Uses of the smartphone in medicine.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Smartphones are similar to notebook computer with its own operating system, processor, internal memory, and high-quality camera lenses [1]. The smartphones are more accessible and cheaper than portable analytical devices. According to eMarketer, the number of smartphone users worldwide surpassed 2 billion in 2016 and it represents more than a quarter of the global population. For 2018, the mobile users will grow to more than 2.56 billion people or a third of the world’s population. However, the latest annual Mobility Report from Ericsson indicated that nowadays, there are 84 million new mobile subscriptions, reaching a total of 3.9 billion of smartphone subscriptions. Mobile subscriptions are growing at around 3 percent year-on-year globally. And it have been estimated that there will be a 6.8 billion of smartphone subscriptions for 2022. This growth has a big impact, and it highlights the opportunity to create apps and other services to meet our necessities in a practical way. The smartphone ownership rates in emerging and developing nations are rising, 21% in 2013 and 35% in 2015. Figure 1 shows a distribution of the smartphone users by countries [2].
Smartphone’s users in worldwide.
The continuous improvement of smartphone electronics, the development of new app and the increase of users have stimulated research in the use of smartphone. Smartphone technology now includes a range of detection capabilities, thanks to the built-in camera, such as colorimetric detection [3], optical methods that are employed in an easy way and to share the information on real time, as well as quantification [4], monitoring [5], or mobile applications [6–8] developed to solve a problem such as freezing of gait in Parkinson’s disease [9], glucose monitor [10], and to detect enzymes [11, 12]. Also, it is used to developed devices, a spectrophotometer [13, 14] and an electrocardiograph [15], and to create sensors or biosensors [1]. Some applications in healthcare, are: melanoma detection [16], cancer prevention [17], emergency signal detection [18], optical imaging techniques for diagnostics [19, 20], or detection [21]. Besides, in the environment, the smartphone has been used to analyze the quality of the water [22] to detect its salinity [23] or to detect mycotoxins [24, 25]. A complete revision of the applications in different area, devices developed, and limit of detection (LOD) of difference samples will be included in this review.
In this review has been illustrated the smartphone as a research tool to the detection and analysis, because these can be employed in interdisciplinary areas. One the most representative characteristics of the smartphone is that it allows the portability because of its size and its cost compared with commercials instruments. The smartphone sensors have the capacity to effectively serve as portable biofeedback devices for a diverse range of applications in science. Its processor allows you to collect, analyze, and process images or signals in an embedded way.
There have been many recent publications on the use of smartphone as portable detector, bioanalytical devices and instruments interfaces, among others. The use of smartphone had created opportunities for diagnostic, prognostic, detection, quantification, monitoring, control or make mobile applications, because it could be used to run routine test, does not need trained personal, its portability and is considered as a low cost device. Moreover, to have a complete overview of the real advantages, applications or characteristics of the smartphone, it is important to point out the problems with the sampling of real samples (biological, food, environmental), and these need conventional devices to compare the results.
Sometimes, a smartphone is coupled with a device that contains the components of an instrument in a simplified format. For analytical applications, the smartphone is used to control the experimental device and display the results on a dashboard in a tablet, television, computer or other screen and to communicate via USB port, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi between the smartphone and the analytical device. Some examples are described as follows.
Smartphone offers potential for medical diagnosis [26, 27] and treatment of pathologies as a low cost system. There is an increasing interest to detect analytes of clinical interest as employing the mobile phone camera for DNA detection [28], DNA amplification uses the convective polymerase chain reaction technique, and the detection is carried out with the variation in the fluorescence. The fluorescence increment used the brightness of the image before and after the DNA amplification. If there is a difference between before and after the DNA amplification, the test is positive. This process can be used for screening hepatitis B virus plasmid samples.
In 2014, Guan et al. introduced a barcode design into a paper-based blood typing device by integrating with smartphone, and this device involved the use of hydrophilic bar channels treated with anti-A, B and D antibodies. These channels were then used to perform blood typing assays by introducing a blood sample. Blood type can be visually identified from eluting lengths in bar channels. A smartphone application was designed to read the bar channels, analogous to scanning a barcode, interpret this information, and then report the results to users [29].
The development of a microscope attached to smartphone was reported by Breslauer et al., and the authors demonstrated the applicability of this device for clinical diagnostics of
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) detection system based on a smartphone was proposed by Preechaburana et al. where the authors demonstrated that the resolution of the device employing the smartphone is comparable with conventional analytical SPR. The assays were made for the detection of β2 microglobulin, biomarker for cancer, and were achieved a limit of detection of 0.1 mg/mL in urine [31]. More works about the use of the smartphone are presented in Table 1, where the samples detected and brief descriptions of the work are mentioned.
Samples | Detection/quantification | Short description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Vitamin D | Measure physiological levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with accuracy better than 15 nM and a precision of 10 nM | The system consists of a smartphone accessory, an app and a test strip that allows the colorimetric detection of 25-hydroxyvitamin D using a novel gold nanoparticle-based immunoassay | [4] |
Freezing of gait (FOG) is a motor symptom in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) | 98 FOG events were recognized, and seven FOG events were missed by the application. Sensitivity and specificity were 70.1 and 84.1%, for the Moore-Bächlin Algorithm, rising to 87.57 and 94.97%, for the second algorithm employed | In order to verify the acceptance of a smartphone-based architecture and its reliability at detecting FOG in real-time, 20 patients were studied. It consisted to make a video-recorded Timed Up and Go using the smartphone; the video was synchronized with the accelerometer to assess the reliability of the FOG detection system as compared to the clinicians. The algorithms employed were the Freezing and Energy Index (Moore-Bächlin Algorithm) | [9] |
Salivary glucose | Detection range of 9–1350 mg/dL glucose at a response time of 45 s and LOD of 22.2 mg/dL | The assay consisted to immobilized glucose oxidase enzyme on filter paper strip (specific activity 1.4 U/strip); the enzyme reacts with synthetic glucose samples in presence of co-immobilized color pH indicator. Then, the changes in the filter paper based on concentration of glucose are detected. Once the biosensor was standardized, the synthetic glucose sample was replaced with human saliva | [32] |
Salivary cortisol | LOD of 0.3 ng/mL. It provides quantitative analysis in the range of 0.3–60 ng/mL | The biosensor is based on a direct competitive immunoassay with peroxidase–cortisol conjugate by adding the substrate luminol/enhancer/hydrogen peroxide, and it produces a chemiluminescence reaction. The smartphone was used to detect the light generates by the reaction through the camera as image and the data handling via an application | [33] |
Blood hematocrit | 0.1% of hematocrit with a sensitivity of 0.53 GSV (a.u.)/hematocrit | Using an integrated camera in the smartphone, pictures of human blood in the microchannel were taken and analyzed by a mobile application. The characterization of the depth of the microfluidic channel demonstrated that a shallower depth of the microchannel enhanced the sensitivity of the hematocrit determination | [34] |
Albumin in urine | 5–10 μg/mL−1 (which is more than three times lower than the clinically accepted normal range) | The test and control tubes are excited by a battery powered laser diode; its fluorescent emission is collected perpendicular to the excitation by a smartphone camera, through external plastic lens inserted in the camera lens. The images are digitally processed within one second through an Android application, with the purpose to quantify the albumin concentration in the urine samples | [35] |
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) | 0.31 mIU/L | Employing the methodology of the optimized Rayleigh/Mie scatter detection with the optical characteristics of a nitrocellulose membrane and gold nanoparticles for quantifying TSH levels. Using A miniature spectrometer, light-emitting diodes (LED) as light source and optical fibers on a rotating benchtop apparatus, the light intensity from different angles of incident light and angles of detection were measured. A bracket was designed to support the cell-phone and the embedded flash as the light source, through a collimating lens to illuminate the assays, and quantified the concentration of TSH in an iOS application, and it was verified using a code made in MATLAB | [36] |
Cholesterol in blood | Cholesterol levels within 1.8% accuracy in the relevant physiological range (140 mg dl−1 to 400 mg dl−1) | A smartcard, smartphone Cholesterol Application for Rapid Diagnostics system. The system can quantify cholesterol levels from colorimetric changes due to cholesterol reacting enzymatically on a dry reagent test strip. The smartphone acquires the image of the test strip and an app that analyzes parameters such as hue, saturation and luminosity of the test area quantifies the cholesterol levels and displays the value on the screen | [37] |
Glucose and urea | Glucose had a concentration ranges 30–515 mg/dl and 2–190 mg/dl for blood urea nitrogen (BUN) | Smartphone equipped with a color analysis application was combined with Vitros® glucose and urea colorimetric assays. Color images of assay slides at various concentrations of glucose or urea were collected and quantitated in three different spectral ranges (red/green/blue or RGB). When the diffuse reflectance data were converted into absorbance, it was possible to quantitate glucose or BUN | [38] |
Kaposi’s sarcoma | It can detect DNA sequences from KSHV down to 1 nM | Kaposi\'s sarcoma (KS) is an infectious cancer occurring in immune-compromised patients, caused by Kaposi\'s sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV). In this work, a smartphone accessory capable of detecting KSHV nucleic acids was developed. The accessory reads out microfluidic chips filled with a colorimetric nanoparticle assay targeted at KSHV | [39] |
DNA molecules | Longer DNA samples imaged over a field-of-view of 2 mm | The images and the length quantification of single-molecule DNA strands using a fluorescence microscope installed on a mobile phone. An optomechanical bracket with lens, thin-film interference filters, laser-diode and a mobile phone application were designed to measure the lengths of DNA molecules labeled and stretched using disposable chip | [40] |
DNA/RNA analysis | Replication of Staphylococcus aureus and λ-phage DNA targets in less than 20 min, in-flight | This approach exploits the ability to isothermally perform the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with a single heater, enabling the system to be operated using standard 5 V USB sources that power mobile devices. Time-resolved fluorescence detection and quantification is achieved using a smartphone camera and integrated image analysis app | [41] |
Glucose | ~3.5μm | Khan et al. described a label-free, optical sensor capable to detect the changes in photoluminescence (PL) of a thin polymer film employing the glucose as the target molecule, the radiance changes of the quantum dots in PL of the UV excitation of the enzymatic reaction, allows quantifying the level of glucose | [42] |
Protein | Bovine serum albumin (BSA) of 1.78μg/ml Thrombin of 2.97ng/ml | A smartphone-controlled biosensor system is developed with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to detect proteins for POC testing. Printed carbon electrodes and interdigital gold electrodes were modified with biocomponents as biosensors for quantification of the protein binding and enzyme activities by special antibodies and peptides immobilized on the electrodes | [43] |
pH in sweat and saliva | Unmentioned | A smartphone camera and colorimetric detection of pH in sweat and saliva. Sweat pH can be correlated to sodium concentration and avoid the risk of muscle cramps. Salivary pH below a critical threshold is correlated with enamel decalcification, an acidic breakdown of calcium in the teeth | [44] |
Escherichia coli and gonorrhea in human urine | 10 CFU/mL for both | Anti- | [45] |
Uses of the smartphone in medicine.
Nielsen reports that between 2009 and 2011 smartphone ownership for 13−17 year olds and 18−24 year olds went from 16 to 40% and from 23 to 53%, respectively, an increase of 100% approximately. Smartphone serves as powerful educational tool on a mobile platform, which encourages learning. The mobile applications, or “apps,” have a wide range of functionalities and cover many disciplines. Collaboration through the interconnection of multiple chemistry apps has demonstrated that chemo-informatics is a tool to increase work efficiency, which can be utilized to raise the chemistry learning experience to a new level, and Chemspider app is a powerful handheld chemical search engine. This chapter [46] discusses apps that are available on smartphone, as these are more prevalent, affordable, and portable than comparable tablets or laptops.
A novel approach for an inexpensive and disposable colorimetric paper sensor array for the detection and discrimination of five explosives (triacetone triperoxide, hexamethylene triperoxide diamine, 4-amino-2-nitrophenol, nitrobenzene and picric acid) was presented by Salles et al. [47]. The colorimetric sensor was designed as a disposable paper array fabricated with potassium iodide, creatinine and aniline, which produces a chemical reaction, a specific color pattern for each explosive. The analytes were identified and classified for each explosive by the changes in the color patterns, which were extracted using a smartphone camera installed in a closed chamber to avoid the illumination interactions. A semiquantitative analysis was performed, and it was possible to use as low as 0.2 mg of explosives. Others detections with the smartphone are presented in Table 2.
Samples | Detection/quantification | Short description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Lactate in oral fluid and sweat | 0.5 mmol L−1 in oral fluid and 0.1 mmol L−1 in sweat | To develop a portable lactate chemiluminescent biosensor, based on the coupling of the enzymatic oxidation of lactate catalyzed by L-lactate oxidase with the luminol/H2O2/HRP CL system, using disposable analytical cartridges to allow measurement of the light produced by the enzyme reaction and a smartphone camera to detect the light | [48] |
Liquids | Unmentioned | A handheld automated microfluidic liquid handling system is controlled by a smartphone, which is enabled by combining elastomeric on-chip valves and a compact pneumatic system, and it can automatically perform all the liquid handling steps of a bead-based HIV1 p24 sandwich immunoassay on a multi-layer PDMS chip without any human intervention | [49] |
Cocaine | LOD of 0.25 mg/mL | An assay based on the gold nanoparticle conjugate (AuNPs) difference in affinity for single-stranded DNA (nonbinding) and double stranded DNA (target bound). The AuNPs and the aptamer were incubated prior to target addition to passivate the AuNPs surface. The adsorbed aptamer was able to bind the target to avoid nonspecific interactions. To facilitate the assay analysis, an android application for automatic colorimetric characterization was developed | [50] |
H2O2 Glucose in phosphate buffer Artificial urine | 1.75 μM 0.017mM 0.030mM | A handheld paper-based bipolar electrode-electro-chemiluminescence (P-BPE-ECL) system with a rechargeable battery as power supply and smartphone for readout of ECL signal is employed. In the case of the electro-chemiluminescence reaction, the carbon ink-based bipolar electrode and driving electrodes are screen-printed and the wax-screen-printing is employed to fabricate the microfluidic channels. The luminol/H2O2-based ECL reaction is applied to quantify the P-BPE-ECL system | [51] |
Heavy metals | Cu (II)=0.29 ppm Ni (II)=0.33 ppm Cd (II)=0.19 ppm Cr (VI)=0.35 ppm | A 3D paper-based microfluidic device for colorimetric determination of selected heavy metals in water samples. The process is as follows: the samples are immersed into the paper chip and the sample streams reaching into the detection zones. Finally, the activation solutions are dropped to get metal chromogenic reactions that are captured by a camera cell phone and analyzed in a personal computer employing image processing and analysis software | [52] |
105 CFU (colony forming units) mL−1 | Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) were doped with FITC and Ru, conjugated to the respective antibodies and used in a conventional lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA). Fluorescence was recorded by inserting the nitrocellulose strip into a smartphone-based fluorimeter consisting of a LED, a fluorescence filter set and a lens attached to the integrated camera. The images were analyzed by exploiting the quick image processing application of the cell phone and enable the detection of pathogens within few minutes | [53] | |
102 CFU mL−1 with a linear range up to 105 CFU mL−1 | Each microfluidic channel was preloaded with anti-Salmonella Typhimurium and anti-Escherichia coli conjugated. The paper microfluidic device was submerged into the Salmonella solutions led to the antibody-conjugated particles to immunoagglutinate. The immunoagglutination was quantified by evaluating Mie scattering from the digital images captured. A smartphone application was designed and programmed to allow the user to position the smartphone at specific angle and distance from the microfluidic device. Besides, an image processing algorithm was implemented to quantify the bacterial concentration | [54] | |
Amines | Less than 1ppm | Bueno et al. present the use of solvent cast cellulose acetate membranes to immobilize dyes and to employ the membranes as a plastic device to identify between different types of amines (triethylamine, isobutyl amine, isopentylamine). The device consisted of an array of membranes with five pH indicators (alizarin, bromophenol blue, chlorophenol red, methyl red and thymol blue). A smartphone was used to analyze the data, to capture the images and to extract the red, green and blue (RGB) components from the image to generate a unique color pattern | [55] |
Applications of the smartphone in chemistry area.
A smartphone-utilized biosensor was developed for detecting microbial spoilage (Escherichia coli) on ground beef, without using antibodies, microbeads or any other reagents, toward a preliminary screening tool for microbial contamination on meat products and potentially toward wound infection. Near infrared LED was used to irradiate perpendicular to the surface of ground beef, and the scatter signals at various angles were evaluated utilizing the gyro sensor and the digital camera of a smartphone. The fluorescence microscopy experiments revealed that the antigens and cell fragments from E. coli bonded preferably to the fat particles within meat, and the size and morphologies of such aggregates varied by the E. coli concentration, concluded by Liang et al. [56].
Yu et al. designed a disposable lateral flow-through strip for smartphone to fast one-step quantitatively detect alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in raw milk. The strip comprises two functional components, a conjugation pad loaded with phosphotyrosine-coated gold nanoparticles and a testing line coated with anti-phosphotyrosine antibody. The dephosphorylation activity of ALP at the testing zone can be quantitatively assayed by monitoring the accumulated gold nanoparticles and induced color changes by smartphone camera, thus providing a highly convenient portable detection method, demonstrating the potential of smartphone for pathogen detection. Other application of the biohazard-free lateral flow-through testing strip is for the fabrication of rapid, sensitive and inexpensive enzyme or immunosensors for food contamination, food quality inspection or clinic [57]. Allowing the diagnosis or analysis, some elements detected in food are represented in Table 3.
Samples | Detection/quantification | Short description | References |
---|---|---|---|
L-glutamate dehydrogenase in wine and instant soups | 0.5–5.0 mmol L−1 for image processing (linear range) The LOD was 0.05 mmol L−1 and 0.028 mmol L−1 by naked eye and image processing, respectively | A chromatography paper for the analysis of selected food compounds was developed by Monosik et al. The biochemical colorimetric assay utilizes enzymes from the dehydrogenase family coupled with diaphorase in the presence of a tetrazolium dye, MTT and NAD+. The product of the colorimetric reaction developed on the surface of the paper is observed by the naked eye and was captured by smartphone camera to get the data for a quantitative analysis | [58] |
Anti-recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST) in milk | An 80 % true-positive rate and 95 % true-negative rate were achieved | The rbST biomarker present in milk was captured by rbST covalently coupled to paramagnetic microspheres and labeled by quantum dot (QD)-coupled detection antibodies. The emitted fluorescence light from the QDs was captured using the cell phone camera. The fluorescence and dark-field microimages were analyzed using an Android application developed | [59] |
Furfural in pale lager beers | 12 μgL−1 | A disposable color changing polymeric films, the films are prepared by radical polymerization of 4-vinylaniline. The sensitive indicator monomer is the furfural-, the comonomer is 2-hydroxymethyl methacrylate and the cross-linker is the ethylene dimethyl methacrylate (EDMA). As sensing mechanism used the Stenhouse reaction, the aniline and furfural react in acidic media, generating a deep red cyanine product. The colorimetric response has been monitored using either a portable fiber-optic spectrophotometer or the built-in camera of a smartphone | [60] |
Tetracycline (TC) in bovine milk | Concentration range of 0.5–10 μg mL−1. LOD of 0.5 μg mL−1 and limit of quantitation of 1.5 μg mL−1 | An application named ColorConc was developed for the iPhone that utilizes an image matching algorithm to determine the TC concentration in a solution. The values of red, green, blue, hue, saturation, brightness were measured from each picture. The TC solution extracted from milk samples using solid phase extraction (SPE) was captured and the concentration was predicted by comparing color values with those collected in a database | [61] |
Smartphone in the detection of food contaminants or food compounds.
The contaminated water is a worldwide problem; for that reason, in 2013, Andrade et al. [62] proposed a digital image processing-based flow-batch analyzer for aluminum (III) and chromium (VI) determinations in natural water, employing a webcam with a charge coupled device (CCD) sensor and red, green, and blue (RGB) data. The method for determining aluminum is based on an Al (III) ion, and the reaction produces a yellow-colored complex in an acetate buffer. The determination of chromium is based on a Cr (VI) ion, which produces a violet-colored complex. The digital images were processing, and the RGB data were employed to build the analytical curves. The working ranges were from 10 to 600 μg/L for Al (III) and 10 to 300 μg/L for Cr (VI), and their limits of detection were 3.97 and 2.65 μg/L, respectively, for Al (III) and Cr (VI).
Gopinath et al. have mentioned that the ubiquitous nature of bacteria enables them to survive in a wide variety of environments and provides an overview of the bacterial detection systems that ranges from microscopic observation to smartphone-based detection. It work described that the first application using a smartphone to the detection and to visualize a single bacterium or virus was demonstrated by Zhu et al. [19]. The system was applied to E. coli as a proof-of-concept. Anti-E. coli antibodies were immobilized on the interior surface of a capillary tube [63]. Table 4 describes some applications of the smartphone in the detection of elements in the environment.
Samples | Detection/quantification | Short description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Catechols from a water sample of a river | Unmentioned | A smartphone-based colorimetric reader was coupled with a remote server for rapid on site analysis of catechols. A colorimetric sensor array composed of pH indicators, and phenylboronic acid was configured. The method identified the catechols with 100% accuracy and predicts the concentrations to within 0.706–2.240 standard deviation | [64] |
Mercury contamination in water | 3.5 ppb | An optomechanical device integrated to the camera module of a smartphone to quantify mercury concentration using a plasmonic gold nanoparticle (AuNP) and aptamer-based colorimetric transmission assay. It was possible to quantify mercury (II) ion concentration in water samples by using a two-color ratiometric method employing LEDs. Using this smart-phone-based detection platform, we generated a mercury contamination map by measuring water samples at over 50 locations in California (USA), taken from city tap water sources, rivers, lakes, and beaches | [65] |
Calcium in water of the city net, mineral bottled, and natural-river | 0.07mgL−1 | The studies were carried out using the chromogenic model formed by the reaction between Ca (II) ions and glyoxalbis (2-hydroxyanil). It produced orange–red-colored solutions in alkaline media. The colored complex was applied and validated using intensity of colors with factorial analysis, Fourier transform, principal component analysis and the digital image colorimetric method for the determination of Ca (II) ions | [66] |
Bacteria in field water | 10 bacterial cells per milliliter | The design, fabrication and testing of a low-cost, miniaturized and sensitive bacteria sensor based on electrical impedance spectroscopy method using a smartphone | [67] |
Pesticide thiram | 0.1 μM | Copper ions decorated NaYF4:Yb/Tm up conversion nanoparticles were fixed onto filter paper for the assay, and the blue luminescence was quenched by the addition of thiram. The differences of blue channel intensities were monitored by the smartphone camera and calculated to quantify amounts of thiram through a self-written Android program installed on the smartphone | [68] |
Trinitrotoluene in soil | 50 mgL−1 | The built-in digital camera of a smartphone was used to capture the results from a rapid quantitative colorimetric test for trinitrotoluene (TNT) in soil. The colored product from the selective test for TNT was quantified using the relationships between the red, green, blue (RGB) values and the concentrations of colorimetric product | [69] |
Smartphone in environment detection.
Smartphone has been widely integrated with sensors, such as test strips, sensor chips and handheld detectors. The biosensors or devices based on smartphone can mainly be classified into biosensors using optics, surface plasmon resonance, electrochemistry and near-field communication. The performances and advantages of these designs are introduced with their applications in healthcare diagnosis, environment monitoring and food evaluation with advances in micromanufacture, sensor technology and miniaturized electronics [70].
Using 3D-printing technology next to smartphone has provided the opportunity to turn any kind of smartphone into a portable luminometer to detect chemiluminescence derived from enzyme-coupled reactions. Roda et al. mentioned that the lactate oxidase was coupled with horseradish peroxidase for lactate determination in oral fluid and sweat. Lactate can be quantified in less than five minutes with detection limits of 4.5 mg/dL and 0.9 mg/dL in oral fluid and sweat, respectively. Devices based on smartphones offer an alternative to analytical performance with a cost-effective alternative for noninvasive lactate measurement. In the endurance sport and for monitoring lactic acidosis in critical-care patients [48], this can be used to detect and quantify the changes in the lactate with respect to the anaerobic threshold.
Recently in 2017, an improved design for a handheld smartphone-based spectrometer that works in both absorption and emission modes is proposed by de Oliveira et al. [71]. The device, named Spectrophone, comprises an embedded light source designed for absorption mode, a DVD for the diffraction grating, and a smartphone to process the image data acquired. User-friendly homemade software decomposes the pixels from shots of spectral images into their RGB and hue values. The spectrophone was applied to determine Fe2+ in medicine samples and Na+ in saline solution and natural water samples. No statistically significant differences were observed in comparison with commercial instruments with limits of quantification of 70 g/L and 60 g/L for absorption and emission modes, respectively.
Wang et al. [72] reported a multichannel smartphone spectrometer (MSS) as an optical biosensor that can simultaneously optical sense multiple samples with nanometer resolution. This optical sensor performed accurate and reliable spectral measurements by optical intensity changes at specific wavelength or optical spectral shifts. A custom smartphone Multiview App was developed to control the optical sensing parameters and to align each sample to the corresponding channel. The captured images were converted to the transmission spectra in the visible wavelength range from 400 to 700 nm with the high resolution of 0.2521 nm per pixel. The device was validated with the concentrations of protein and immunoassaying a type of human cancer biomarker, and the results showed that this MSS can achieve the comparative analysis detection limits, accuracy and sensitivity.
Vezzosi et al. employed a smartphone electrocardiograph (ECG) in evaluating heart rhythm and ECG measurements in dogs. A smartphone ECG tracing was recorded using a single-lead bipolar ECG recorder. Agreement between smartphone and standard ECG in the interpretation of tracings was evaluated. Sensitivity and specificity for the detection of arrhythmia were calculated for the smartphone. A perfect agreement between the smartphone and standard ECG was found in detecting bradycardia, tachycardia, ectopic beats and atrioventricular blocks. The smartphone ECG represents an additional tool in the diagnosis of arrhythmias in dogs, but it is not a substitute for a six-lead ECG. Arrhythmias identified by the smartphone ECG should be followed up with a standard ECG before making clinical decision [15].
Stedtfeld et al. developed the Gene-Z for the rapid and quantitative detection of genetic markers. The device is controlled by iPod Touch, to receive data and carried-out automated analysis and to report via Wi-Fi. This study presented data pertaining to performance of the device including sensitivity and reproducibility using genomic DNA from
iHealth Lab Inc. has developed glucometers for smartphone, wireless smartphone glucometer, or mobile glucometer, which plugs directly into the smartphone’s audio jack. iBGStar® from Sanofi and AliveCor®ECG for monitoring heart conditions are examples of commercial devices using the smartphone [1].
The method, adaptation of a smartphone’s camera to function as a compact lens less microscope, is based on the shadow imaging technique where the sample is placed on the surface of the image sensor, which captures direct shadow images under illumination. The lens less imaging scheme allows for submicron resolution imaging over an ultrawide field of view. Image acquisition and reconstruction are performed on the device using a custom-built Android application, and constructing a stand-alone imaging device for field applications was presented by Lee and Yang [74].
Wireless chemical sensors are used as analytical devices in homeland defense, home-based healthcare and food logistics, and for that reason, Steinberg et al. [75] developed a portable potentiostat to perform mobile amperometric electrochemical measurements with wireless data transfer to other mobile devices. The developed device was compared with a model redox system, the reduction of hexacyanoferrate (III) and the commercial enzymatic blood glucose test strips.
A handheld and cost-effective cell phone-based colorimetric microplate reader uses a 3D-printed optomechanical attachment to hold and illuminate a 96-well plate using a light emitting diode (LED) array, which was proposed by Berg et al. [76]. The light is transmitted through each well and collected via 96 individual optical fibers. Then, the captured images are transmitted to the custom-designed app for processing using a machine learning algorithm, yielding diagnostic results, which are visualized by the user in same mobile application within less than 1 min per 96-well plate. This device was tested using FDA-approved mumps IgG, measles IgG and herpes simplex virus IgG (HSV-1 and HSV-2) ELISA tests, working with 567 samples for training and 571 samples for blind. An accuracy of 99.6, 98.6, 99.4 and 99.4% for mumps, measles, HSV-1 and HSV-2 tests was achieved, respectively.
An optical fiber-based smartphone spectrometer incorporating an endoscopic fiber bundle is presented by Hossain et al. [77]. The endoscope allows transmission of the smartphone camera LED light to a sample, and the reflected spectra collected from a surface or interface is dispersed onto the camera CMOS using a reflecting diffraction grating. Spectral analysis of apples shows straightforward measurement of the pigments anthocyanins, carotenoid and chlorophyll, all of which decrease with increasing storage time.
Exploiting the abilities of the new technology, a mobile phone can serve the basic functions of a potentiostat in controlling an applied potential to oxidize electrochemiluminescence (ECL)-active molecules, while the resultant photonic signal is monitored using the camera. The excitation and detection processes are controlled by a software application which can also transmit the results via e-mail, which is the device presented by Delaney et al. [78].
Since the first smartphone was designed by IBM in 1993, several applications have been developed employing the smartphone as detector, scanner, quantifier and virtual interface, in medicine, environment, chemistry, food, biology, genetic, biotechnology, biomedical, instrumentation or computer sciences due to its portability, its price comparable with commercial devices or equipment and its own characteristics such as the camera, screen, to create mobile applications or the communication vias.
Detection of contaminants, pesticides, drugs, mycotoxins, vitamins, glucose, salivary cortisol, albumin, cholesterol, DNA molecules, proteins, bacterium, virus, cocaine, heavy metals, and amines in urine, water, blood, soil, and saliva are few examples of the immense quantity of the future applications, where the smartphone can be employed. This is motivated because the smartphone has become an indispensable device of our lives, increasing the number of users from day to day.
Cowpea,
Cowpea is consumed in several forms; for instance, in south-eastern USA, Asia and Caribbean, fresh seeds and green pods are mostly consumed while in many parts of Africa and Asia, dry grains are mainly consumed in addition to fresh or dry leaves (as side dish or part of the stew), thus providing significant nutritional value [7, 8, 9]. Although leaves are consumed, cowpea is mainly grown for consumption of grains as they are rich in proteins, carbohydrates as well as minerals. The nutrient composition both in grain and leaves is highly variable depending on the environment and genotype under consideration. In an evaluation of 1541 cowpea accessions for grain nutrient composition by [10], protein content ranged from 17.5 to 32.5%, Fe content from 33.6 to 79.5 mg/kg, Zn ranged from 22.1 to 58.0 mg/kg, Ca from 310 to 1395 mg/kg, Mg from 1515 to 2500 mg/kg, K ranged from 11,400 to 18,450 mg/kg and P from 3450 to 6750 mg/kg. Weng et al. also reported a wide range (22.8–28.9%) of seed protein content among the 173 cowpea genotypes [11]. A similar study of 15 genotypes by [12] showed that moisture content ranged from 12.28 to 13.35%, total carbohydrates from 49.37 to 55.74%, crude ash from 2.99 to 3.34%, crude lipids from 0.13 to 0.81%, crude protein from 23.37 to 29.70% and crude fibers from 1.40 to 4.34%. Cowpea samples recorded highest percentage of essential amino acids (60.71%) and non-essential amino acids (39.29%). The mineral content ranged from 1.97 to 2.69 mg/100 g for calcium, 3.23 to 3.90 mg/100 g for magnesium, 205.53 to 223.30 mg/100 g for sodium, 0.80 to 1.23 mg/100 g for zinc, 1071.15 to 1152.62 mg/100 g for potassium and 0.62 to 1.06 mg/100 g for phosphorus. Cowpea has shown great potential for production of fermented yoghurt-like food products with improved bioavailability of nutrients [13, 14]. Cowpea is rich in phenolic acids such as benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives that are associated with antioxidant properties [15]. In addition, cowpea has a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (40.1–78.3% of total fats) [16] and these are associated with several healthy benefits.
While cowpea is cultivated globally, most of the production occurs in the developing countries. Recent estimates show that West Africa accounts for over 80% of the total world production [17]. The leading cowpea producing countries in Africa include: Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso and Ethiopia with production of 3,576,361, 2,386,735, 652,454 and 374,332 tonnes, respectively. The estimated acreage, production and average yield of cowpea from the selected major producing countries of cowpea are presented in Table 1.
Rank | Country | Acreage (Ha) | Quantity (t) | Yield (hg/Ha) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Nigeria | 4,303,005 | 3,576,361 | 8311 |
2 | Niger | 5,725,433 | 2,386,735 | 4169 |
3 | Burkina Faso | 1,354,100 | 652,454 | 4818 |
4 | Ethiopia | 220,037 | 374,332 | 17,012 |
5 | Kenya | 298,120 | 246,870 | 8281 |
6 | Mali | 454,274 | 215,436 | 4742 |
7 | Cameroon | 244,058 | 215,016 | 8810 |
8 | Ghana | 149,102 | 202,735 | 13,597 |
9 | Senegal | 290,677 | 184,137 | 6335 |
10 | Sudan | 339,780 | 161,000 | 4738 |
11 | Tanzania | 112,657 | 127,884 | 11,352 |
12 | Myanmar | 122,637 | 108,021 | 8308 |
13 | Mozambique | 331,424 | 90,461 | 2729 |
14 | DRC | 175,418 | 76,292 | 4349 |
15 | Yemen | 26,062 | 66,190 | 25,397 |
16 | Malawi | 97,825 | 41,656 | 4258 |
17 | Madagascar | 34,122 | 31,069 | 9105 |
18 | Haiti | 42,145 | 30,741 | 7294 |
19 | Peru | 15,794 | 21,539 | 13,637 |
20 | China | 14,503 | 14,696 | 10,133 |
21 | Uganda | 33,350 | 12,697 | 3807 |
22 | USA | 5220 | 11,750 | 22,510 |
Despite the importance of cowpea, abiotic and biotic constraints are major yield limiting factors especially in the developing countries where most of the production takes place. Water availability is the most significant abiotic constraint for yield in cowpea despite the fact that the crop is inherently drought tolerant [9]. Cowpea diseases caused by various pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and parasitic plants) constitute one of the important biotic constraints to cowpea production in all regions where the crop is cultivated [18]. These diseases can infect cowpea at different stages such as during emergence, vegetative and reproductive stages causing substantial plant damage hence leading to yield loss or complete production failure [19]. While there have been some extensive reviews on shoot and pod diseases of cowpea [20], as well as soilborne diseases [21], this manuscript provides an updated synthesis of the economic importance of major soilborne fungal diseases in the world and the available options for their sustainable management. This present review covers past efforts, achievements and gaps in the management of soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. The management approaches focused on include: resistance breeding/host resistance or pre-breeding, cultural practices, fungicides, microbial biocontrol agents (MBCAs) and use of botanicals.
Soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea are widespread globally and constitute a major constraint to production especially in the tropical and subtropic environments. Southern blight also referred to as basal stem disease or stem rot, damping-off, collar rot or seedling blight,
Charcoal rot or dry root rot caused by
Effective management of soilborne fungal diseases requires use of a number of approaches which can be grouped into four categories: (1) host resistance or use of tolerant varieties, (2) adoption of best cropping practices, (3) seed treatments and (4) protection of seedlings [38]. However, none of these approaches is effective when used alone thus necessitating the need for their combination within the framework of integrated disease management (IDM) approach if sustainability is to be achieved.
Host resistance is the most effective, economical and environmentally friendly approach for managing soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. This approach mainly involves deployment of resistant and/or tolerant plant varieties, which support lower pathogen populations or better tolerate injury; and the integration of such varieties with other approaches within the IDM framework. In this section we provide a synthesis of available information about genetic resources for resistance, genetics of resistance, identification of markers associated with disease resistance and their potential for use in breeding programs.
Several screening studies have been conducted both under the field and greenhouse conditions to identify sources of resistance against major soilborne fungal diseases of cowpea. Majority of the studies have targeted resistance to
Oyekan reported resistance to FW in TVu109-2, 347, 984, 1000 and 1016-1 cowpea varieties under both field and greenhouse conditions [39]. Five cowpea cultivars with resistance to three FW races (1, 2 and 3) were identified in another study [40]. The cultivars were: Magnolia, Iron PI293520, Iron TVu 990, Iron TVu 1072 and Iron TVu 1611. Roberts et al. identified CB3, CB46, 7964 and 8517 as having resistance to FW [36]. Similarly, Hall et al. [2] reported varieties CB3 and 7977 as sources of resistance to FW. Moreover, CB 46 and CB 88 were reported to have resistance only against race 3 of FW while CB27 and CB50 gave resistance against both race 3 and race 4 of FW [41, 42]. Following screenhouse/greenhouse studies, four FW resistant cowpea genotypes namely: Asontem, Danila, IT89KD-88 and NE 70 were identified [43, 44]. Other genotypes that could be used as resistance donors for FW are: TVu 134, TVu 410, TVu 901-1 and MNCO1-649F-2-1 [45, 46]. Genotypes TVu 134, TVu 410 and TVu 901-1 share the same resistance gene [45, 46]. Wu et al. reported 10 highly resistant genotypes to FW. These were: Fei 8, CB46, IT93K_503_1, UCR5040, Zhijiang dwarf No. 1, Jiacaidou, Heiziyacao, Fan, Zhuyan long bean and Qiyezai [47] representing the Chinese asparagus bean, and the African cowpea.
For resistance to southern blight/basal stem disease, cowpea genotypes: CO-4, Brown Crowder, Carolina Cream, L-25, IT89-KD-374, IT86-D-715 and IT99K-1122 were identified [28, 48, 49, 50, 57]. According to Adandonon [24] Sèwé, Kpodji, Kumassi and Cameroon cowpea genotypes showed resistance to both stem rots and damping off under field conditions. The potential sources of resistance to charcoal rot include: IT04K-217-5, Komsare, Gaoua local-2, 58-57, Kaya local and SP369A profil-39B [51, 52]. Singh and Lodha found moderate resistance to charcoal rot in 26/4/1, V 16, K 39, 25/8/2 and CO3 genotypes [53]. In field experiments conducted over 3 years, IT98K-499-39, Suvita 2, IT93K-503-1 and Mouride were found to be highly resistant to charcoal rot [54]. Cowpea cultivar Caloona was reported to be resistant to
Most studies on inheritance of resistance to soilborne fungal pathogens of cowpea have relied on Mendelian genetics. These studies have mainly focused on FW resistance with few studies on charcoal rot and southern blight. Inheritance studies focusing on other pathogens such as
Efforts to identify resistant loci and development or deployment of molecular markers in breeding for resistance to soil-borne fungal diseases in cowpea have been restricted mainly to FW and charcoal rot. Little or no progress has been made on markers used or developed for other pathogens. For instance, a single SSR marker (C13-16) that can discriminate between resistant and susceptible genotypes for FW resistance was identified [45]. This marker can easily be used in low resourced laboratories in several developing countries [45]. Two independent loci (QTLs),
Agronomic practices that can delay or discourage the survival and development of pathogens can play a role in the management of soilborne fungal diseases. This is because many of the pathogens are relatively weak requiring a favourable environment for infection to occur [38]. Several agronomic practices that modify the growing environment such as seedbed preparation, soil pH management, planting dates, seed rate, plant density, soil fertility and moisture management, cropping systems (crop sequence and intercropping, cover crops), and soil solarisation have been reported as efficient in the control of soilborne pathogens [38]. However, few studies have been carried out on management of cowpea soilborne fungal diseases.
For instance, rotation of cowpea with a gramineous/cereal crop such as fonio (
Combined use of solarization and organic soil amendments is highly effective in controlling soilborne fungal pathogens [32, 61, 62]. For instance, there was a 78 or 96% reduction in charcoal rot disease severity, when millet residues or paunch amendments were applied in combination with solarization, respectively. Soaking of seed in an antioxidant, spermine (SP) at 10 mg L−1 before planting followed by foliar application of potassium (K) as potassium chloride (KCl) at 2% and zinc (Zn) as zinc sulphate ZnSO4 at 0.01% gave the highest germination percentage and lowest incidence of damping-off disease at 96.34 and 3.66%, respectively [63]. The same treatments (SP + K + Zn) also significantly reduced the incidence of charcoal rot by up to 83.30% [63].
The pathogens causing soil-borne diseases such as
Showing manifold performance of microbial biocontrol agents (MBCAs).
The beneficial microbes that have been frequently used for the control of soil-borne diseases of cowpea include:
Application of
In recent times, bio-priming as a seed treatment that integrates the biological aspects of disease management has been used as an alternative method for mitigating many seed and soil-borne pathogens, and it has emerged as another alternative to chemical fungicides. Also, seed coating with MBCAs is the most efficient treatment for mitigating root rot diseases as shown by many researchers [78, 79]. In this regard, bio-coated cowpea seeds with
One of the requirements for execution of MBCAs are the development of suitable formulation and delivery systems [82]. Fabrication procedures for these agents are dependent on enough and efficient biomass formation, which must be carried out carefully in order to retain viability at the end of processing and deployment. Seed treatment with different formulations of
More recently, biofilms based on MBCAs have been used for the control of many soilborne diseases. In particular, these biofilms are microbial communities adhering to the biotic and abiotic surface, and they are fixed in the organic matrix of biological origin that provides structure and stability to the microbial community. Due to multi-layers of microbial cells, these biofilms play a major role in plant-microbe interaction. For example, seed treatment with
In addition to
In addition, research has demonstrated that besides diseases control, MBCAs also increased nitrogen fixation ability. For instance,
The fungicidal properties of aromatic and medicinal plants have been recognized since prehistoric times. Worldwide, plant based natural chemicals and their application for plant protection is one of the focus areas of research. Earlier, plant extracts of many medicinal plants such as neem (
In another study by Dawar et al. [102], charcoal and root rot of cowpea was controlled by seed coating with
In addition to control of root rot diseases, plant extracts are reported to increase seed germination through decreasing disease incidences [108]. For example, soil application of 1–3% dry leaf biomass of
Besides plant extracts, essential oils extracted from higher plants has also been found effective against some soilborne pathogens. For example, essential oils from wild oregano and black cumin applied at the concentration of 0.16 μl/cm3 of air have been found effective against
Most of the pathogens causing root rot diseases in cowpea are soilborne. Therefore, seed treatment prior to sowing is important followed by soil drenching. In integrated disease management, fungicides are an important component for disease management. The majority of systemic fungicides need to be applied before the occurrence of disease or at the appearance of the first symptoms to be effective. Fungicides have ‘curative’ properties, that is, they are active against those pathogens that have already infected the plant, tend to have a higher risk of pathogens developing resistance to the fungicide. In Benin, the only registered fungicide used on cowpea is Super-Homai 70% PM (active ingredient: methylthiophanate 35%, thiram 20% and diazinon 15%) (SPV, Benin). Unfortunately, there has been a problem regarding the efficacy of this product against pathogens [79].
Control of fungal soilborne diseases of cowpea is achieved by several fungicides. Combined application of carbendazim and mancozeb at the rate of 2 g/L as soil drenching, controlled 14.28% collar rot disease, while 57.4% disease incidence was reported in control plots [86]. Seed soaking with potassium sorbate (9%) or sodium benzoate (20 mM) followed by their foliar spray efficiently reduced root rot incidence caused by
Furthermore, there has been investigations on the sensitivity of isolated
Improved plant nutrition through well-balanced fertilization particularly for micronutrients is critical in management of soilborne diseases [38]. A study by [124] reported that amending soil with manganese at a rate of 10 μg/g of soil as MnSO4.H2O reduced the severity of root rots caused by
Over 95% of the global cowpea production [17] occurs in the least developed countries by resource constrained smallholder farmers with limited knowledge on integrated pest and disease management options. Several cowpea genotypes with resistance or tolerance to several soilborne diseases were identified in many studies conducted in a few locations. This has hindered their widespread use because of adaptability/suitability to a restricted range of geographical conditions. Therefore, variety screening/evaluation should be conducted in diverse geographies across years when developing cowpea lines with disease resistance. Breeding for durable resistance to most soilborne fungal pathogens is still a challenge in many breeding programs due to pathogen diversity and monogenic nature of host resistance [23, 25, 26, 45]. Correct identification of causal pathogens/agents associated with soilborne diseases using rapid and reliable diagnostic assays is therefore needed.
Marker assisted selection (MAS) offers a great opportunity to improve efficiency in selecting progenies with desirable traits. This is because through MAS, selection for resistance can be carried out even in the absence of disease and at early stages of plant development [126]. Use of markers in breeding for resistance to soilborne fungal pathogens in cowpea is however lacking although a few markers were identified.
In many cowpea producing countries, many MBCAs have been experimentally tested and several are commercially available. However, their use or application is still on a very small scale. This is partly because of lack of sensitization of farmers who assume that a crop cannot be grown successfully without application of synthetic fungicides [127]. Creativity and appropriate guidance through proper extension advice is therefore needed to cause mind-set change among farmers who are still inclined to using synthetic pesticides. Many botanicals and bio-based products were evaluated in controlled environments in many studies but their effectiveness under field conditions is not yet fully known. Also, the application rates of some botanicals are unusually high [70] thus additional studies on refining their efficacy are needed.
Globally, resistance to synthetic fungicides is increasingly becoming a big problem. This problem is likely to worsen in many African countries where over 95% of the cowpea cultivation takes place due to laxity in application of fungicide regulations coupled with poor extension services to educate farmers. For instance, there is limited or lack of national, regional or international policies to guide enforcement of sustainable solutions/practices [127]. Unknowingly, majority of farmers think that registered pesticides are safe for the environment and for man, so there is no incentive for them to change. Also, farmers rarely rotate fungicides with different modes of action due to limited knowledge and extension on IDM [128].
Environmental factors such as soil moisture and temperature that greatly contribute to disease development in the field were reported to have an effect on the level of disease development [38]. For instance, initial inoculum load and soil moisture were the main factors responsible for incidence of damping-off and stem rots in cowpea [26]. A good understanding of all key predisposing factors that trigger development of soil-borne diseases is therefore needed.
Soilborne fungal diseases poses a major challenge to production of cowpea globally thus necessitating the need for sustainable management approaches that enhance production while also preserving the environment. Stem rot, damping-off, collar rot,
Use of cultural or agronomic practices such as rotation of cowpea with cereal crops (fonio and millet), application of compost and synthetic fertilizers (NPK) was shown to reduce infestation by charcoal rot. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding how much of these practices have been adopted by farmers to manage soilborne fungal diseases in cowpea.
Several studies reported the efficacy of synthetic fungicides against soilborne pathogens of cowpea however, most of these fungicides are pathogen-specific and their regular use may cause fungicide resistance. Therefore, more systemic fungicides should be screened. Furthermore, to reduce the fungicide resistance problems, their mixed application in seed treatment or fungicide rotation strategies should be recommended. However, continuous use of fungicides has a harmful impact on beneficial soil microbial communities, leading to poor soil fertility with reduced productivity.
Concerning the use of MBCAs, several beneficial microbes (
We are grateful to the financial support provided by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) for the publication of this chapter under the project titled ‘Enhancing institutional breeding capacity in Ghana, Senegal and Uganda to develop climate resilient crops for African smallholder farmers (EBCA)’. The technical support provided by Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) is duly acknowledged.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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With this background, this chapter reviews the advantages of TSS in ceramic preparation based on properties and materials and explores the future directions.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Ubenthiran Sutharsini, Murugathas Thanihaichelvan and Ramesh\nSingh",authors:[{id:"196694",title:"Dr.",name:"Sutharsini",middleName:null,surname:"Ubenthiran",slug:"sutharsini-ubenthiran",fullName:"Sutharsini Ubenthiran"},{id:"197621",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ramesh-singh",fullName:"Ramesh Singh"},{id:"197622",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Murugathas",middleName:null,surname:"Thanihaichelvan",slug:"murugathas-thanihaichelvan",fullName:"Murugathas Thanihaichelvan"}]},{id:"55983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68871",title:"Sintering and Reactive Sintering by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS)",slug:"sintering-and-reactive-sintering-by-spark-plasma-sintering-sps-",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"A wide variety of technological applications, especially in electronics, requires high‐density nanostructured solids, consolidated by sintering from nanoparticles. A new sintering technique known as spark plasma sintering (SPS) appears as the only method to reach high densities while preserving the final grain size within the nanometric range, with the added advantage of carrying out the process at significantly lower temperatures and shorter times as compared with the classical processes. Recent studies have revealed that in many cases, SPS can also accomplish the solid‐state reaction to achieve the desired compound, leading to reactive SPS (RSPS). In this chapter, a review of RSPS is presented, focusing particularly on magnetic oxide materials as functional solids.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Giulia Franceschin, Nancy Flores‐Martínez, Gabriela Vázquez‐\nVictorio, Souad Ammar and Raul Valenzuela",authors:[{id:"167617",title:"Prof.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Valenzuela",slug:"raul-valenzuela",fullName:"Raul Valenzuela"},{id:"196830",title:"Prof.",name:"Souad",middleName:null,surname:"Ammar",slug:"souad-ammar",fullName:"Souad Ammar"},{id:"198772",title:"BSc.",name:"Giulia",middleName:null,surname:"Franceschin",slug:"giulia-franceschin",fullName:"Giulia Franceschin"},{id:"198775",title:"BSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Martinez",slug:"nancy-flores-martinez",fullName:"Nancy Flores-Martinez"},{id:"198776",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Vazquez-Victorio",slug:"gabriela-vazquez-victorio",fullName:"Gabriela Vazquez-Victorio"}]},{id:"55414",doi:"10.5772/68081",title:"Development of Metal Matrix Composites Using Microwave Sintering Technique",slug:"development-of-metal-matrix-composites-using-microwave-sintering-technique",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In this book chapter, aluminum (Al)-based metal matrix composites (AMMCs) with various reinforcing ceramic particles, such as SiC, Si3N4, and Al2O3,\nwere produced by microwave sintering and subsequent hot extrusion processes. The role of various nano/micro-sized reinforcements in altering the structural, mechanical, and thermal properties of the microwave-extruded composites was systematically studied. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns indicated that the main components were Al, SiC, Si3N4, and Al2O3 for the studied Al-SiC, Al-Si3N4,\nand Al-Al2O3 composites, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) elemental mapping confirm the homogeneous distribution of reinforcing particles in the Al matrix. Mechanistic studies revealed that the Al-Si3N4 metal matrix composite exhibited superior hardness, ultimate compression/tensile strength, and Young’s modulus, while having a lower coefficient of thermal expansion compared to other studied Al composites. Findings presented are expected to pave the way to design, develop, and synthesize other aluminum-based metal matrix composites for automotive and industrial applications.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Penchal Reddy Matli, Rana Abdul Shakoor and Adel Mohamed\nAmer Mohamed",authors:[{id:"148964",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M.A",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"a.m.a-mohamed",fullName:"A.M.A Mohamed"},{id:"197398",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Shakoor",slug:"abdul-shakoor",fullName:"Abdul Shakoor"},{id:"198720",title:"Dr.",name:"Penchal Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Matli",slug:"penchal-reddy-matli",fullName:"Penchal Reddy Matli"}]},{id:"55759",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68872",title:"Selective Laser Sintering of Nanoparticles",slug:"selective-laser-sintering-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Selective laser sintering of nanoparticles has received much attention recently as it enables rapid fabrication of functional layers including metal conductors and metal‐oxide electrodes on heat‐sensitive polymer substrate in ambient conditions. Photothermal reactions induced by lasers rapidly increase the local temperature of the target nanoparticle in a highly selective manner, and subsequent sintering steps including melting and coalescence between nanoparticles occur to fabricate interconnected sintered films for various future applications. The mechanism of laser sintering, as well as possible target materials subject to laser sintering, together with experimental schemes developed to improve the process and potential applications, is briefly summarized in this chapter.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Sukjoon Hong",authors:[{id:"197318",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukjoon",middleName:null,surname:"Hong",slug:"sukjoon-hong",fullName:"Sukjoon Hong"}]},{id:"54832",doi:"10.5772/68082",title:"Sintering of Whiteware Body Depending on Different Fluxing Agents and Binders",slug:"sintering-of-whiteware-body-depending-on-different-fluxing-agents-and-binders",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The sintering of whiteware (porcelain) body can be affected by using fluxing agents or binders. The chapter describes the sintering process of porcelain body in case of different fluxing agent (different feldspar rocks, bone ash, zeolite) and binder (kaolin vs. calcium aluminate cement) utilization in the porcelain raw material mixture. Sintering process is presented according to thermodilatometrical curves and sintering temperatures especially.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Radomir Sokolar",authors:[{id:"197992",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radomir",middleName:null,surname:"Sokolar",slug:"radomir-sokolar",fullName:"Radomir Sokolar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54691",title:"Two-Step Sintering of Ceramics",slug:"two-step-sintering-of-ceramics",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Sintering is a critical phase in the production of ceramic bodies. By controlling the density and microstructure formation, sintering now emerged as a processing technology of ceramic materials. Tailoring the structural, mechanical, electrical, magnetic and optical properties is widening the application of ceramics in various fields. Recently, many advanced sintering methods have reported to fabricate ceramic materials with controlled properties. Two‐stage sintering (TSS) is one of the simple and cost‐effective methods to obtain near‐theoretical density materials with controlled grain growth without adding any dopants. Many recent works have reported the use of TSS as a processing method to fabricate nanoceramics for various applications. With this background, this chapter reviews the advantages of TSS in ceramic preparation based on properties and materials and explores the future directions.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Ubenthiran Sutharsini, Murugathas Thanihaichelvan and Ramesh\nSingh",authors:[{id:"196694",title:"Dr.",name:"Sutharsini",middleName:null,surname:"Ubenthiran",slug:"sutharsini-ubenthiran",fullName:"Sutharsini Ubenthiran"},{id:"197621",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ramesh-singh",fullName:"Ramesh Singh"},{id:"197622",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Murugathas",middleName:null,surname:"Thanihaichelvan",slug:"murugathas-thanihaichelvan",fullName:"Murugathas Thanihaichelvan"}]},{id:"56484",title:"Evolution of Magnetic Properties in Ferrites: Trends of Single- Sample and Multi-Sample Sintering",slug:"evolution-of-magnetic-properties-in-ferrites-trends-of-single-sample-and-multi-sample-sintering",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Microstructure of magnetic materials greatly influences the performance of magnetic properties, and sintering has been used as an agent to tailor the microstructure of these magnetic materials especially ferrites. Nanostructured ferrites prepared by high-energy milling method are often inherently unstable owing to their small constituent sizes, non-equilibrium cation distribution, disordered spin configuration, and high chemical activity. Therefore, sintering of the milled ferrites recrystallizes the nanostructure and causes its transition from an excited metastable (activated) state into the low-energy crystalline state. A better understanding of the response of nanoscale ferrites with changes in temperature is crucial not only for basic science (the development of an atomistic and microscopic theory of the mechanochemical processes) but also because of the technological high-temperature applications in catalysis, ferrofluids and information storage. This chapter discusses on two different sintering schemes, which are a commonly applied multi-sample sintering and a rarely adopted single-sample sintering. Experimental results of single-sample and multi-sample sintering of NiZn ferrites and yttrium iron garnet (YIG) were highlighted, and their microstructural consequences on the magnetic properties were also discussed.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Ismayadi Ismail, Idza Riati Ibrahim and Rodziah Nazlan",authors:[{id:"185087",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismayadi",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"ismayadi-ismail",fullName:"Ismayadi Ismail"},{id:"197659",title:"Dr.",name:"Idza Riati",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"idza-riati-ibrahim",fullName:"Idza Riati Ibrahim"},{id:"197660",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rodziah",middleName:null,surname:"Nazlan",slug:"rodziah-nazlan",fullName:"Rodziah Nazlan"}]},{id:"55983",title:"Sintering and Reactive Sintering by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS)",slug:"sintering-and-reactive-sintering-by-spark-plasma-sintering-sps-",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"A wide variety of technological applications, especially in electronics, requires high‐density nanostructured solids, consolidated by sintering from nanoparticles. A new sintering technique known as spark plasma sintering (SPS) appears as the only method to reach high densities while preserving the final grain size within the nanometric range, with the added advantage of carrying out the process at significantly lower temperatures and shorter times as compared with the classical processes. Recent studies have revealed that in many cases, SPS can also accomplish the solid‐state reaction to achieve the desired compound, leading to reactive SPS (RSPS). In this chapter, a review of RSPS is presented, focusing particularly on magnetic oxide materials as functional solids.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Giulia Franceschin, Nancy Flores‐Martínez, Gabriela Vázquez‐\nVictorio, Souad Ammar and Raul Valenzuela",authors:[{id:"167617",title:"Prof.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Valenzuela",slug:"raul-valenzuela",fullName:"Raul Valenzuela"},{id:"196830",title:"Prof.",name:"Souad",middleName:null,surname:"Ammar",slug:"souad-ammar",fullName:"Souad Ammar"},{id:"198772",title:"BSc.",name:"Giulia",middleName:null,surname:"Franceschin",slug:"giulia-franceschin",fullName:"Giulia Franceschin"},{id:"198775",title:"BSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Martinez",slug:"nancy-flores-martinez",fullName:"Nancy Flores-Martinez"},{id:"198776",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Vazquez-Victorio",slug:"gabriela-vazquez-victorio",fullName:"Gabriela Vazquez-Victorio"}]},{id:"54832",title:"Sintering of Whiteware Body Depending on Different Fluxing Agents and Binders",slug:"sintering-of-whiteware-body-depending-on-different-fluxing-agents-and-binders",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The sintering of whiteware (porcelain) body can be affected by using fluxing agents or binders. The chapter describes the sintering process of porcelain body in case of different fluxing agent (different feldspar rocks, bone ash, zeolite) and binder (kaolin vs. calcium aluminate cement) utilization in the porcelain raw material mixture. Sintering process is presented according to thermodilatometrical curves and sintering temperatures especially.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Radomir Sokolar",authors:[{id:"197992",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radomir",middleName:null,surname:"Sokolar",slug:"radomir-sokolar",fullName:"Radomir Sokolar"}]},{id:"55759",title:"Selective Laser Sintering of Nanoparticles",slug:"selective-laser-sintering-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1723,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Selective laser sintering of nanoparticles has received much attention recently as it enables rapid fabrication of functional layers including metal conductors and metal‐oxide electrodes on heat‐sensitive polymer substrate in ambient conditions. Photothermal reactions induced by lasers rapidly increase the local temperature of the target nanoparticle in a highly selective manner, and subsequent sintering steps including melting and coalescence between nanoparticles occur to fabricate interconnected sintered films for various future applications. The mechanism of laser sintering, as well as possible target materials subject to laser sintering, together with experimental schemes developed to improve the process and potential applications, is briefly summarized in this chapter.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Sukjoon Hong",authors:[{id:"197318",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukjoon",middleName:null,surname:"Hong",slug:"sukjoon-hong",fullName:"Sukjoon Hong"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1402",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. 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