List of some nematode species associated with potato.
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
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During her research career obtained several grants is highly international competitive calls, including the MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",middleName:"Marta",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320124/images/system/320124.jpg",biography:"Ana Marta Gonçalves obtained a Ph.D. in Biology with a specialization in Ecology from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, Belgium, in 2011. Currently, she is an auxiliary researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal, where she is also a member of the Directive Board. Since 2016, she has been a member of the Scientific Council of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra (IIIUC). Dr. Gonçalves holds various administrative and management positions in international networks, societies (e.g., Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, AIL), and associations (e.g., PROAQUA). She is an editorial board member and reviewer for several indexed journals. She has published more than 70 journal articles, 50 book chapters, and 165 communications in international scientific events. She participated as a member and/or coordinator in more than twenty-five national and international projects and is currently the coordinator of four research projects. She has supervised more than ninety-five national and international undergraduate and graduate students. She has experience as a teacher of university courses and in accredited training sessions for teachers. 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There has been increasing demand for food supply and food security. Unsustainable cropping production systems with monocultures, intensive planting and expansion of crops to newly opened areas have increased problems associated with new pests and diseases [4].
Nematodes are diverse, microscopic multicellular animals comprising free living to plant parasitic species. They parasitize a wide range of plant species, including monocots and dicots, and are one of the most limiting factors for major crops, causing substantial annual crop loss worldwide. Plant parasitic nematodes are a limiting factor for potato production and lead to decreased yield, physical and chemical changes in potato tubers, poor tuber quality and malformations, which overall make them unmarketable [3, 5, 6]. Nematodes alone can cause average yield losses in potato up to 12% [7]. Nonetheless, potato yield losses due to nematode parasitism also depend on a combination of factors, including cultivar, favorable environment, soil structure, population density and time of planting, and could lead to a more severe decline in yield at particular cropping systems [3, 5, 8, 9, 10].
Several nematode species are found associated with potato; some of which cause significant yield losses, while others may cause minor injuries and are of local importance. The main nematode species associated with potato includes the yellow potato cyst nematode
Since pathogens such as plant parasitic nematodes represent major losses in agricultural systems, especially when the crops are not managed sustainably, the searches for information on the occurrence of nematodes in the production system, population density, species, level of damage and monitoring and management of these populations are essential in regions where crops will be set [3, 4]. In addition, reliable, fast and proper nematode diagnosis and specimen identification are mandatory for choosing adequate management control strategies and for avoiding spreading of exotic nematodes in quarantine materials.
The objective of this chapter is to report a literature review on major nematode species that affect potato growth, yield and quality worldwide and to point out methods normally used for their sustainable management in the field. We will focus on the main nematode species that cause mostly damage to potato, including (i) the potato cyst nematodes
Common name | Species name |
---|---|
Potato cyst nematodes | |
Root-knot nematodes | |
Root lesion nematodes | |
Potato rot nematode | |
The false root-knot nematode | |
Bulb & stem nematode | |
Stubby root nematode | |
Sting nematode | |
Spiral nematode | |
Lance nematode | |
Stunt nematode | |
Dagger nematode | |
The reniform nematode | |
Burrowing nematode |
List of some nematode species associated with potato.
Potato cyst nematodes (PCN)—the golden nematode
Mature females of PCN,
The nematodes,
Field dissemination of PCN occurs through several ways, including irrigation water, rainfall runoff, infested soil particles, infested commercial seed potato tubers, contaminated packing of seed potato tubers, footwear, animal hooves, as well as with infested implements and machineries, among others [17, 18].
The host range of PCN includes potato, tomato (
PCN are considered major pest to potato production in which yield losses can vary from slight losses, reach up to 70% or to a complete loss [20]. The level of damages and losses, however, depend on a combination of factors, including nematode population buildup, number of generations per year, length of potato growing season, soil temperature and host factors [20, 21]. In addition, due to non-specific symptoms in potato, especially above ground, losses are often not taken into account or attributed to adverse factors, such as other pathogens, inadequate plant nutrition and lack of soil moisture [18]. Typical symptoms of nematode infestations occur in patches of poor growth in the field, modifying the genetic characteristics of the crop, causing smaller, curled and abnormally colored leaves, tending to show brown spots on the margins and reduction of the numbers and sizes of leaflets, which overall affect the photosynthesis [6].
Potato plants infected with
Once the nematodes are reported into potato fields, other management measures should be used in order to avoid their dissemination or to decrease their population level and thus improve yield. The success in decreasing their population level is variable and depends on the initial population density, soil type and plant genotype, among others. Generally, long-cycle potatoes planted in the fall and harvested in spring have more pronounced yield losses than short-cycle cultivars [21].
Control methods for PCN include the use of quarantine regulations, crop rotation and crop succession [15, 21] and the use of resistant varieties and nematicides. For instance, crop rotation with barley has showed reduction in
The use of resistant varieties against nematode infection is one of the most effective and environmentally safe methods to control their infection. Resistant varieties against
Trap plants can also be used to control these nematodes. These plants will trigger hatching of nematode eggs with posterior prevention from completing their cycle by destroying the host. The length of time is critical and plants should be destroyed at a proper time after planting in order to stop the nematode cycle [24]. If plants are not destroyed or occur too late, the nematode population will build up. Some examples of the use of trap plants include the plant species
Alternatively, the use of antagonist plants can be used to control these nematodes. Antagonistic plants will initially stand nematode infection; however, later in their cycle, plant factors will stop their further development. The following plant species
Other control methods include soil solarization, especially in regions with warmer temperatures. Chemical control with nematicides has also being used in several regions with satisfactory rate of control. Products, such as carbamates, aldicarb and carbofuran, have been used successfully. However, soil solarization and the use of nematocides are costly, and nematicides may cause side effects to human and to the environment [21].
Root-knot nematodes (RKNs),
This group of nematodes is highly diverse, mainly due to their variations in cytogenetics (aneuploidy and polyploidy states), types of reproduction (amphimixis to parthenogenesis), complex mode of parasitism (advanced interactions with their hosts), interspecific hybridization, cryptic species and wide host ranges [27, 29, 30, 31, 32].
Root-knot nematodes are endo-sedentary parasitic nematodes. The second-stage juvenile (J2) is the infective stage. After RKN hatch from eggs, the J2 migrates through the soil towards suitable root and uses special enzymes and the stylets to force penetration into the vascular cylinder where RKN establishes their feeding site by inducing hypertrophy and hyperplasia of a group of cells leading to swelling and formation of giant cells. On this site, nematode goes through three more ecdysis (molting) to become a swollen young female. Mature females begin laying eggs in the root, forming mass eggs wrapped in a gelatinous matrix. Each egg mass contains 400–500 eggs on average, and it is formed in the midst of cortical parenchyma or on the surface of the roots. The embryonic development of the nematode results in the first stage (J1), passing through an ecdysis (molting) in the egg, followed by the second stage (J2). Adult males do not feed on infected plants; they leave the roots and move freely in the soil until they die [4, 27].
Symptoms in the field include yellowing, stunting, wilting, brown spots and rotting of tubers. RKNs induce hypertrophy and hyperplasia of infected cells leading to swelling of tissues commonly known as galls. Affected tubers also develop galls, known as ‘popcorn’, which overall leads to low quality of tubers (Figure 1) [5, 33]. The number and sizes of galls vary depending on the susceptibility of the cultivars, population density and favorable temperatures [26]. RKN-infected roots change their nutrient and water uptake, leading to pronounced poor growth and tuber quality and decreased yield. Commonly, there are high levels of intraspecific variation within
Nematode induced symptoms and nematode characteristics. (A) Potato tuber showing RKN galling (swellings) symptoms, (B) RKN second-stage juveniles (J2) inside root tissues, (C, D) scanning electron micrographs showing an overview of the RKN labial region and (E) RKN female and their egg-mass protruding from plant tissue. Courtesy of (A) Israel Medina (Univ. Nac. Del Altiplano Puno, Peru), (B, E) Jonathan Isenback (Viginia Tech, USA) and (C, D) Regina Carneiro (Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Brazil).
Often, the invasion of potato root system is non-damaging, but as soon as tubers begin to initiate, tubers are invaded by the infective second-stage juvenile (J2) and a rapid development and spread occur. Thus, if potato roots and tubers become infected early, several generations of the pathogen will occur before harvest, which typically is about 110 days after planting [34]. However, this depends on each cultivar and the management systems. Potato production in warmer regions or in sandy soils with irrigation system will result in a mix of favorable temperatures, soil structure and moisture status, which may lead to a significant increase in the severity of RKN infections [34].
Losses caused by RKN infection may in extreme cases reach up to 100% in potato fields. Also, variable losses occur as a result of the planting season and the level of soil infestation [33].
RKN species have been increasingly found in association with potato crops in the tropics and subtropics, causing substantial economic impact due to crop losses depending mainly on the cultivars, favorable climate and nematode density present during planting [5, 8, 9, 27, 35, 36]. A few RKN species have been reported as increasing problems for potato cultivation in several regions worldwide, and the most important ones are
In temperate regions, i.e. North America, Europe and Australia,
In a survey for RKN species in potato fields in southern Brazil [3], it was found that
In a similar survey, [36], using multiple loci sequencing approaches such as the intergenic region (IGS), D2-D3 expansion segments within 28S rDNA and
The most effective, low cost, environmentally and healthy sound way to control RKN is to use resistant cultivars that stand good yield performance and have been tested for a particular region where potato is produced. However, currently there is no potato cultivar resistant to
The best characterized resistant gene against RKN in wild potato (
Alternatively, chemical nematicides have been used for the control of RKN in potato, especially in large cropping areas [6]. Other control methods, include crop rotation or succession with non-host and poor hosts, even though they should be used carefully since RKN have a very wide host range and it could host other non RKN species, i.e.
The false root-knot nematode
This species is a quarantine regulated pest to several regions and it is considered a serious pest to potato in which yield losses up to 55–90% have been reported [43, 44, 45]. This nematode species has been detected in greenhouses in England, Netherlands, Finland, Russia, India and China [43, 45]; however, it has not been found in the field of any other region outside North and South America [43] and may have been eradicated following its detection in Europe and Asia countries. In the Andean region of Peru and Bolivia, for instance,
Potato is the most significant host of
Symptoms of
The life cycle of
Control methods for
Root lesion nematodes
Management practices for
All
Some other plant species such as
The lack of crop rotation or succession with crops that are good hosts, such as soybeans, beans, corn, sorghum and several forage grasses, no-tillage system; the use of sandy to medium texture soils and poor nutrition of plants are some of the facts that may increase root lesion nematode-associated problems in potato. Favorable temperatures and humidity (ca. 20–25°C and 60–80% humidity) and excess of nitrogen fertilization also intensify problems associated with these nematodes [42].
The genera
The symptoms caused by
The use of crop rotation for controlling
Other control measures for these nematodes include the use of nematode free field, nematode free seed potato tuber, and ultimately the use of chemical nematicides may be recommended.
The stubby-root nematodes,
Trichodorids have a wide distribution around the world, although some species are restricted to a particular region. Studies on the distribution and ecology of trichodorids, as well as the mechanisms involved in the transmission of certain viruses, may eventually result in new strategies for their control [56].
Even though there is a considerable amount of data reporting the impact of these nematodes as a plant parasite, their ability to vector certain viruses has increased their importance to the agriculture, when several species of Trichodoridae were identified as a viral vector [56]. Thus, they are considered economically important for potato production, both because of their direct damage and due to the viruses they transmit. For instance,
TRV-infected potato plants exhibit systemic and local symptoms, such as necrosis, chlorosis and overall stunting. Affected potato tubers may exhibit necrotic lesions with brittle tissues and low quality commercial potato tubers may occur even when mild symptoms are seen [58].
Other symptoms associated with TRV infection include delayed emergence of plant and subsequent poor growth, reduced tuber weight and potato yield, high incidence of poor commercial potato tubers, with low dry matter content and oxidation of tuber post cooking [56].
On the whole, control methods for stubby-root nematodes include those listed for other species as well, i.e. prevention (the use of certified planting material, cleaning soil from machineries and equipments, preventing the movement of animals within infested fields), crop rotation, cultural practices and the use of nematicides [6].
Other nematode species, including the sting nematode (
The effective control of potato nematodes are overall difficult and complex due to the particular biology of these plant parasites—they inhabit soil, have a short life cycle, multiply fast and have a large population build up; there are just few plant genotypes resistant to them, and chemical nematicides have limited effect due to their interaction with soil components or are being avoided due to their side effects to human and to the environment [42]. Therefore, control strategies for nematodes affecting potato should be planned carefully in order to succeed. The use of more than one control strategy (integrated management) is advised in order to optimize the control efficiency. Information required for proper nematode management, include: (i) proper diagnosis of nematode species and isolate; (ii) relationship between population density and yield losses; (iii) nematode biology (life cycle, environmental requirements, parasitism); (iv) host range; (v) population dynamics; (vi) efficiency of control methods and (vii) economic feasibility of control methods [21].
Generally used control strategies for potato nematodes are (i) planting in fields free of nematode pests, (ii) the use of certified nematode-free seed potato tubers, (iii) crop rotation and succession with non-host or poor host, (iv) fallow (including elimination of weeds), (v) antagonist plants, (vi) trap plants, (vii) resistant cultivars, (viii) avoidance to disseminate the nematodes, i.e. cleaning of tools and machineries, clean irrigation water and cleaning of footwear, (ix) planting potato at season that is less favored to nematode reproduction, i.e. dry and cold season, (x) quarantine regulations for exotic nematode species, i.e. potato cyst nematodes
Several nematode species are associated with potato and few of them negatively impact yield and tuber quality. Severe yield losses and poor tuber quality have been reported in most regions where potatoes are grown. The importance of these nematode species depends on their adaptation to each geographical region (local climate), plant host factors and management practices of potato crop. Other minor species may be a problem to local regions as well. Nematode species have unique biology, behavior and are usually difficulty to be managed or eradicated once they are introduced in a field. In addition, their morphological similarities make them difficult to be diagnosed. Nonetheless, proper nematode identification to species and isolate level are mandatory to choose the proper control method. Overall, these nematode problems in potato are better managed when integrated management practices are used, i.e. exclusion (quarantine regulations, certified plant material, use of clean equipment and machineries), cultural practices (crop rotation, succession, cover crops), genetic control, and ultimately by the use of nematicides. Therefore, for a sustainable cropping of potato cultivars, growers, extension services and researchers must consider these nematodes holistically, the impact they cause and whether these management practices are economically, environmentally and technically sound.
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [1, 2]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [2, 3]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [2, 3, 4], sedimentation or flotation [5, 6] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [7]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [8, 9]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [10, 11, 12]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [11] has raised concerns associated with sludge generation and heavy metal residuals which are potentially toxic to the ecosystem [10, 11, 12]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’s standards for regulating the quality of effluent plants [8].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Figure 1), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [14, 15]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [5, 6]. However, most of the industrial wastewaters from the oil refinery, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [10, 15, 16]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [14, 17, 18]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [11, 17]. Also, the problem related to disposal of huge sludge and metals in the effluents, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [4, 13, 19], requires a technique to recover the valuable or toxic metals from the sludge [20, 21]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [20, 21, 22].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [23]. Figure 2 shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [24]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [24, 25, 26]. The flocculation facilitates the agglomeration of the coagulated particles to form larger flocs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [24]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants. Their low charge density makes not to reverse the surface charge and hence they are less prone to induce destabilization.
Physicochemical treatment process [
Also, agglomeration of particles to form large and stable flocs involve mixing of the coagulants with the wastewaters usually monitored via Jar test. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [11, 17, 27]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [28, 29]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in Table 1.
Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
---|---|---|
Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
Coagulant dosage | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
Coagulant quality | Temperature | Coagulant dosage end point |
Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [17].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [12, 14]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3) adsorption and charge neutralization; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. This involves the reaction between the colloids and the added coagulant to destabilize and neutralize the electric charges in the particles, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (Figure 3), the addition of the coagulant is accountable for the creation of small scattered particles which come together into larger and more stable particle flocs. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [1, 2]. Furthermore, the coagulation step depends on conditions of time and agitation whereby the particles coalesced to form larger flocs could be eliminated by sedimentation.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [30]. In a typical flotation process (Figure 4), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water, which then allows the flocs to float to the surface. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [31, 32].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [33]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [34], such that the chemical reaction between the coagulants and the organic matter results in forming larger oil flocs, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [35, 36]. This allows the coagulated flocs to float on the surface as sludge, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
There are several operating factors that have an impact on the parallel and sequential reactions that occur when a coagulant is added to the wastewater. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation, there are a series of transportation mechanisms which occurs including Brownian diffusion and fluid motion. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW) and charge density (CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [37, 38], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation. Although anionic charge on the polymer can obstruct adsorption onto an undesirable surface, it promotes the polymer chain via mutual charge repulsion between polymer molecules [39]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (both those that are charged, irrespective of pH and those that can become charged under certain pH conditions) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in (1)–(3) as a function of the amount of ionic charge (qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [38, 40]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The degree of coagulation completion for effective treatment can be related to coagulant dosage and mixing conditions. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in Figure 5. The rapid or fast mixing occurs after the addition of the coagulants, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [24, 25, 29]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation. Slow mixing provides a velocity gradient for particles with similar size that can be larger than 1 μm. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [33, 36, 38]. In practice (Figure 5), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [24, 27]. In flotation principle, a lower dosage of the polymer can be used because the agitation creates a well-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [33, 41].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [36, 41]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [24, 38]. With an increase in pH, these species become charged resulting in a change in mechanism. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [4, 41]. Coagulant dosage is an energetic factor in finding how the metal ions react with the organic matter in wastewater to enhance its clarity.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [15, 17]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [17, 18, 24]. Thus, the dosage needs to be stepped up in other to compensate for the loss of the polymer.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [24, 38, 40]. In contrast, like-charges of a polymer chain tend to expand when there is a mutual repulsion. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also, an increase in ionic strength shields the charged site of the polymer which then affects its hydrodynamic volume expansion by decreasing the viscosity of the solution [39, 40]. This causes a double layer compression to be formed around the floc surface area where there might be oppositely charged ions.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [42]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However, each type of coagulant has its own unique properties with positive ions which will entrap the negative charge of the organic matter in the water that causes turbidity.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings. These include based aluminum metals (aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate) and iron based metals (ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [13, 17, 18]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+ and Fe (H2O)63+ for aluminum and iron respectively [26, 37, 39, 43]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH− ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+ and Fe (OH)2 which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [26, 29].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [17, 18]. These include high dosage dependence, a high requirement on pH, weakness to temperature disparity and high sludge generation. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in Table 2. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [25, 33]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2 (SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used; produces less sludge than lime; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | Effective in hard waters; small dosage usually needed | Often used with alum; high cost; ineffective in soft waters |
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent; produces large quantities of sludge; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [15, 17]. Table 3 shows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [15]. There are various types of organic coagulants, which have different covalent charges and bonds of their polymeric molecules. These include the charge or ionic polymers (polyelectrolytes) and no charge or non-ionic polymers [15, 25]. In respect to the charge polymers, those with a positive charge are termed as cationic polymers, whereas those with negative charges are called anionic polymers.
Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
---|---|---|---|
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3 or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has little impact on pH |
MEGAPAC 23 | |||
ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
* 83–84% basicity | |||
PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3 or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity. Has greater impact on pH than ACH |
MEGAPAC 10 | |||
* SG 1.18 | |||
* 50% basicity | |||
* 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
* 245 g/l | |||
Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3 or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
* SG 1.34 | |||
* 54% basicity | |||
Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
* SG 1.54 | |||
* 10% basicity | |||
* 673 g/l |
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [15, 17]. These include (1) they have a very high charge density to neutralize the negative charges present on the surface of the colloidal material, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW) which allows good diffusion of the cationic charges around the particles. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103 centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103 centipoises [14, 15, 24]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105 and 106 and more than 106 respectively [14, 15, 17].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [15, 24].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions: The monomers are emulsified in a solvent before being polymerized. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions, making it effortlessness to use.
Dispersions: In this case, the monomers are usually dispersed in brine before being polymerized. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process, making it a cost-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater. Figure 6 shows the dissociation of the ionic charge of the polymer when introduced into a receiving medium (emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [14, 15, 17]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [11, 18]. For instance, Figure 7 shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [15, 17, 24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers, which gets a negative charge when their ionic groups dissociate in a medium [15, 17]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight, charge groups and density as well their structure being linear or branched as shown in Figure 8. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Subsequent hydrolysis of the polyacrylamide under basic pH conditions produces a polymer with anionic charges. Table 4 shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-monomers in terms of charge density (mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [
Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
---|---|---|
C3H3 O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
(C3H3 O2Na)0.75(C3H5 ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
(C3H3 O2Na)0.50(C3H5 ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
(C3H3 O2Na)0.25(C3H5 ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
(C3H3 O2Na)0.1(C3H5 ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
Charge densities of anionic polyacrylamides [17].
Cationic polymers are positively charged natural or synthetic based organic coagulants. Some of these polymers have charge ammonium groups making them strong electrolytes irrespective of their pH variation [15, 17]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously. The hydrolysis of the ester groups and consequent loss of cationic charge is CD and pH dependent. Table 5 outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer. The higher charge density shows that the polymer has a greater loop which enhances interparticle bridging and effective destabilization of the medium. Figure 9 shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.
Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
---|---|---|---|
PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
ECH/DMA | C5H12 ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
CPAM | C8H16 O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
CPAM | (C8H16 O2NCl)0.5(C3H5 ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
CPAM | (C8H16 O2NCl)0.25(C3H5 ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
CPAM | (C8H16 O2NCl)0.1(C3H5 ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
Chitosan | C6H11 O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
Charge densities of cationic polyelectrolytes [17].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [11]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [17, 38, 44]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes, metal ion removal and sludge conditioning.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [17, 25].
Furthermore, plants and minerals are a cardinal source of natural polymers. Some examples includes:
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [41]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [1, 11]. This concept is also applicable to primary coagulation of industrial wastewaters where the separation may be based on flotation, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal. Table 6 shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [45] |
Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [37] |
Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [46] |
Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [47] |
Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [48] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight, charge density, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However, to achieve optimum stabilization and agglomerating of flocs requires optimum dosage, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [39, 40].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus, the issue of sludge sedimentation which must be floated is relatively low to flotation systems utilizing organic polymers rather than inorganic coagulants. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
The authors wish to thank the Durban University of Technology and National Research Foundation South Africa for their support.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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But physically, this replacement has a significant gain: a DBM is roughly equivalent to a hydrodynamic model supplemented by a coarse-grained model of the thermodynamic non-equilibrium (TNE) effects, where the hydrodynamic model can be and can also be beyond the NS. Via the DBM, it is convenient to perform simulations on systems with flexible Knudsen number. The observations on TNE are being obtaining more applications with time.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Aiguo Xu, Guangcai Zhang and Yudong Zhang",authors:[{id:"42273",title:"Prof.",name:"Aiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"aiguo-xu",fullName:"Aiguo Xu"},{id:"110958",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangcai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"guangcai-zhang",fullName:"Guangcai Zhang"},{id:"209189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yudong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yudong-zhang",fullName:"Yudong Zhang"}]},{id:"66493",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85224",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3587,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"57137",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70768",title:"Kinetic Theory of Creep and Long-Term Strength of Metals",slug:"kinetic-theory-of-creep-and-long-term-strength-of-metals",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter deals with the simulation of the creep process and the effect of long-term strength of metals, notably, in both uniaxial and complex stress states. A description of a creep experiment and the simplest creep models are presented, that is, the theory of steady creep, the theory of ageing, the theory of flow and the theory of hardening. In creep process simulation, a kinetic theory based on the introduction of structural parameters characterising the state of the metal at a given time is widely used. Among such parameters, metal damage in the creep process, work of stresses on creep deformations (energy version) and concentration of an aggressive medium in the metal were studied. The coupled problem of creep and long tensile strength is also considered taking into account the mutual influence of damage accumulation and one-dimensional diffusion of the aggressive medium. The times to fracture are determined both in the presence of an aggressive medium and in the absence of one. A significant contribution of Soviet (Russian), European, American and Japanese scientists to the development of continuum damage mechanics is highlighted.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Alexander Lokoshchenko and Leonid Fomin",authors:[{id:"215612",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",middleName:null,surname:"Fomin",slug:"leonid-fomin",fullName:"Leonid Fomin"},{id:"215613",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lokoshchenko",slug:"alexander-lokoshchenko",fullName:"Alexander Lokoshchenko"}]},{id:"67535",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86682",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"57376",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70843",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. 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Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]},{id:"66493",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3589,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"67535",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"66017",title:"Kinetostatic Nonlinear Stiffness Characteristic Generation Using the Kinematic Singularity of Planar Linkages",slug:"kinetostatic-nonlinear-stiffness-characteristic-generation-using-the-kinematic-singularity-of-planar",totalDownloads:856,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The theory of nonlinear stiffness characteristic by employing the kinematic limb-singularity of planar mechanisms with attached springs is proposed. After constructing the position formula with closed-loop form of the mechanism, the kinematic limb-singularity can be identified. The kinetostatic model can be obtained based on the principle of virtual work. The influences of spring stiffness on the force-displacement or torque-angle curve are analysed. Different spring stiffness results in one of four types of stiffness characteristic, which can be used to design an expected stiffness characteristic. After replacing corresponding joints with flexures, the pseudo-rigid-body model of the linkage with springs is obtained. The compliant mechanisms with nonlinear stiffness characteristic can further be synthesised based on the pseudo-rigid-body model.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Baokun Li and Guangbo Hao",authors:null},{id:"67222",title:"Kinematic Absolute Positioning with Quad-Constellation GNSS",slug:"kinematic-absolute-positioning-with-quad-constellation-gnss",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The absolute positioning technique is based on a point positioning mode with a single Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, which has been widely used in many fields such as vehicle navigation and kinematic surveying. For a long period, this positioning technique mainly relies on a single GPS system. With the revitalization of Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) constellation and two newly emerging constellations of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and Galileo, it is now feasible to carry out the absolute positioning with quad-constellation of GPS, GLONASS, BDS, and Galileo. A combination of multi-constellation observations can offer improved reliability, availability, and accuracy for position solutions. In this chapter, combined GPS/GLONASS/BDS/Galileo point positioning models for both traditional single point positioning (SPP) and precise point positioning (PPP) are presented, including their functional and stochastic components. The traditional SPP technique has a positioning accuracy at a meter level, whereas the PPP technique can reach an accuracy of a centimeter level. However, the later relies on the availability of precise ephemeris and needs a long convergence time. Experiments were carried out to assess the kinematic positioning performance in the two different modes. The positioning results are compared among different constellation combinations to demonstrate the advantages of quad-constellation GNSS.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Lin Pan, Changsheng Cai, Jianjun Zhu and Xianqiang Cui",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1393",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. 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