PV system and single-phase grid characteristics.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1419",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health",title:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'In our modern society, expectations are high, also with respect to our daily diet. In addition to being merely "nutritious", i.e. supplying a variety of essential nutrients, including macro-nutrients such as proteins or micro-nutrients such as minerals and vitamins, it is almost expected that a good diet offers further advantages - especially well-being and health and the prevention of chronic diseases, which are, as we generally tend to grow older and older, becoming a burden to enjoying private life and to the entire society. These additional qualities are often sought in diets rich also in non-nutritive components, such as phytochemicals. In contrast to drugs, which are taken especially to cure or ameliorate diseases, it is expected that a healthy diet acts in particular on the side of prevention, allowing us to become old without feeling old. In the present book, rather then trying to give an exhaustive overview on nutritional aspects and their link to well-being and health, selected topics have been chosen, intended to address presently discussed key issues of nutrition for health, presenting a reasonable selection of the manifold topics around diet, well-being, and health: from the antioxidants polyphenols and carotenoids, aroma-active terpenoids, to calcium for bone health, back to traditional Chinese Medicine.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0125-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6836-2",doi:"10.5772/1864",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nutrition-well-being-and-health",numberOfPages:236,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"cb4a765eccac4539851ea572efb58806",bookSignature:"Jaouad Bouayed and Torsten Bohn",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1419.jpg",numberOfDownloads:65999,numberOfWosCitations:234,numberOfCrossrefCitations:78,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:259,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:12,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:571,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 16th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 31st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 29th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 10th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"34084",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaouad",middleName:null,surname:"Bouayed",slug:"jaouad-bouayed",fullName:"Jaouad Bouayed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/34084/images/2703_n.jpg",biography:"Associate professor Jaouad Bouayed was born in 1977 in Oujda, in Morocco. He is exerting teaching and research activities in Lorraine University in Metz. He has defended his Ph.D. speciality “Phytochemistry and Pharmacology” the 29th October 2007 at Paul Verlaine - Metz University, France. Afterwards, he was a postdoctoral researcher, in which the last position was realized in Luxembourg under the supervision of Dr. Torsten BOHN to investigate the effects of simulated gastric and intestinal digestion on the release of antioxidants from apple food matrix. During this period, Bouayed & Bohn have decided to edit the book “Nutrition, Well-Being and Health”, compelling the most recent evidence and state of the art in the relation of bioactive food ingredients and their potential to reduce the burden of chronic diseases, especially with respect to prevention. \nJaouad Bouayed has published more than 30 peer reviewed journals including reviews and chapters in books. He is also an ad hoc reviewer in several international journals. The Bouayed’s current fields of interests are the relationship between behaviour and cognitive function, and oxidative stress, as well as the impact of antioxidants or dietary contaminants on these conditions using mouse model, at different stages of live including juvenile, adult and old ages.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"77366",title:"Dr.",name:"Torsten",middleName:null,surname:"Bohn",slug:"torsten-bohn",fullName:"Torsten Bohn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77366/images/5478_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Torsten Bohn was born in Troisdorf, Germany, in 1972 and is currently the head of the Plant and Nutrition Unit at the Public Research Center - Gabriel Lippmann in Luxembourg. Following his PhD in human nutrition which was awarded by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich for studies on “Magnesium Absorption in Humans” in 2002, he made his postdoc at the Ohio State University, at Columbus, OH. During this time he focused on human studies investigating potential health benefits of consuming soy and tomato rich foods, which also sparked the interest for a more general relation between Food and Health, some topics of which appear in this present book “Nutrition, Well-Being and Health”, aiming to highlight selected areas of nutrition and health interactions. Torsten Bohn has published ca. 50 peer reviewed articles encompassing reviews and book chapters. He is a member of the Editorial Board of the British Journal of Nutrition and has edited several special issues for various Food and Nutrition oriented Journals. His main research focus is the bioavailability of phytochemcials, especially carotenoids and polyphenols, and their relation to inflammation and oxidative stress.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1130",title:"Euthenics",slug:"euthenics"}],chapters:[{id:"29973",title:"Dietary Derived Antioxidants: Implications on Health",doi:"10.5772/25337",slug:"dietary-derived-antioxidants-implication-on-health",totalDownloads:4570,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jaouad Bouayed and Torsten Bohn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29973",authors:[{id:"34084",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaouad",surname:"Bouayed",slug:"jaouad-bouayed",fullName:"Jaouad Bouayed"},{id:"63069",title:"Mr.",name:"Torsten",surname:"Bohn",slug:"torsten-bohn",fullName:"Torsten Bohn"}],corrections:null},{id:"29974",title:"Antioxidant and Pro-Oxidant Effects of Polyphenolic Compounds and Structure-Activity Relationship Evidence",doi:"10.5772/29471",slug:"antioxidant-and-prooxidant-effect-of-polyphenol-compounds-and-structure-activity-relationship-eviden",totalDownloads:8677,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:78,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Estela Guardado Yordi, Enrique Molina Pérez, Maria João Matos and Eugenio Uriarte Villares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29974",authors:[{id:"78010",title:"MSc.",name:"Estela",surname:"Guardado Yordi",slug:"estela-guardado-yordi",fullName:"Estela Guardado Yordi"},{id:"79173",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Molina Perez",slug:"enrique-molina-perez",fullName:"Enrique Molina Perez"},{id:"97576",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenio",surname:"Uriarte Villares",slug:"eugenio-uriarte-villares",fullName:"Eugenio Uriarte Villares"},{id:"120476",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Joao Matos",slug:"maria-joao-matos",fullName:"Maria Joao Matos"}],corrections:null},{id:"29975",title:"Whole Grain Consumption and Health of the Lower Gastrointestinal Tract: A Focus on Insoluble-Bound Phenolic Compounds",doi:"10.5772/30558",slug:"whole-grain-consumption-and-lower-gastrointestinal-health-",totalDownloads:2341,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Neal Okarter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29975",authors:[{id:"83062",title:"Dr.",name:"Neal",surname:"Okarter",slug:"neal-okarter",fullName:"Neal Okarter"}],corrections:null},{id:"29976",title:"Nutrition and Bone Health in Old Age",doi:"10.5772/28756",slug:"nutrition-and-bone-health-in-old-age",totalDownloads:3273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Manuel Díaz-Curiel, María J. Moro-Álvarez and Susana Sanz-Baena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29976",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29976",authors:[{id:"75241",title:"Prof.",name:"Diaz-Curiel",surname:"Manuel",slug:"diaz-curiel-manuel",fullName:"Diaz-Curiel Manuel"},{id:"75252",title:"Dr.",name:"Moro Alvarez",surname:"Mª Jesus",slug:"moro-alvarez-ma-jesus",fullName:"Moro Alvarez Mª Jesus"}],corrections:null},{id:"29977",title:"Potato Antioxidant Compounds: Impact of Cultivation Methods and Relevance for Diet and Health",doi:"10.5772/31077",slug:"potato-antioxidant-compounds-impact-of-cultivation-methods-and-relevance-for-diet-and-health",totalDownloads:4589,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Danièle Evers and Hannah Deußer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29977",authors:[{id:"85490",title:"Dr.",name:"Danièle",surname:"Evers",slug:"daniele-evers",fullName:"Danièle Evers"},{id:"89187",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannah",surname:"Deusser",slug:"hannah-deusser",fullName:"Hannah Deusser"}],corrections:null},{id:"29978",title:"Beneficial Effects of Fragrances in Beverages on Human Health",doi:"10.5772/27480",slug:"beneficial-effects-of-fragrances-in-beverages-on-human-health",totalDownloads:4099,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hitoshi Aoshima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29978",authors:[{id:"70308",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",surname:"Aoshima",slug:"hitoshi-aoshima",fullName:"Hitoshi Aoshima"}],corrections:null},{id:"29979",title:"The Therapeutic Benefits of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/25344",slug:"the-therapeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:24033,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:101,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Abdelouaheb Djilani and Amadou Dicko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29979",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29979",authors:[{id:"63044",title:"Prof.",name:"Jilani",surname:"AbdelWahab",slug:"jilani-abdelwahab",fullName:"Jilani AbdelWahab"},{id:"116762",title:"Prof.",name:"Amadou",surname:"Dicko",slug:"amadou-dicko",fullName:"Amadou Dicko"}],corrections:null},{id:"29980",title:"Functional Foods Based on Traditional Chinese Medicine",doi:"10.5772/27643",slug:"the-functional-foods-based-on-traditional-chinese-medicine",totalDownloads:8242,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chunyan Yao, Ruiwen Hao, Shengli Pan and Yin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29980",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29980",authors:[{id:"70931",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunyan",surname:"Yao",slug:"chunyan-yao",fullName:"Chunyan Yao"}],corrections:null},{id:"29981",title:"Health-Promoting Food Ingredients and Functional Food Processing",doi:"10.5772/25862",slug:"health-promoting-food-ingredients-development-and-processing",totalDownloads:6179,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:32,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Lizhe Wang and Torsten Bohn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29981",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29981",authors:[{id:"64795",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizhe",surname:"Wang",slug:"lizhe-wang",fullName:"Lizhe Wang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5963",title:"Functional Food",subtitle:"Improve Health through Adequate Food",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e56600bbbb1d3ed63d334cc575dc14",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",bookSignature:"Maria Chavarri Hueda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5963.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5176",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2e20dabc8ed6fbaef3686be8c6fce99",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5176.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6013",title:"Well-being and Quality of Life",subtitle:"Medical Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ce9412b0c4cf7532a3ed3269e5a8ebf",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-life-medical-perspective",bookSignature:"Mukadder Mollaoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43900",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukadder",surname:"Mollaoğlu",slug:"mukadder-mollaoglu",fullName:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64729",slug:"erratum-toward-the-development-of-a-monitoring-and-feedback-system-for-predicting-poor-adjustment-to",title:"Erratum - Toward the Development of a Monitoring and Feedback System for Predicting Poor Adjustment to Grief",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64729.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64729",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64729",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64729",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64729",chapter:{id:"57127",slug:"toward-the-development-of-a-monitoring-and-feedback-system-for-predicting-poor-adjustment-to-grief",signatures:"Wan Jou She, Laurie Burke, Robert A. Neimyer, Kailey Roberts,\nWendy Lichtenthal, Jun Hu and Matthias Rauterberg",dateSubmitted:"September 5th 2017",dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 18th 2017",book:{id:"6456",title:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement",subtitle:"Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement - Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",slug:"proceedings-of-the-conference-on-design-and-semantics-of-form-and-movement-sense-and-sensitivity-desform-2017",publishedDate:"October 18th 2017",bookSignature:"Miguel Bruns Alonso and Elif Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6456.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}],productType:{id:"2",title:"Proceeding",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"221149",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Jou",middleName:null,surname:"She",fullName:"Wan Jou She",slug:"wan-jou-she",email:"lave@lavendershe.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"57127",slug:"toward-the-development-of-a-monitoring-and-feedback-system-for-predicting-poor-adjustment-to-grief",signatures:"Wan Jou She, Laurie Burke, Robert A. Neimyer, Kailey Roberts,\nWendy Lichtenthal, Jun Hu and Matthias Rauterberg",dateSubmitted:"September 5th 2017",dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 18th 2017",book:{id:"6456",title:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement",subtitle:"Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement - Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",slug:"proceedings-of-the-conference-on-design-and-semantics-of-form-and-movement-sense-and-sensitivity-desform-2017",publishedDate:"October 18th 2017",bookSignature:"Miguel Bruns Alonso and Elif Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6456.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}],productType:{id:"2",title:"Proceeding",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"221149",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Jou",middleName:null,surname:"She",fullName:"Wan Jou She",slug:"wan-jou-she",email:"lave@lavendershe.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6456",title:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement",subtitle:"Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement - Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",slug:"proceedings-of-the-conference-on-design-and-semantics-of-form-and-movement-sense-and-sensitivity-desform-2017",publishedDate:"October 18th 2017",bookSignature:"Miguel Bruns Alonso and Elif Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6456.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}],productType:{id:"2",title:"Proceeding",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11446",leadTitle:null,title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIndustry 4.0 is involved with a high level of digitization which has been expanding the efficiency and flexibility of various manufacturing and non-manufacturing industries in all engineering fields such as civil and environmental engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, petroleum engineering, and medical engineering. The reason for this comes from the fact that the world is changing faster as the Internet and digitalization are the driving forces of today's trade. In addition, new technologies deliver human-like accuracy and reliability in highly complex tasks, with the greatest global impact on all sectors. Nowadays, computer-based technologies such as the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Big Data, and Data Mining approaches along with their applications pervade everywhere in real life, especially in different fields of engineering towards automation, intelligence, and sustainability. This is because the aforementioned DigiTech platforms for Industry 4.0 and 5.0 facilitate intelligent tasks and diagnostics in the research and analysis of industries and organizations in predictive policing.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will present the key technological developments in Engineering and explore the potential benefits of using real-world applications. As a comprehensive roadmap for decision-makers, it covers a wide range of revolutionary advances in Industry 4.0. The present call for book chapter offers an opportunity for academicians, concerned stakeholders, policy-makers, industrialists, and practitioners to reflect and enhance the understanding of the opportunities that Industry 4.0 offers for various aspects of engineering.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-540-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-539-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-541-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",bookSignature:"Dr. Meisam Gordan and Dr. Khaled Ghaedi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",keywords:"Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Blockchain, Engineering, Impact of Industry 4.0, Innovative Sensing Strategies, Automated Diagnostics, 5G, Human-Machine Communication, Smartification, Sustainable Development",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 28th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A distinguished researcher in Structural Engineering with a focus on Industry 4.0 technologies, recognized by several scientific journals as a reliable referee, and editor of several journals, with over 20 papers in peer-reviewed journals. Dr. Gordan is a member of renowned institutes such as the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the Malaysian Board of Engineers.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Khaled Ghaedi has been in both the academia and industry fields. He is the committee member of the international structural design code, ASCE 7-22. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), ASCE Standards Committee, ASCE Integrated Buildings & Structures Committee, Structural Engineering Institute Dues (SEI-ASCE), American Concrete Institute (ACI), Board of Engineers Malaysia.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",middleName:null,surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/303193/images/system/303193.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meisam Gordan graduated with a research-based Ph.D. in Structural Engineering and Materials from the University of Malaya. His main focus is to address the feasibility and demonstrate the potential of data mining in structural health monitoring, as well as apply machine learning, artificial intelligence, and statistical methods for damage detection of structures. He has been working with Structural Health Monitoring Research Group (StrucHMRSGroup) and Advance Shock and Vibration Research Group (ASVR). He received several research grants as well as a scholarship from the University of Malaya (UM) and the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) due to his academic excellence. Dr. Gordan has published a number of papers in different fields such as structural health monitoring, data mining, artificial intelligence, soft computing, structural control systems, IoT, big data, blockchain, unmanned aerial systems, finite element analysis, and materials. His research interest is to form a bridge between Structural Engineering and Computer Science using IR 4.0 emerging technologies. He is a member of renowned institutes such as the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the Malaysian Board of Engineers. He has also contributed to the process of knowledge sharing through his role as the reviewer of well-known journals and conferences.",institutionString:"University College Dublin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"190572",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Ghaedi",slug:"khaled-ghaedi",fullName:"Khaled Ghaedi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190572/images/system/190572.png",biography:"Dr. Khaled Ghaedi has been in both the academia and industry\nfields. He has built his professional career holding different\npositions over the years with experience in engineering and\nresearch. He is the technical director of the engineering software\nand solutions provider in Malaysia to support the industry in\nSoutheast Asia. He is the committee member of the international\nstructural design code, ASCE 7-22. He has frequently published\nhis research papers in well-known journals in different engineering fields such as\nearthquake engineering, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics,\nand materials and damage assessment of buildings, bridges, and dams. He has\ncontributed to the process of knowledge sharing through his roles as an editorial\nboard member, reviewer, and committee member of eminent journals, conferences\ninstitutes, and organizations.",institutionString:"PASOFAL Engineering Group",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69507",title:"A New Control Strategy for Photovoltaic System Connected to the Grid via Three-Time-Scale Singular Perturbation Technique with Performance Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89434",slug:"a-new-control-strategy-for-photovoltaic-system-connected-to-the-grid-via-three-time-scale-singular-p",body:'Due to dramatic increase in energy consumption and thrust to reduce carbon and greenhouse gas emissions from the traditional electric power generation systems, photovoltaic (PV) power generators have gained a great popularity in recent years. Indeed, photovoltaic systems produce electric power without harming the environment, transforming a free inexhaustible source of energy, solar radiation, into electricity. Furthermore, the major advantage of the photovoltaic systems is to meet the basic power requirement of non-electrified remote areas, where grid power has not yet reached. Also, there are other advantages such as the declining cost and prices of solar modules. On the other hand, the importance of PV systems in the solar industry makes these systems more efficient and reliable, especially for utility power in distributed generation (DG) at medium and low voltages power systems [1]. All these considerations assure a promising role for PV generation systems in the near future.
On the other hand, many technical problems, such as untimely failures, could be found on electronic systems related in particular to the transfer and conversion of this energy to the network. Today, most conversion systems often suffer from low yields in real production sites. To meet the requirements of the new international standards on expected performance on associated conversion systems, it is important to make a research effort to solve the many control problems associated with the static power converter and bring this area to a degree of sufficient maturity to make them industrial products in their own right. One of the difficulties caused by the use of a photovoltaic conversion chain is focused on the problem of non-perfect control of the chain between the photovoltaic generator itself and the continuous or alternative type of load.
The efficiency of a PV plant is affected mainly by three factors: the efficiency of the PV panel, the efficiency of the static power converter and its control, and the efficiency of the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm.
PV grid-connected systems represent the most important field applications of solar energy [2, 3, 4]. In general, the power converter interface, from PV module (the DC source) to the load or to the grid, consists of two-stage converters: The first-stage DC/DC converter is usually used to boost the PV voltage and to implement the maximum power point technique. While the second stage is used to convert this power into high-quality AC voltage, with power factor correction (PFC) respecting to the power supply grid (i.e. sinusoidal and in phase with the AC supply voltage).
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is required to match the PV array power to the environmental changes achieving to extract the maximum power output from a solar cell [5]. To this end, different MPPT techniques have been proposed such as incremental conductance [6], perturbation and observation (P&O) [7, 8], the hill-climbing, and some other special methods, such as neural networks, fuzzy logic technique [9]. Among all available techniques, a simple and effective MPPT of incremental conductance algorithm is applied to attain the maximum power of PV array in different solar irradiance and temperature condition parameters.
In order to provide a stable controller of DC/DC and DC/AC converters, many linear control methods have been proposed using many methods, such as a fuzzy-proportional integral controlled [10], a simple PR controller [11] where the performances have been illustrated by experimental result. However, in both proposed controllers, the problem of maximizing PV power transfer is not accounted for in the controller design. In contrast to linear control, nonlinear approaches can optimize the dynamic performance of system, such as sliding mode [12], fuzzy-sliding mode [13], feedback linearization [14], singular perturbation technique [15], and many others works [16, 17, 18]. In light of the previous descriptions, no theoretical analysis is made to formally prove that the closed-loop control performances are actually achieved.
In this chapter, a multi-loop nonlinear controller is designed and developed via singular perturbation technique (Chapter 11 in Refs. [19, 20]), as was shown in Refs. [21, 22], where three-time-scale dynamics is artificially induced in the closed-loop system. The control objectives are threefold: (i) achieving the MPPT for the PV array; (ii) ensuring a tight regulation of the DC-link voltage; and (iii) ensuring a grid connection with unity power factor (PF). These objectives must be met despite changes of the climatic variables (temperature and radiation). A theoretical stability analysis, for the closed-loop system, is provided using the three-time-scale singular perturbation technique [23, 24] and averaging technique (Chapter 10 in Refs. [19, 25]. The three-time-scale analysis allows to construct a suitable composite Lyapunov function candidate for the closed-loop photovoltaic system, and the stability properties of the resulting subsystems are analyzed providing mathematical expressions for the upper bounds of the singularly perturbed parameters.
Compared to previous works, the contribution of the new nonlinear controller enjoys several interesting features including the following:
Several control objectives are simultaneously taken into account such as: MPPT, DC regulation, and PFC, whereas only some of these objectives have been tackled in previous works [10, 11].
A theoretical analysis will prove, using three-time-scale singular perturbation and averaging technique, that the desired multiple objectives are achieved. Such a formal analysis was missing in the previous works [12, 13, 14, 15].
The nonlinearity of the controlled system was preserved in the controller design in order to keep all the properties of the studied system, whereas it is partly or totally ignored in previous controllers [14].
By including of three-time-scale dynamics in the full-order closed-loop system can ensure to achieve desired properties, such as robust zero steady-state error of the reference input realization, desired output performance specifications (overshoot, settling time), and insensitivity of the output transient behavior with respect to parameter variations and external disturbances.
The content of this chapter is outlined as follows: in Section 2, the grid-connected PV system is described and modeled. Section 3 is devoted to the cascade nonlinear controller design and its performances are formally analyzed in Section 4. The global performance of the closed-loop photovoltaic system will be illustrated by numerical simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK tool in section 5. A conclusion and a reference list end the chapter.
This section describes the modeling of photovoltaic system connected to the grid. The power circuit topology used in the proposed single phase grid connected to the photovoltaic array is shown in Figure 1. It consists of the following components: (i) a photovoltaic array which consists of an arrangement of
Single phase grid-connected PV system.
Typical (Ip-Vp) characteristics of solar cells arranged in
By analyzing the circuit and applying the well-known Kirchhoff laws, the system of Figure 1 can be described by the following set of differential equations:
where
The instantaneous model (1)–(4) cannot be used directly for the development of continuous control laws since it involves, as input variables, the binary signal
The first control objective is to enforce the photovoltaic voltage
Schematic diagram of the proposed controller for single phase grid-connected PV system.
In parallel with the input current controller, the network current controller (Regulator 3) will be designed for power factor correction requirement that amounts to forcing the network current
where
Let us introduce the following current tracking errors:
Then, the reference model can be constructed in the following form
where
Therefore, the control problem
Doing so, the behaviors of
Hence, there is an isolated root called the inverse dynamic solutions for
The control variable, namely
From expressions (14) and (16), it can be easily checked that the following time-derivatives
are made negative-definite using the following control laws:
At this point,
for a positive values of
Consider the closed-loop system of inner loops composed of the Eqs. (7)–(10) and the control laws (22), which can be rewritten in the following form
with
Now, we go to the fast time
After the rapid decay of transients in expression (25), the steady state (more precisely, quasi-steady state) tends toward an equilibrium
During the fast transient in expression (25), the variables
The equilibrium point given by expression (27) involves a division by the DC link voltage
By substituting of this equilibrium
If the design parameters
The behaviors of
The second step consists in completing the inner control loops by outer control loops for PV voltage (Regulator 2) and DC-link voltage (Regulator 4). The aim is now to enforce the photovoltaic voltage
Now, the first step is to establish the relation between the ratio
The relation between the ratio
The relation between
Therefore, the squared-voltage
The second step is to establish control laws for the outer loops, in which
Then, let the desired behavior of
The error of the desired dynamic realization it follows
Then, the insensitivity condition is given by
Similar to the previous subsection and bearing in mind the fact that
Combining expressions (31) and (36), and the first equation of expression (29), one obtains
with
Notice that expression (39) has an isolated equilibrium at
with
If the design parameters
The behaviors of
The objective of the global stability of closed-loop system can be analyzed in the following theorem. It is shown that the control objectives are achieved (in the mean) with an accuracy that depends on the network frequency
The inner regulators (23), where (
The outer regulators (37), where (
Then, one has the following property
The augmented state vector
with
Let the control design parameters be selected, such that the following inequalities hold
Then, there exist positive constants
where
See Appendix for the proof.
The experimental setup is described by Figure 2 and the nonlinear controller, developed in Section 3, including the control laws (23) and (37), will now be evaluated by simulation in MATLAB/SIMULINK platform using the electromechanical characteristics of Table 1.
Parameters | Symbol | Values |
---|---|---|
Network | ||
Boost | ||
L-filter | ||
PWM switching frequency | ||
DC capacitance |
PV system and single-phase grid characteristics.
The numerical values used for the design parameters are chosen as follows:
The performances of the proposed controller are illustrated by Figures 3–5. Figure 3 shows that the DC-link voltage
DC-link voltage.
Power factor correction checking.
Tuning parameter β.
Figure 6a–c illustrates the resulting closed-loop control performances in presence of radiation changes. Specifically, the radiation takes a low, medium, and high value (equal to 800, 1000 and step to 600 W/m2 at times 0, 0.4, and 0.7 s, respectively), meanwhile the temperature is kept constant, equal to
Radiation variation effect: (a) Photovoltaic voltage. (b) DC-link voltage. (c) PFC checking.
The perfect MPPT is illustrated by Figure 7a. Here, the temperature steps from 298.15 to 318.15 K, then to 308.15 K while the radiation λ is kept constant equal to
Temperature variation effect: (a) Photovoltaic voltage. (b) DC-link voltage. (c) PFC checking.
In this chapter, an advanced controller is developed for PV grid-connected system. The latter is described by fourth-order nonlinear averaged model. The multi-loops nonlinear controller has been designed and developed using three-time singular perturbation technique and averaging theory.
Using the theoretical analysis (via three-time-scale singular perturbation technique and averaging theory) and simulation, it is proved that the controller does meet the performances for which it was designed, namely: (i) Maximum power point tracking of PV array; (ii) tight regulation of the DC bus voltage; (iii) perfect power factor in the grid; and (iv) global asymptotic stability of the all system.
Several simulation results have been made that illustrate the high performances of the proposed controller in ideal operating conditions (in the presence of meteorological constant) and its robustness against radiation and temperature change.
Since the systems here studied present equilibrium different from zero and in order to satisfy this requirement, a change of variables is introduced such that defines the new system in terms of its error dynamics. Therefore, the error dynamics are defined by introducing:
where
In order to get stability results regarding the system of interest (43)–(45), it is sufficient (thanks to averaging theory) to analyze the averaged system (50)–(52). Now, the asymptotic stability of the resulting three-time-scale photovoltaic single phase grid system (50)–(52) is discussed, which is based on the sequential (double) time-scale analysis similar to the one presented in Refs. [23, 24], it is an extension of the two-time-scale analysis presented [19].
The use of theory of the three-time-scale singular perturbations for the stability analysis is based on the idea that, for
For the UFDS, it is necessary to ensure that the dynamic of expression (50) does not to shift from the quasi-steady-state equilibrium
in which
In view of
with
with
Since expression (61), it is seem that the fast subsystem is nonlinear. According to the proposition 4 (part i), it is shown that this subsystem can be made asymptotically stable by letting
with the solutions to the associated Lyapunov given as
in which
It is easy to define the associated Lyapunov function for SDS as follows
where
Based on these Lyapunov function candidates, the double application of the standard two-time-scale stability analysis is divided in two stages: in the first stage, the stability analysis focusses on proving the stability properties of the degenerated
In the first stage, the standard method for two-time-scale systems is applied in which the previously derived Lyapunov functions for the slow and fast subsystems, that is,
The origin
moreover,
Using the Lyapunov function (67) and substituting
where
Since expression (62)–(65), it is seem that
where
For physical point of view and domain of working principle, it is supposed that all physical state variables are bounded in domain of interest, where
Therefore, the boundary-layer system condition for the
where
Now, we consider the composite Lyapunov function candidate of the
with
where the constants
Therefore, from the singular perturbation theory (e.g. Theorem 11.3 in Ref. [19]), it follows that the derivative of VSF is negative-definite for
The stability of full system is analyzed now. In this step, the results obtained in above section will be used in order to prove the asymptotic stability properties of the full
where
The origin
Moreover,
Using Lyapunov function candidate
Recalling that
Substituting the expressions of
where
Now, it needs to ensure that
where
Boundary-layer system condition for the
Using the Lyapunov function given by expression (58)–(60), and substituting
where
Now, we consider the composite Lyapunov function candidate of the full system given as follow
with
the constants
with
Therefore, it can be inferred that the equilibrium
The COVID-19 pandemic has escalated into the largest health crisis of the 21st Century. According to the COVID-19 situation dashboard of the World Health Organization (WHO), the virus has infected more than 117,132,788 people worldwide to date, and has also killed over 2,600,839 [1]. Epidemiological projections show that the outbreak overwhelmed even well-developed healthcare systems [2]. Many countries have thus imposed pandemic suppression measures such as lockdowns and community quarantines in an effort to stem the progress of the pandemic [3].
Health commodity supply chains are a critical element of a well-functioning health system and a vital input to advancing national and regional health security goals. Strong medicine and health commodity supply chains improve health outcomes and build trust in health systems. Robust supply chains provide critical vaccines, medicines, diagnostics, and other essential health supplies to support communicable disease prevention, control, and response activities [4]. A public health supply chain is a network of interconnected organizations or actors that ensures the availability of health commodities to people who need them. Essentially there are four parts to a supply chain; product manufacturers or the suppliers, distributors, service providers (hospitals, pharmacies, retail medicine sellers) and finally the customers or patients [5].
The coronavirus pandemic is having a clear impact on the supply chains of virtually all manufacturers, retailers, and wholesalers. As the world attempts to navigate through this difficult time, most companies are struggling to maintain a steady flow of required goods and services. Whether it is frozen foods and grocery items, or ventilators and masks, medicines or even the services clinic visits etc), the supply chain has been facing multiple obstacles [6]. This disruption is mainly due to COVID 19 pandemic, emanating from China being the second largest economy in the world and the major supplier of inputs for manufacturing companies around the world. Majority of the original equipment manufacturers in China have stopped production [7]. At present, most of the production capacity of these drugs and chemical precursors are in the United States, China and India. Global supply chains have been disrupted due to loss of labor and raw material inputs, creating ripple effects that cross national boundaries [3].
This chapter describes the impacts of the pandemic on public health supply chain, challenges that countries are facing, learnings from the pandemic and provides futuristic strategic recommendations for the building and rebuilding of the supply chains to manage the impact of the pandemic and guide responsiveness towards future pandemics.
This chapter is an outcome of a systematic review done by using Purdue libraries online access and e-resources centre ‘All Databases” search tool. The search was conducted from June to August, 2020 using the PRISMA checklist. We screened 622 records and reviewed 31 peer reviewed publications and 7 unpublished papers from across the countries.
Literature search was done using keywords like “impact of COVID-19”, “effects of COVID-19”, “supply chain and COVID-19”, “health impacts of COVID-19”, “global and public health supply chain during pandemics”, “public health and supply chain”, and “impact of outbreaks” on databases like Pubmed, ProQuest, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science Direct (Elsevier). We have excluded literatures that did not report challenges, effect or impact of COVID-19 on health supply chain and as well those not reported in English.
Figure 1 shows the flow chart of this review.
Flow of information through the different phases of the review.
After careful review of the articles, 38 out of 622 screened publications were selected for inclusion in this study. Extracted data were analyzed and sectioned into positive impact, negative impact, challenges, learnings and recommendations.
All the 38 studies included in the review were conducted between February and August, 2020. Majority of the studies reviewed were conducted globally [8], in Africa [9], Asia [2] and United States [5]. A survey published on March 28 by the Chartered Institute of Procurement and Supply found that 86% of supply chains are impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic while another study by the Institute for Supply Management found that between early March and late March, 2020, the number of companies experiencing supply chain impact rose from 80 to 95% [9].
Our review revealed the following:
While Covid-19 has been blamed for economic downturns, it has shifted organizational focus towards a sustainable supply chain [6]. Other positive impacts include:
Creativity and Flexibility among Companies and Countries. Due to the impact of COVID-19, many companies around the world started to re-purpose or re-adjust their production, with many brewing companies and distilleries producing hand-sanitizers, fashion companies producing masks and automotive companies looking to produce ventilators. Some governments and businesses developed a variety of innovative prevention measures such as drive-through testing kits and products that can be utilized all over the world. Countries that have never produced surgical masks, gloves, sanitizers, or ventilators turned to domestic production [7, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Increased Availability and Utilization of Technology and Innovation in the Health Sector:
Technology driven health services which was largely considered a novelty or luxury, now has the opportunity to demonstrate real value as traditional healthcare services become overwhelmed by patient load demands [7, 14].
Some organizations were able to quickly mobilize by leveraging existing tools for source-code dissemination, accelerating innovation and targeted problem-solving. Notably, the COVID-19 emergency has highlighted the power of the Maker community to make a real and immediate impact [13].
Diversification of suppliers and logistics models:
The pandemic has thrown up opportunities for entrepreneurs to take advantage of the need for sourcing raw materials along more efficient commodity routes and methods such as railways, increase in dual sourcing of key components and a preference for larger, more financially stable suppliers with multiple manufacturing sites [14, 15].
Companies that operate regularly in the supply chain should expect to see the emergence of stronger, more conservatively financed, multi-site suppliers as a long-term outcome of the pandemic [14].
Increased Capacity in Research and Development: As the world manages to contain Covid-19 outbreak, various countries and firms are focusing on finding a vaccine, developing protocol to treat infected patients, adopting capabilities which ensure the integrity of the processes and the quality of the products and creating a safe working environment for employees [6, 7, 13].
Unlike other disruption risks, the epidemic outbreaks start small but scale fast and disperse over many geographic regions causing simultaneous disruptions in supply, demand, and logistics infrastructure [16]. A report published on 21 February 2020, indicated that 94% of the companies listed in the Fortune 1000 list were already facing SC disruptions due to the COVID-19 [17]. Other negative impacts include:
Shortage in essential and non-essential medicines, raw materials, medical and pharmaceuticals products: As a result of the surge in the pandemic which led to the inevitable lock down of the economy across affected countries, there has been a noticeable decrease in production and exportation of equipment, raw materials, as well as finished products across different countries [6]. Production supply shortages, transport interruption and the virus containment measures taken by the government was limiting market access, hampering manufacturing activities and nudging the economy towards an inflationary recession which is adversely affecting the manufacturing sector, including that of health products production [7, 16, 18, 19, 20]. It has certainly surprised many to discover just how much western countries (in which shortages are particularly prevalent) rely upon global supply chains to obtain medical supplies from China and low-cost economies [21]. However, these networks have poor resilience to global disruptions, with nearly 35% of manufacturers reporting disturbances due to the global Corona virus pandemic [8, 11, 22]. Given the expected increase in COVID-19 cases and global competition for sourcing PPE, many medical facilities currently do not have enough stock and/or reliable resources to meet the anticipated demand [10].
Congestion of cargo terminals and delays in transportation of food and health commodities due to travel ban and movement restrictions: The severe spread of the virus into Europe and the United States has blocked the movement of the products and materials worldwide [8]. Many manufacturers and service providers experienced disruptions as more than $100 million worth of goods were stuck in China during the China lockdown [7]. For many countries and firms, the inability to respond to the Covid-19 outbreak lies in its transportation services [23]. The world’s largest 1,000 companies had over 12,000 factories, warehouses and operations in quarantined regions in early March, 2020 [19]. If cargo does not flow, within days, there will be no space in the terminals to discharge other cargo and some of the cargo waiting to be discharged includes food and medicine [7].
Depletion of human resource for supply chain: COVID-19 has cost hundreds of thousands of human lives globally including healthcare professionals, and exposed the weaknesses of national health systems worldwide [12]. Global supply chains have been disrupted due to loss of labor and raw material inputs, creating ripple effects that cross national boundaries [3].
Some big multi- nationals have left themselves dangerously exposed to supply-chain risk owing to strategies designed to bring down their costs [24].
Reduced access to medicines due to increase in prices of medicines and movement restrictions: In Nigeria, the lockdown which was accompanied with the closure of borders and travel ban across states led to a significant drop in the quantity of essential medicines in the health facilities with a consequent increase in the prices of medicines, hand sanitizers, face masks, personal protective equipment, and other medical equipment used for providing health care, making it difficult for consumers to get the medicines they need [25].
Reduced patronage to small scale suppliers: An increase in dual sourcing of key components and a preference for larger, more financially stable suppliers with multiple manufacturing sites presents new challenges for smaller and more leveraged companies, regardless of their expertise [14, 15].
The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered a number of challenges that have led to shortages and price hikes, and could potentially fuel an epidemic of fake and substandard medicines [26]. Findings from the reviewed literature reported the following challenges:
There is lack of visibility, collaboration and coordination of real demand and supply [7]. A survey with over 700 respondents conducted by Bass ware found that 60% of responding procurement managers experience a lack of transparency in their supply chain [9]. Absence of supply chain strategy for pandemics: Decision-making is executed under epistemic and stochastic uncertainty [27, 28].
Some supply chain disruption are not included in regular supplier performance metrics and such, unplanned for. Most supply chains are still based on reactive or transactional model, therefore, it could take several days or month to adjust supply chains during pandemics [7]. It has become extremely challenging to continue the operations of supply chains as the operations of some parts of the supply chain in some firms has stopped with little or no alternatives during disruption [7, 29]. ISM also found that 44% of respondents to its survey did not have plans in place to cope with supply disruptions from China [9].
It is a great challenge to provide medical supplies (such as masks and protective clothing etc.) and equipment (for checking, testing, and monitoring the disease etc.) to meet the needs of treatment, protection, and control [7]. In a pandemic situation, the demand of the essential products increases expressively; on the other hand, the supply of the raw materials decreases considerably with a constraint of production capacity. These dual disruptions impact the production process suddenly, and the process can collapse without immediate and necessary actions [8, 16, 30]. Limitation on international trade and travel; The ban on the international travel during this pandemic may pose a serious challenge to the healthcare system in Nigeria and across Africa because of heavy reliance of Nigeria and other developing countries on importation of medicines, API and other needed resources for drug manufacturing from other countries [31]. Due to severe disruptions (e.g., manufacturers closed or partially closed, air- ports operating with harsh restrictions, shortages of medical equipment and supplies) recorded, a good number of industries including health commodity manufacturers may experience ripple effects [17, 29].
Cost and legal issues: Another challenging part is keeping cost under control which includes higher production costs, shipping costs and agreed costs of pending orders. A legal issue related to disagreeing the agreed cost as a Force Majeure clause or not, poses legal challenge for every company [32].
Wrong supply chain success function shift, which focuses on just cost savings and not revenue-assurance or sustainability [7]. A lot of the resilience challenges have arisen from a cost obsession and short-term cost focus in supply chain management [9].
Once effective pharmaceutical treatments are found, there will be the major engineering challenge of ramping up production at a rate that matches the pandemic [27]. Planning will be hindered by the lack of solid scientific knowledge about COVID-19 and inadequate literature on pharmaceutical supply chain (PSC) network design in the disastrous situations and other uncertainties (current literature on disruption recovery strategies and modeling during pandemics is mostly limited to humanitarian logistics) which make demand projections highly uncertain [16, 22, 27].
Limited supply chain talents in Africa [28].
Social Resilience among Supply Chain Partners, Healthcare professionals and Patients: Most supply chains are transactional in nature but transactional supply chain will not be beneficial during and post Covid-19 [6] Thus;
It is critical to prepare health care professionals to build resilience in their interactions with patients and other stakeholders [12]
By developing a culture of collaboration across its supply network, a firm can develop trust among supply chain partners that can help in data-sharing and joint problem-solving [6]
Covid-19 has forced companies to lay greater emphasis on the environmental and social aspects of public health supply chain and not just the economical aspect [6, 33]
Inflexibility of Supply Chains: Most firms follow strict rules for their supply chain such as; specific number of days for distribution, specific production time, delivery rules, etc. These responses have proved to be inadequate during the crisis. Thus, reacting to the Covid-19 requires flexibility in the supply chain and the overall ecosystem of a firm;
The central learning from Covid-19 is to diversify production, sourcing, and logistics whenever and however required such that external shocks cannot disrupt the supply chain [6].
We also found evidence that centralized procurement and tendering can achieve direct cost savings, while supply chain management program can reduce drug stock outs and increase drug availability for populations [34].
The Decoupling from China’s Supply Chains: COVID-19 has accelerated two powerful trends for the future, the decoupling from China’s supply chains and the relocation of strategic manufacturing operations out of China [12]. A study by corporate data analytics firm, Dun & Bradstreet, reported that 51,000 companies around the world have one or more direct suppliers in Wuhan and at least 5 million companies around the world have one or more tier-two suppliers in the Wuhan region, where COVID-19 originated [18]. In US, there’s been bipartisan support for legislation that would study the current medical equipment supply chain and develop an action plan to potentially address the country’s dependence on foreign-made products [21].
Strategies to deal with Major Outbreaks
Designing an appropriate pharmaceutical supply chain network for pre-positioning and distributing drugs at post-disaster plays an important role in decreasing the response time and the number of casualties.
Pre-positioning of emergency supplies belongs to the preparedness phase of a disaster that brings about some advantages for the Humanitarian organizations [22].
Analysis of the Italian production network has found that sectors are both highly connected and asymmetrically connected. Hence, a local shock due to lockdown policy propagates through the whole economy and generates a sizeable global disturbance. This confirms the importance of value chain analysis in investigating how the economy adjusts to dislocation and destruction of parts of its productive capacity [35].
The current impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the manufacturing firms is already very severe and medium-to-long-term impacts are predicted to be higher than that of any other previous major outbreaks such as 2003 SARS and 2009 H1N1 [21, 36, 37, 38].
Key levers for de-risking the supply chain include the need to balance global sourcing with near shore and local sourcing, the adoption of multiple sources and a greater utilization of information technology to drive more complete and immediate information availability. Talent management in supply chain management needs to promote a focus not just on costs, but also on resilience as well as on learning from current events to improve decision-making [10, 30]. Findings from the reviewed literature reported the following recommendations:
Strengthen Local Manufacturing Capacity and Fortify local supply chain: The global scientific community has been galvanized into action in a frantic search for a cure for COVID-19. Greater collaboration between governments and industries will be needed to ensure minimum disruption in global supply chains Firms also need to collaborate with multiple stakeholders and be more strategic in their approach to supply chain management. Companies have to come up with alternative means of raw materials sourcing and identify other modes of cost benefit transportation. This will also involve identifying urgent research and development challenges for pharmaceutical supply chains. There should be increased R & D by local universities who should create specialized post-graduate schools that focus on research, while also recruiting and training fresh lecturers who focus on research and product/process development to grow the domestic manufacturing sector [6, 12, 15, 16, 22, 28, 29, 32, 39].
Technological Augmentation and Utilization: Studies have recommended new supply chain technologies that dramatically improve collaboration, visibility, agility and optimization across the end-to-end supply chain, understand complexities and support companies’ ability to resist such shocks from impact of any pandemics or rare events. Block chain systems can assist in keeping the data needed for recoveries such as information and data for production capacity, human resources requirements, information of supplier capacities, and emergency suppliers [6, 17, 30, 32, 38, 40].
Policymakers and program managers should examine the root causes of inefficiencies in pharmaceutical supply chain and procurement processes in order to determine how best to improve health systems performance in their specific contexts. In addition they should consider the root causes of programmatic challenges to purchasing and distributing health products in their context and identify specific interventions that can strengthen these processes. As the evolution and implications of the COVID-19 crisis are still unfolding, we posit that exploring the experiences and strategic responses of Asian countries may shed some useful light on ways to combat COVID-19 for the policymakers and suuply chain managers in the rest of the world [12, 34].
Development and Assessment of supply chain strategies: Optimal supply chain planning taking into account agility, resilience and sustainability are important. The negative impact of the pandemic has fostered the need for development and implementation of health supply chain strategy. The next-generation supply chain needs a significant change in outlook. Based on our analysis, we recommend firms adopt a forward looking approach. These forward-looking strategies must comprise of multiple facets of the supply chain including people, processes, and technology.
Devoting resources for supply network mapping as a risk-mitigation strategy. A firm can design its supply network in such a way that it can balance risk and operational flexibility, manage supply chain disruptions, and keep supply chain agile. Brian Higgins, a principal Supply Chain & Operations Leader of KPMG, US has recommended some very pertinent action points for the long term:
Build agility and speed into your supply chain by creating Micro-Supply Chains;
Assess opportunities to diversify the supplier base and identify geographically diverse suppliers to onboard in the event of emergency. Consideration should be given to dual-sourcing for critical components.
Move towards a Supplier-Centric approach to procurement, further integrating your supply chain with those of your direct suppliers to Original Equipment Manufacturers and direct suppliers to Tier-1 and Tier 2 suppliers
Look to develop more collaborative relationships with critical suppliers in other to build organizational resilience as it is highly unrealistic to completely exit the Chinese market because of the supplier ecosystem in the place, however, organizations should understand their supply chain more deeply.
A study proposed a framework for operations and supply chain management at the times of COVID-19 pandemic spanning six perspectives, i.e., adaptation, digitalization, preparedness, recovery, ripple effect, and sustainability.
Assessment of COVID-19-related procurement and supply chain risks and life-cycle sustainability assessment of pharmaceutical product systems and development of drug allocation strategies under resource or supply constraints were recommended [6, 17, 41].
Human resource supply chain strategy that includes the selection of the critical workforce that can handle the turbulence in any environment. The supply chain initiatives will require a focused Crisis Management head whose skills and responsibility will be to communicate to all stake holders, consolidating requirements and setting priorities and work on risk mitigating methods of supply chain during non-crisis period. This will need scenario planning, resource optimization, and efficiency management. There is a greater need for a firm to look beyond profitability. Ensuring the well-being of not only a firm’s employees but also those employed even with suppliers is critical if a firm wants to avoid disruptions in the supply chain [6, 32].
Utilize suitable resilience strategies for designing pharmaceutical relief networks, employ other types of supply contracts, consider the coordination and collaboration of multiple humanitarian organizations in a collaborative setting and address the case in which successive disasters may happen. Relief managers can ensure the high availability level of pre-positioned pharmaceutical items by paying attention to their procurement time and shelf-lives. By utilizing mobile pharmacies the distance between relief shelters and drug supply sites can be reduced, and the distribution of drugs to inaccessible areas can be possible. Infectious disease outbreak preparedness strategies should incorporate primary healthcare services and other health system modalities to cater for non– pandemic-related conditions [18, 22].
Suppliers should manage the perception of their readiness to adapt to changing situations. Those that demonstrate competence will be rewarded as their customers look back in the coming years. Rather than ignore or complain about uncertainty, suppliers will be well-served if they can demonstrate plans that show customers they can reliably manufacture regardless of societal disruptions. Suppliers also need to be dynamic by focusing on multiple best practices explored by other suppliers, competitors and ecosystem in order to optimize cost and delivery, improve visibility across the network, and accelerate reaction times to issues in production and delivery [6, 14, 15].
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted global health product supply chains, affecting key materials and ingredients, finished health products, logistics, and shipping medical devices, essential medicines and pharmaceutical products as a result of border closures, international trade restrictions and transportation problems [42]. The COVID-19 pandemic clearly shows the lack of resilience in supply chains and the impact that disruptions may have on a global network scale as individual supply chain connections and nodes fail [41].
As did HIV, the COVID-19 is likely to have profound and long-term consequences on global health care supply chains. The HIV pandemic transformed health care supply chains globally and in particular in lower and middle-income countries, (LMICs) leading to the mobilization of new financial resources for health care products, service delivery, and the creation of international bodies (including The Global Fund and PEPFAR) [43].
The short-term effects of COVID-19 on global health care supply chains have been severe; factory and border closures, transportation disruption, shifting demand, and price increases but it is more important to reflect on what the long-term consequences will be and how global changes will affect the LMICs. This is because LMICs are in their early stages of pharmaceutical development; thus they rely on importation of drugs, raw materials and equipment from countries outside the region, notably India and China.18 Researchers wonder whether the changes will be positive overall or if countries will revert to the same systems that left us unprepared for an international pandemic. This review was unable to find answer to these questions. However, crises like pandemics tend to have lasting impacts, and it is likely that the short-term disruption of health care supply chains we are seeing will result in longer-term structural changes. This highlights the need for policymakers to address challenges to large-scale and sustainable drug manufacturing, using the COVID-19 situation as a learning opportunity. It is interesting that some companies are offering strong technological solutions, which may help them survive and even prosper. While the hope is that COVID-19 will increase recognition of the importance of strong health care supply chains with commensurate investment, there will also be pressure on funders to rebuild their own shattered economies. There will be pressure to turn inward, certainly over the short term. There may also be opportunities for alternative financing mechanisms including venture capital [43]. The review has noted the fact that disruption does not necessarily mean negative outcomes and that it is incumbent on all health supply chains organizations to turn this disruptive event into positive change.
The COVID-19 pandemic is a disruption of an unprecedented magnitude, which is testing the resilience of global supply chains. The ability for a supply chain’s operators to effectively plan, enabling a means for the supply chain to absorb, recover from, and adapt to disruptions of various lengths, impacts, and probabilities, is essential to ensuring the supply chain’s function and success. For a supply chain, resilience measures the ability to prepare for and provide essential functions during a disruption, and then to recover from and adapt post-disruption into a form that is better suited to the new “present.” Although sustainability, robustness, risk mitigation, leanness, and other supply chain management practices are important for business success, supply chain resilience is unique in its focus on recovery following a disruptive event [44].
Maintaining the supply chain of pharmaceutical products is not only paramount to cover the immediate medical response but will be fundamental to reducing disruption of the healthcare delivery system, which requires constant medicines, diagnostic tools and vaccines for smooth functioning.
In Nigeria, for example, over 70% of the prescribed medications are produced from active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) primarily sourced from firms in China and India. Uninterrupted access to medicine is an integral part of healthcare systems much needed and essential for the well-being of the population, but the COVID-19 pandemic has threatened this [31].
There is need to consider the new digital technologies that have potential to improve the ripple effect control in cases of epidemic outbreaks. Making innovations and data work for the supply chain resilience in crisis times, understanding and progressing the research of how these technologies can be used boost supply chains resilience, are important future research areas with a particular focus on data analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning [45].
There is minimal risk of bias in this study as articles were merely reviewed as presented and reviewers were not privy to the original data of the individual studies. Reviewers were also not interested in the outcome of the review but aimed at providing recommendations to country supply chains for the benefit of public health. None of the reviewers is a publisher of any of the articles reviewed. The review is limited to the competences of the reviewers in interpreting the results and to the fact that the coverage of included articles was flexible and neither restricted the review to articles conducted in homogenous settings nor compared their findings.
This study buttresses the need to devise and institute clear strategies on supply chain management in country and regional emergency responses, promotion of local manufacturing of medicines and other health products to reduce the extensive dependency on importation from international markets and increase the talent pool of supply chain management especially in Africa.
The review concluded that many manufacturers and service providers in some countries are already experiencing severe shortage of essential and non-essential raw materials including medical and pharmaceutical products, in addition to intermediate inputs, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and it’s consequent border closures, trade restrictions among nations, and transportation problems. The COVID-19 pandemic however exposed some hidden potentials in many countries especially in Sub Saharan African. There is need for health supply chain resilience through development of a reliable supply chain strategy for pandemics and other such emergencies.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\nWe are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n