widely used because it typically has the best resolution. Another is named metal fused-coated additive manufacturing (MFCAM) that is cost competitive and efficient in producing large and middle-complex components in aerospace applications.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Zhengying Wei and Jun Du",authors:[{id:"47614",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhengying",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"zhengying-wei",fullName:"Zhengying Wei"},{id:"282052",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"jun-du",fullName:"Jun Du"}]},{id:"66563",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer in Outward Convex Corrugated Tube Heat Exchangers",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-in-outward-convex-corrugated-tube-heat-exchangers",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers is of significant importance for the optimization, fabrication, and application of outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. This chapter gives a deep investigation of the heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. Based on the experimental setup developed, the performances of a novel outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are presented. Simulation methods are then used to detail the heat and mass transfer at tube side and shell side of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger, and these include the flow structure, temperature distribution, and turbulence kinetic energy. Heat and mass transfer enhancements of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are also studied, and they are from tube side, shell side, and overall system aspects. Finally, multi-objective optimization of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger is conducted to obtain the optimal performances through using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II). Main conclusions and future outlook are then briefly stated and summarized. We firmly believe that the contents presented in this chapter can not only enrich the knowledge of heat exchangers but also develop methods for studying heat exchangers.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Huaizhi Han, Bingxi Li, Yaning Zhang, Quan Zhu and Ruitian Yu",authors:[{id:"23828",title:"Dr.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"quan-zhu",fullName:"Quan Zhu"},{id:"148369",title:"Prof.",name:"Bingxi",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"bingxi-li",fullName:"Bingxi Li"},{id:"196928",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaning",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yaning-zhang",fullName:"Yaning Zhang"},{id:"281875",title:"Prof.",name:"Huaizhi",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"huaizhi-han",fullName:"Huaizhi Han"},{id:"282268",title:"Mr.",name:"Ruitian",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"ruitian-yu",fullName:"Ruitian Yu"}]},{id:"66317",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"65692",title:"Advances in Concentrated Solar Power: A Perspective of Heat Transfer",slug:"advances-in-concentrated-solar-power-a-perspective-of-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Solar energy has the potential to reduce the dependence on the dwindling supply of fossil fuels through concentrated solar power (CSP) technology. CSP plants utilize solar thermal energy to produce electrical energy based on different thermodynamic power cycles. Solar collectors, reflectors, receivers, thermal fluid, and turbines are the main components of each CSP plant and involve intensive heat transfer at all stages. This chapter illustrates the thermal characteristics of the main components used in CSP technology. In addition, the solar thermal fluid characteristics and its stable operational ranges are discussed in this chapter. Heat capacity, vapor pressure, volume expansion, density and viscosity of the thermal fluid should not differ significantly at different temperatures during various operation stages because these variations can cause failure in the system, which is designed at the fixed material properties. Currently, CSP technology is associated with a higher cost compared to the electricity generated through gas power plants. Many efforts are made to search for sustainable and inexpensive materials to minimize the cost of CSP. One critical issue faced by CSP technology is the intermittent nature of the sun. Modern CSP plants integrate thermal energy storage (TES) unit to smoothen the power production or to shift the production from peak sunshine hours to peak demand hours.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat and Yasir Rashid",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",middleName:null,surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"291252",title:"Mr.",name:"Yasir",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"yasir-rashid",fullName:"Yasir Rashid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"954",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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