Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) concept originated in Japan in 1984 during the spaceplane project, in the form of a proposed thermal barrier material capable of withstanding a surface temperature of 2000 K and a temperature gradient of 1000 K across a cross section <10 mm. The materials can be designed for specific function and applications. FGMs offer great promise in applications where the operating conditions are extreme. For example, wear-resistant linings for handling large, heavy, abrasive ore particles; rocket heat shields; heat exchanger tubes; thermoelectric generators; heat-engine components; plasma facings for fusion reactors; and electrically insulating metal/ceramic joints. They are also ideal for minimizing thermomechanical mismatch in metal-ceramic bonding. This book is a result of contributions of experts from the international scientific community working in different aspects of functionally graded materials and structures and reports on the latest research and development findings on this topic through original and innovative research studies. Through its six chapters, the reader will have access to works related to processing, characteristics, modeling, and applications of functionally graded materials and structures.The book contains up-to-date publications from leading experts and the edition is intended to provide valuable recent information to the professionals involved in functionally graded materials and structure analysis and applications. The text is addressed not only to researchers, but also to professional engineers, students, and other experts in a variety of disciplines, both academic and industrial, seeking to gain a better understanding of what has been done in the field recently, and what open problems are in this area.",isbn:"978-1-78984-555-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-554-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-404-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81347",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dcaee033a035bfe8daa8ffa06b37b25f",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8844.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4543,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20062/images/system/20062.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzad Ebrahimi is an Associte Professor since 2010 in Mechanical Engineering at Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. He has several years of teaching and industrial experience. Since 2002, he has been working at the \\\\\\Smart Materials and Structures Lab\\\\\\ Research Center of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tehran, where he is a researcher of smart functionally graded materials and structures. He is involved in several international journals as editor and reviewer. He serves on the editorial board for \\\\\\Advances in mechanical engineering\\\\\\. He is the author of the books “Smart functionally graded plates” and “Progress in analysis of functionally graded structures”, Nova Science Publishers, NY. He has authored several referred international journals and conferences. His research interests focus on areas of smart materials and structures, Mechanics of Nanostructures; functionally graded materials and structures, finite element analysis; Mechanics of composite materials and structures and modeling and mechanical analysis of smart and multifunctional nanostructures and he has published several researches in these fields. His research in these areas has been presented at international conferences and has appeared in academic journals such as Composite structures; Applied physics A; Journal of Intelligent materials and Structures; Smart Materials and Structures; European Journal of Mechanics; Archive of Applied Mechanics and journal of vibration and control.",institutionString:"Imam Khomeini International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"817",title:"Material Engineering",slug:"material-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"66810",title:"Free Vibration of Axially Functionally Graded Beam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85835",slug:"free-vibration-of-axially-functionally-graded-beam",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Axially functionally graded (AFG) beam is a special kind of nonhomogeneous functionally gradient material structure, whose material properties vary continuously along the axial direction of the beam by a given distribution form. There are several numerical methods that have been used to analyze the vibration characteristics of AFG beams, but it is difficult to obtain precise solutions for AFG beams because of the variable coefficients of the governing equation. In this topic, the free vibration of AFG beam using analytical method based on the perturbation theory and Meijer G-Function are studied, respectively. First, a detailed review of the existing literatures is summarized. Then, based on the governing equation of the AFG Euler-Bernoulli beam, the detailed analytic equations are derived on basis of the perturbation theory and Meijer G-function, where the nature frequencies are demonstrated. Subsequently, the numerical results are calculated and compared, meanwhile, the analytical results are also confirmed by finite element method and the published references. The results show that the proposed two analytical methods are simple and efficient and can be used to conveniently analyze free vibration of AFG beam.",signatures:"Dongxing Cao, Bin Wang, Wenhua Hu and Yanhui Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66810",authors:[{id:"283678",title:"Prof.",name:"Dongxing",surname:"Cao",slug:"dongxing-cao",fullName:"Dongxing Cao"},{id:"295692",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",surname:"Wang",slug:"bin-wang",fullName:"Bin Wang"},{id:"295693",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenhua",surname:"Hu",slug:"wenhua-hu",fullName:"Wenhua Hu"},{id:"295694",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhui",surname:"Gao",slug:"yanhui-gao",fullName:"Yanhui Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"68846",title:"Boundary Element Model for Nonlinear Fractional-Order Heat Transfer in Magneto-Thermoelastic FGA Structures Involving Three Temperatures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88255",slug:"boundary-element-model-for-nonlinear-fractional-order-heat-transfer-in-magneto-thermoelastic-fga-str",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principal objective of this chapter is to introduce a new fractional-order theory for functionally graded anisotropic (FGA) structures. This theory called nonlinear uncoupled magneto-thermoelasticity theory involving three temperatures. Because of strong nonlinearity, it is very difficult to solve the problems related to this theory analytically. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new numerical methods for solving such problems. So, we propose a new boundary element model for the solution of general and complex problems associated with this theory. The numerical results are presented graphically in order to display the effect of the graded parameter on the temperatures and displacements. The numerical results also confirm the validity and accuracy of our proposed model.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68846",authors:[{id:"283892",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"mohamed-fahmy",fullName:"Mohamed Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"66230",title:"DC Conductivity of Activated Carbon Filled Epoxy Gradient Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85233",slug:"dc-conductivity-of-activated-carbon-filled-epoxy-gradient-composites",totalDownloads:691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reports the DC conductivity behavior of activated carbon powder filled epoxy gradient composites. Gradient composites are the composite materials in which the there is gradually variation in some direction to achieve gradient in properties. Graded materials are generally defined as the materials, which exhibit variable functional performance with location and show continuous variations in morphology and composition. Functionally graded metal matrix composites have been of great practical importance. Graded metal matrix composite have gradual compositional variations from ceramic at one surface to metal at the other, leading to special advantages of smooth transition in thermal stresses across the thickness and minimized stress concentration at the interface of two dissimilar materials. Therefore graded metal matrix composites are finding applications in aggressive environments with steep temperature gradients such as turbine components and rocket nozzles. Since the properties of material in FGMs are variable across the entire material, and depends on the spatial position of the material. Functionally graded materials are designed with varying properties such as changing their chemical properties, changing mechanical, magnetic, thermal, and electrical properties. Now a days there are FGMs designed as stepwise-graded materials, while others are fabricated to have continuous-graded materials depending on their areas of application.",signatures:"Archana Nigrawal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66230",authors:[{id:"257011",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Nigrawal",slug:"archana-nigrawal",fullName:"Archana Nigrawal"}],corrections:null},{id:"66961",title:"The Stochastic Finite Element in the Natural Frequency of Functionally Graded Material Beams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86013",slug:"the-stochastic-finite-element-in-the-natural-frequency-of-functionally-graded-material-beams",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the stochastic finite element solution is given to obtain the variability in the natural frequency of functionally graded material (FGM) beam. The elastic modulus is assumed to vary in the thickness direction and the width of the beam to vary as well in the longitudinal direction following the exponential law. The random material properties of elastic modulus and mass density of the FGM beam are assumed to be one-dimensional homogeneous stochastic processes. The stochastic finite element analysis of FGM beam is performed in conjunction with Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) employing the spectral representation method for 16, the description of random processes of the random material properties under consideration. The response variability of the natural frequency due to random elastic modulus is evaluated for various states of randomness. Furthermore, the investigation on the effect of the correlation between random elastic modulus and random mass density on the response variability is addressed in detail as well.",signatures:"Nguyen Van Thuan and Noh Hyuk Chun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66961",authors:[{id:"287934",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Van Thuan",slug:"nguyen-van-thuan",fullName:"Nguyen Van Thuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67159",title:"Development of Functionally Gradient Cu-Sn-Ni Alloy Using GTA Heat Source",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86315",slug:"development-of-functionally-gradient-cu-sn-ni-alloy-using-gta-heat-source",totalDownloads:643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The impact of nickel content on surface hardness, microstructure and wear properties of surface alloyed Cu-10Sn bronze composite was examined in this chapter. Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) was utilized as the heat source for the surface alloying/modification process. The surface modification process was carried out on bronze samples coated with various Nickel coating thicknesses. Vickers hardness tester was used to measure the surface hardness as well as the hardness along the depth of the modified layer and wear rate was measured using a pin-on-disc tribometer. The Ni concentration profiling was carried out using EDAX. Surface modification process resulted in the formation of a layered functionally graded bronze alloy. The average grain size was found to reduce upon surface modification process. Ni addition was observed to increase the hardness and reduce wear rate for the modified samples.",signatures:"Cherian Paul and Ramasamy Sellamuthu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67159",authors:[{id:"295062",title:"Dr.",name:"Cherian",surname:"Paul",slug:"cherian-paul",fullName:"Cherian Paul"},{id:"298259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",surname:"Sellamuthu",slug:"ramasamy-sellamuthu",fullName:"Ramasamy Sellamuthu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69315",title:"Axisymmetric Indentation Response of Functionally Graded Material Coating",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89312",slug:"axisymmetric-indentation-response-of-functionally-graded-material-coating",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the indentation response of the functionally graded material (FGM) coating is considered due to the contact between the coating and axisymmetric indenter. The mechanical properties of FGM coating is assumed to vary along the thickness direction. Three kinds of models are applied to simulate the variation of elastic parameter in the FGM coating based on the cylindrical coordinate system. The axisymmetric frictionless and partial slip contact problems are reduced to a set of Cauchy singular integral equations that can be numerically calculated by using the Hankel integral transform technique and the transfer matrix method. The effect of gradient of coating on the distribution of contact stress is presented. The present investigation will provide the guidance for the indentation experiment of coating.",signatures:"Tie-Jun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69315",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69315",authors:[{id:"305673",title:"Prof.",name:"Tiejun",surname:"Liu",slug:"tiejun-liu",fullName:"Tiejun Liu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"111",title:"Advances in Vibration Analysis Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37f0b30e647599448abb4a02ca595dde",slug:"advances-in-vibration-analysis-research",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5097",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3132c367d705b55e9a912527efef76ab",slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5097.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6244",title:"Surface Waves",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48a2c4d0d993b62e4fe46a77a7a6cc4c",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4753",title:"Graphene",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a2a89285055016ae39942309f30c4b5",slug:"graphene-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6020",title:"Shape Memory Alloys",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89ba319783170fefc256fcfa0613a6c0",slug:"shape-memory-alloys-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3272",title:"Piezoelectric Materials and Devices",subtitle:"Practice and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a41c5bb092cc30980df760d6bec44c20",slug:"piezoelectric-materials-and-devices-practice-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5271",title:"Advances in Tribology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cef4274b28d575de81e692b8d88b750d",slug:"advances-in-tribology",bookSignature:"Pranav H. 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Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7596",leadTitle:null,title:"Outsourcing - A Strategic Approach to Changes, Challenges and Opportunities of Outsourcing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIn order to achieve growth and survival, each company must focus on those activities and processes which have certain competitive advantages and outsource those activities and processes in which the advantages have other entities in the market. In this light, we shall see outsourcing as a strategic decision. The final aim of this strategy is improving a company’s competitive advantage. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the decision making process for outsourcing and its other side: Insourcing. This process will take in consideration outsourceability of a chosen activity, external impacts on outsourcing decisions as well as Internal impacts on outsourcing decisions. We shall go beyond cost imperative of outsourcing decisions, look into Strategic approaches to outsourcing, considering changes, challenges and opportunities of outsourcing. In today’s economic trends, where the ost benefits of outsourcing are questioned, the research presented should attempt to look into future outsourcing perspectives.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c57922e8295d5ece5696d4f38f7e1863",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Maja Letica",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7596.jpg",keywords:"Outsourcing, Insourcing, Outsourceability of Activity, External impacts on Outsourcing, Internal impacts on Outsourcing, Strategic approach to Outsourcing, Changes, Challenges, Opportunities of Outsourcing, Outsourcing Decisions, Outsourcing Process, Outsourcing Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 12th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 11th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 29th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225834",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maja",middleName:null,surname:"Letica",slug:"maja-letica",fullName:"Maja Letica",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225834/images/system/225834.jpeg",biography:'Maja Letica was born in 1980 in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina where she graduated in November 2003 from the Faculty of Economics, University of Mostar. In 2014, she defended her doctoral thesis titled \\"The Outsourcing impact on Business Performance\\" at the joint postgraduate doctoral studies with the Faculty of Economics, University of Split and Faculty of Economics, University of Mostar. From 2005, she has worked as a Research and Teaching Assistant and since 2015, she has held the position of Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Mostar. She is an Associate on the international project of the Republic of Croatia Science Foundation, implementation of the Faculty of Economics, University of Zagreb: \\"Accounting and financial reporting reform as a means of strengthening the development of efficient public sector financial management in Croatia\\" and was Associate in the IPA project \\"Reform of Higher Education in B&H 2012-2014\\". She has actively participated in several international and domestic scientific and professional conferences and has published more than 20 scientific and professional papers independently and in co-authorship.',institutionString:"Univeristy of Mostar",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"220811",firstName:"Anita",lastName:"Condic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220811/images/6068_n.jpg",email:"anita.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
\n
Tropical cyclones (TCs), and particularly strong TCs, are observed with a concentric eyewall (CE) structure that has an inner eyewall and an outer eyewall separated by a convective minimum region [1]. A local tangential wind maximum is associated with the outer eyewall and the most rapid increase in wind speed lies on the inside of the wind maximum [1]. The outer wind maximum thus contracts and intensifies, and then the inner eyewall weakens and eventually vanishes during eyewall replacement cycle (ERC). One of the great challenges associated with TC prediction is the large variability in structure and intensity changes, and the CE formation and the ERC is a mechanism to produce such variability [1–4]. Many theories allude to the influences of both synoptic scale environmental conditions and mesoscale processes in the CE formation. Nong and Emanuel [5] showed that the CE may form due to favorable environmental condition or external forcing and wind-induced surface heat exchange instability. Examples of internal dynamics include propagating vortex Rossby waves (VRWs) that interact with a critical radius [6, 7] and axisymmetrization during a binary vortex interaction [8, 9]. Terwey and Montgomery [10] employed idealized full physics hurricane to demonstrate the secondary eyewall form at region of sufficient low-level radial potential vorticity gradient. The result highlights the VRW energy accumulation in the critical radius with a wind-moisture feedback process at the air-sea interface. Huang et al. [11] suggested that the broadening of the radial tangential wind profile above the boundary layer (BL) in a symmetric fashion can lead to BL convergence and inflow. The progressive strengthening of the BL inflow and the unbalanced BL response may lead to secondary eyewall formation. Previous observational studies indicate that the secondary eyewall can act as a barrier to the moisture inflow to the inner eyewall (e.g., [12]).
\n
Sitkowski et al. [4] used flight-level data to study the ERC process in the Atlantic (ATL) basin. They suggested that large variances are in the ERC time requirement, the intensity, and the change in radii because CEs are not only associated with intensity but also structural changes. Maclay et al. [13] used the low-level area-integrated kinetic energy to show that while the intensity weakens during the ERC, the integrated kinetic energy and the TC size increase. Their results suggest that CE formation and ERC are dominated by internal dynamical processes. The passive microwave data can more clearly reveal the CE structure in TCs. Using microwave data between 1997 and 2002, Hawkins and Helveston [14] suggested that CEs exist with a much higher percentage (80 and 40%) in intense TCs (maximum wind > 120 kts) than previously realized in the western North Pacific (WNP) and ATL basin. As further noted by Hawkins et al. [15], there were more CE cases with large radius in the WNP than in other basins. Hawkins and Helveston [16] provided examples of different modes of CE structure, including the ERC, triple eyewalls [17], ERCs that are repeated multiple times, ERCs that are interrupted by vertical shear and landfall, and cases where an outer eyewall forms at a large radius and remains in a CE structure for a long duration. The different CE modes appear to have profound impacts on intensity and structural forecasts. This study quantitatively examines these structural and intensity changes of CE by an objective method.
\n
There have been extensive studies on TCs in different El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phases, and no significant correlation has been found between the annual TC genesis number and ENSO over the WNP basin (e.g., [18]). The annual genesis number, however, increases over the southeastern part of the WNP and decreases over the northwestern part in the El Niño (the warm episode) and a reversed situation occurred in the La Niña (the cold episode) [19, 20]. TCs tend to recurve toward higher latitudes in the periphery of subtropical high system before landfall due to the shift of the genesis region in the warm episode. In contrast, TCs tend to move more westward in the La Niña years ([20], and references therein). The mean duration of TCs over the ocean tends to be longer during the warm episode than that in the cold episode [21]. As a result, there are more intense and long-lived typhoons in the warm episode than in the cold episode [19, 22]. In the ATL basin, ENSO inhibits the formation of TCs through the enhancement of the vertical wind shear, subsidence, and reduced relative humidity in the tropical ATL [20, 23, 24]. Teleconnection theory suggests that warm-free tropospheric temperatures that are spread eastward from the Pacific by equatorial wave dynamics can be unfavorable to convection and can influence sea surface temperature (SST) in the ATL ([25], and references therein). As stated above, shifts in TC tracks and environmental conditions have been linked to phase changes in ENSO. Since the variations in the environment have been linked to CE characteristics [26], we examine frequency and storm structures of CE TCs in relation to ENSO.
\n
In this chapter, we present the data, the objective CE identification method, and the CE structural and intensity changes in the WNP and ATL basins. The relationship between CE TCs and ENSO is discussed and a conclusion is presented at the end of the chapter.
\n
\n
2. Data and methodology
\n
The passive Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) 85 GHz horizontal polarized orbital imagery and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) data from the polar-orbiting TRMM satellite [27] are used in this study. These data were obtained from the website of Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Marine Meteorology Division [15, 28]. The microwave satellite images are available and online since 1997, and the TRMM satellite ended collecting data from April 15, 2015. We use the microwave satellite data to examine the characteristics of TCs with CEs in the WNP and ATL basins between 1997 and 2014 for consistent data. The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) warm and cold episode data are based on a threshold of ±0.5°C for the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) in the Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 120°170°W). The ONI data are a product of three-month time running mean of SST in the Niño 3.4 region and they are used to classify the environmental condition of CE formation. The Niño 3.4 SST anomaly is used because it is better correlated with overall tropical storm activity [21].
\n
The microwave satellite images are reprocessed using the Backus-Gilbert theory of reference [29] to create high-resolution (1–2 km) products that can assist in defining inner storm structural details [14, 15]. These images are stored as 800 × 800 pixel color jpeg files that are composed with red (R), green (G), and blue (B) colors. The pixels of R, G, and B components are converted into the high-resolution brightness temperature (TB) based on the color table in the picture. To identify CE typhoons, the TB dataset is transformed from Cartesian to polar coordinates with the TC center as the origin. The TC center is determined based on the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) best track data at the time closest to satellite observation as the TC center. To further smooth the data and also to be consistent with the center position uncertainty of 10 km, we employ 5 pixel averages in the radial direction and a 45-degree sector average of TB to obtain eight radial profiles for the bin data. In each bin of the radial profile, the TB mean value and the standard deviation (σ) within each 45-degree sector were calculated. An objective method is developed to identify the CE structure from the eight radial profiles. The method involves the following five sequential steps:
\n
Figure 1.
Color-enhanced microwave CE imageries of typhoons (a) Oliwa (1997), (b) Vamco (2009), and (c) Soulik (2013). The averaged TB profiles of eight radial directions for Typhoon Oliwa are conformed to the CE-determined criteria. The secondary TB minimum for Typhoon Vamco only identified spiral outer rainband. One-half symmetry of Typhoon Soulik identified CE structure (solid green: WNW; solid yellow: WSW; solid red: SSW; solid blue: NNW; dash green: ENE; dash yellow: ESE; dash red: SSE; and dash blue: NNE). Figures (a) and (b) from Yang et al. [26], courtesy of American Meteorological Society.
\n
Within 150 km distance of the TC center, check for the existence of one local maximum TB between two minimum TB in each profile.
Check in each profile that the local TB maximum and minimum satisfy the criteria of TBmax ≧ σouter_min + TBouter_min and TBmax ≧ σinner_min + TBinner_min.
For the profiles that satisfy criteria (1) and (2), check if TBouter_min ≦ 230K.
Check if at least five out of eight sectors satisfy the above three criteria.
Check if the radial distance between any sectors of the two outer eyewalls is smaller than 50 km.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Satisfy criteria (1)–(5)
\n
Satisfy criteria (1)–(5) but criterion (3): TBouter_min
\n
Satisfy criteria (1)–(5) but criterion (4):
\n
No criterion (5)
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
≤220K
\n
≤240K
\n
≥6/8 sectors
\n
≥4/8 sectors
\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
WNP
\n
113
\n
89
\n
130
\n
76
\n
145
\n
124
\n
\n
\n
ATL
\n
50
\n
37
\n
60
\n
33
\n
64
\n
58
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The numbers of CE cases when we use criterion (3) by making outer eyewall convection criterion 10 K weaker and stronger (240 and 220 K) than 230 K, use criterion (4) by making 4/8 and 6/8 symmetry to identified CE structure, and do not use criterion (5).
\n
Criterion (1) identifies the existence of the structure that resembles the moat and the double eyewall in each of the eight radial profiles. Criterion (2) ensures that the moat is significant and criterion (3) ensures that the outer eyewall has strong convection. Criterion (4) ensures axisymmetry of double eyewall structure and criterion (5) ensures that the outer eyewall identified is not a spiral band. Figure 1 provides an example of the CE TC and the no-CE TC and their associated TB radial profiles. Three examples that have the TB profiles of two local minima (double eyewalls) and one maximum in between the minima (the moat) are presented in Figure 1. The no-CE Typhoon Vamco (2009) is not classified as a CE typhoon based on our criterion (5), with the convection in the outer eyewall identified as a spiral band. Compare with CE Typhoon Oliwa (1997), Typhoon Soulik (2013) is not classified as a CE typhoon at this time based on criteria (3) and (4). If we relax criterion (3) from 230 to 240 K, or relax criterion (4) from five to four out of eight sectors, it can be considered a CE typhoon. The objective method allows us to systematically identify CE typhoons from dataset. We examined 29,785 (19,001) SSM/I and TMI satellite images in the WNP (ATL) basin from the NRL website. Out of these, 113 (50) CE cases were identified, including 17 (11) cases of multiple CE formation. There are 91 (33) CE typhoons identified in the WNP (ATL) basin. Table 1 shows the numbers of CE cases with sensitivities in criterion (3) by making outer eyewall convection 10 K weaker and stronger (240 and 220 K) than 230 K, in criterion (4) by making 4/8 and 6/8 symmetry, and no criterion (5). Consistent with the subjective work of Kuo et al. [3], the five criteria of reference [26] ensure that the CE typhoons identified are axisymmetric with a significant moat and a strong outer eyewall while retaining enough cases for statistics. The inner eyewall radius was determined as the distance between the typhoon center to the point where TB = 0.5 × σinner + TBinner. The moat width was determined by the distance between the points of TB ≧ 0.5 × σouter + TBouter and TB ≧ 0.5 × σinner + TBinner. Finally, the outer eyewall width was determined by the distance of the region that satisfies TB < 0.5 × σouter + TBouter in the outer eyewall region. The inner eyewall radius, the moat, and the outer eyewall width were calculated by averaging the radial profiles of the eight sections as shown in Figure 1.
\n
\n
3. Structural and intensity change of concentric eyewall
\n
In order to study the structural and intensity changes of CE TCs, we excluded the case when the TC’s outer eyewall was within 200 km from land in the period of 24 h before and after CE formation, or where the satellite temporal resolution was greater than 12 h in the WNP (ATL) basin. There were 83 and 34 CE cases analyzed in the WNP and ATL basins, respectively. Three different structural change processes were defined after CE formation. The eyewall replacement cycle (ERC) cases were classified based upon the dissipation of the inner eyewall in less than 20 h after CE formation. The cases in which part of the outer eyewall dissipates within 20 h are classified as no replacement cycle (NRC) cases. The cases where the CE structure is maintained for more than 20 h are classified as concentric eyewall maintained (CEM) cases. The similar inner core size requirement was used to avoid assigning a CE TC with multiple ERC processes into one single CEM case.
\n
The ERC classification had 42 of 83 cases and 19 of 34 cases (51 and 56%) in the WNP and ATL basins, respectively. The CEM classification had 19 and 5 cases (23 and 15%) in the WNP and ATL basins, respectively. The NRC classification had 22 and 10 cases (27 and 29%). Examples of the three classifications for the CE processes are shown in Figure 2. The NRC cases resemble “the shear stop ERC mode” and the CEM cases “the large radius outer eyewall and CE structure maintained for a time cases” as discussed in the study of Hawkins and Helveston [16].
\n
Figure 3a and b shows the composite time series of intensities for the ERC, CEM, NRC cases as well as the average of the total CE sample. In the WNP basin, the average intensity of CEM cases is stronger than that of the ERC and NRC cases before and after CE formation. In particular, the CEM storms intensified continuously for 18 h after CE formation and maintained the intensity for another 24 h. The composite intensity of ERC and NRC cases is similar to that before CE formation. In the ATL basin, although the composite intensity of ERC is stronger than that of CEM continuously for 18 h before CE formation and 36 h after CE formation, the CEM cases maintained similar intensity before CE formation. Furthermore, the intensity of NRC decreases quickly after CE formation in both basins. Figure 3a and b indicates that a key feature of CE formation appears to be the maintenance of a relatively high intensity for a longer duration rather than a rapid intensification process to a high intensity. The stronger core intensity may play a pivotal role in the axisymmetrization dynamics of asymmetric convection outside the core to produce the CE structure [8, 9]. This asymmetric convection is also shown in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
The imagery sequences and averaged TB radial profile for (a) Typhoon Saomai 2000-ERC, (b) Haitang 2005-NRC, (c) Ewiniar 2006-NRC, (d) Winnie 1997-CEM, (e) Dianmu 2004-CEM, and (f) Chaba 2004-CEM. From Yang et al. [26], courtesy of American Meteorological Society.
\n
Maclay et al. [13] use aircraft data to construct the K-Vmax diagram for the intensity and structural changes. However, there is few active aircraft reconnaissance program for the WNP basin. Therefore, the structural and intensity variability is illustrated here using the T-Vmax diagram (where T is the TB and Vmax is the best track estimated intensity). The convective activity (CA) is indicated by the areal averaged TB contrast to the background TB in the 400 km square area of satellite imagery centered at the eye (CA≡−TB1−TB0¯). The background TB0 is calculated as the highest 5% of TB in the 400 km square area. The 400 km square box in general is sufficient to cover the structure of CE TCs.
Typhoons Winnie (1997) and Amber (1997) were very large, and these quantities are calculated using a 600 km square box.
Yang et al. [30] also used T-Vmax diagram to analyze Typhoon Soulik (2013), which had two long-lived CE episodes. Figure 3c and d shows the T-Vmax diagrams for average values of intensity and CA for the no-CE TCs with intensity category 4 or above and far from land (NCE), and CE TCs. The CE cases have stronger averaged CA, in particular, the CEM cases indicates significant CA increase 24 h after CE formation in the WNP basin. The maintenance or a slight increase of the CA for three types and a slower decrease than that of NCE cases in both basins are in general agreement with the notion that the CE TCs can lead to storm growth [13]. The decrease of areal averaged TB and the increase of kinetic energy both occurred after the ERC process.
\n
Figure 3e and f indicates that the outer eyewall width is larger with a larger moat width (R2 = 0.5) in both basins. All the CEM cases have moat widths greater than 30 km in both basins. In particular, the CEM cases on average have slightly higher intensities, larger moat widths, and larger outer eyewall widths than those of ERC and NRC cases. The CEM cases in the ATL basin also have similar characteristics except the average intensity slightly lower than that of ERC. The ATL basin is smaller than WNP basin, only five CEM cases are classified in the ATL basin. If we choose 15 h (10 h) for CEM criteria, eight (18) cases are classified into CEM cases in the ATL basin. These CEM cases on average have higher intensity, larger moat widths, and larger outer eyewall widths. In general, the moat size and outer eyewall width are approximately 20–50% (15–25%) larger in the CEM cases than that in the ERC and NRC cases. The very large moat and outer eyewall width in the CEM cases may have some implications for the long duration of CE structure. Willoughby [31] presented a scale analysis on the validity of the balance model and the transverse circulation equation in the TC. Rozoff et al. [32] used the balanced model transverse circulation equation to study the ERC dynamics. In this manner, the balance dynamics of the CE is scale free, namely, the dynamics may occur in different scales where the balance equation assumption is valid. Thus, it is possible that the larger CE storms simply end up taking much longer time to contract due to their larger scale. Rozoff et al. [32] showed that the decay of the inner eyewall may be related to the fact that the upper warm core has a larger stabilization effect on the convection in the inner eyewall than it does on the convection in the outer eyewall. The stabilization effect of upper warm core argument cannot explain why the inner eyewall is maintained for such a long time in the CEM cases. We also note that the CE variabilities of intensity and structural changes in the WNP basin are larger than that in the ATL basin as shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3.
(a and b) Composite time series of intensity for the ERC, CEM, NRC cases, and the all CE cases in WNP and ATL basins. (c and d) The averaged TB and intensity changes in 48 h before and after the peak intensity/CE formation for the NCE, ERC, CEM, and NRC cases in WNP and ATL basins. Case numbers are given. The dots are CE formation time for CE cases and Vmax time for NCE cases. (e and f) Scatter diagrams of the moat width versus outer eyewall width in the WNP and ATL basins. The linear fitting line and formula are also shown. The table indicates the average intensity, moat width, and outer eyewall width of CEM, ERC, and NRC cases, respectively.
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On the other hand, the occurrence of barotropic instability will invalidate the axisymmetric balance assumption. Kossin et al. [33] identified two types of barotropic instabilities in the vorticity field with CE structure: the instabilities across the outer eyewall (Type I) and across the moat (Type II) due to the sign reversal of the radial vorticity gradient. These instabilities may work against the maintenance of the CE structure. The large moat size in the CEM cases has two dynamic implications. It reduces the growth rate of the Type II instability across the moat which is favorable for the CE structure maintenance; and it also lessens the stabilization of the core vortex on the Type I instability across the outer eyewall which is not favorable for the CE maintenance. As demonstrated by Kossin et al. [33], the thicker outer eyewall is more stable for the type I instability, which is favorable for maintaining the outer eyewall structure. These observations of the large outer eyewall and moat widths are in general agreement with the concept that barotropic dynamics may play a significant role in maintaining the CE structure for CEM cases.
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Finally, we note that the large moat size in the CEM cases may have an impact on the convection and subsidence in both eyewalls. The interference between the convection/subsidence couplet of the inner and outer eyewalls may be reduced when the moat size is very large. The large moat size may assist the inner core by suppressing potentially competing convection while the subsidence concentrated radial outward may make it less likely to penetrate to the eyewall. Zhou and Wang [34], in the modeling study, revealed that the demise of the inner eyewall is primarily due to the interception of the BL inflow supply of entropy by the outer eyewall. The interception process becomes inefficient when the moat size is large. Figure 3e and f suggests that the internal structure of CE TCs, such as the general high intensity with the large widths of the moat and outer eyewall, may be important for the maintenance of the CE structure in the CEM cases.
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Figure 4.
(a) Tracks within 48 h centered at CE formation in the WNP. The ERC, NRC, and CEM cases are represented by blue, green, and red colors, respectively. The circles with (without) a dot are the location of the secondary eyewall formation with intensity greater than or equal to (less than) category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. The triangle symbols represent the composite location of CE formation and 24 h after CE formation. The average translation speed of zonal and meridional between CE formation and 24 h after CE formation is shown. (b) As in (a) but the cases in the ATL basin.
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Figure 5.
The time series of SST and 850–200 mb vertical shear (VWS) in the WNP and ATL basins. The solid lines mean average value. The dash lines mean average value ± 1 standard deviation.
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Figure 4a shows the locations of CE formation on the tracks 24 h before and after the formation. Most CEM cases are located west of 140°E with the smallest northward translation speed of 2.2 m s−1 in the WNP basin. This suggests TCs tend to be more intense in the western part of Pacific after a long journey over ocean. In the ATL basin, the average location of CEM cases is farther west than that of ERC and NRC cases with the smallest northward translation speed of 1.4 m s−1. Compared with ERC and NRC cases, CEM cases encounter warmer SST after CE formation. On the other hand, the NRC cases have a larger northward translation speed (3.8 m s−1) in the WNP basin, and the average location of CE formation is farther north (25°N) than that of ERC and CEM cases in the ATL basin. The composite time series with respect to CE formation time for SST, relative humidity (RH), ocean heat content (OHC), and maximum potential intensity (MPI) decrease and vertical shear increases with time because TCs in general move toward the northwest direction by the Statistical Typhoon/Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme model data (STIPS/SHIPS; [35, 36]). The large northern translation speed of the NRC cases causes them to experience colder SST, larger vertical wind shear, smaller RH, smaller OHC, and smaller MPI 24 h after CE formation (not shown; the result of WNP cases is presented in Figure 10 of reference [26]). These phenomena are consistent with the sharp decrease of CA and intensity in NRC cases as shown in Figure 3. The dissipation of the outer eyewall in the NRC cases presumably may also be related to the strong vertical shear in the high latitudes [16]. Moreover, the CEM cases were under small vertical wind shear, high SST, OHC and MPI, and high low- to mid-level RH throughout the period of CE formation. These favorable environment factors may help CEM cases maintain their intensity and eyewall structures. The environmental conditions play a role in the structural and intensity changes of CEM and NRC TCs. Figure 5 shows that the variabilities of SST and 850–200 mb vertical wind shear during CE formation and after CE formation are larger in the WNP basin than that in the ATL basin. This results in the larger CE variabilities of intensity and structural changes in the WNP basin (Figure 3).
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4. The relationship between CE TC and ENSO
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The environmental factors and TC activities are deeply affected by ENSO and have been examined by many previous studies. We have discussed the importance of environmental factors for CE TCs in Section 3. In this section, we followed Yang et al. [38] but included CE cases in the ATL basin. Furthermore, we examined the CE TCs in different phases of ENSO. There are 46 months for five warm episodes, 62 months for four cold episodes, and 103 months for eight neutral episodes during 1997–2014 period according to NCEP data. There are 38 (18), 16 (10), and 59 (22) CE TCs occurred in the warm, cold, and neutral episodes in the WNP (ATL) basin.
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Figure 6.
Number of (a) category 1–5 TCs, (c) category 4–5 TCs, (e) CE cases (multiple CE formations are included), and (f) CE TCs by years (histograms and left ordinate) and the mean ONI by year (line and right ordinate) in the WNP basin. The correlation between number and mean ONI is shown. (b, d, f, and h) As in (a, c, e, and h) but in the ATL basin.
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In the WNP basin, the correlation between annual CE TCs number (CE cases) and ONI by year is 0.77 (0.70) as shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 also shows that the correlation between ONI and annual strong TCs of Category 4 or stronger is 0.75, which means more intense TCs occur in the El Niño phase than that in the La Niña phase. This is in general agreement with previous studies [19, 22]. All the CE-related correlations are higher than the correlation of TC number and ONI by year (0.55). The better correlation of CE TCs and ONI may be due to the fact that the CE structure is likely to occur in strong TCs [3]. In the ATL basin, the negative correlation of annual TCs (strong TCs) and ONI is −0.46 (−0.51), which is consistent with previous studies [20, 23, 24, 37] that suggest unfavorable environment for TC formation in the El Niño phase. Moreover, the worse negative correlation of CE TCs and ONI may be because of only 33 CE TCs in the ATL basin. In addition, the better correlation with CE TCs than with CE cases may be due to the fact that multiple CE formation may be controlled by both internal and environmental factors in both basins.
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Figure 7.
Histogram of the no-CE TCs and CE TCs in three different episodes. The numbers of total TC and CE TCs in each episode are indicated. The letters W and A mean WNP and ATL basin, respectively.
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Figure 7 indicates that 42% (35%) of TCs possessed CE structures in their lifetimes during warm (neutral) episodes in the WNP basin. In contrast, only 25% of TCs formed CE structure in the cold episodes. In the ATL basin, 36% (approximately 24%) of TCs possessed CE structures in their lifetimes during warm (neutral and cold) episodes. Moreover, Table 2 shows that there are 1.5 (0.5), 1.3 (0.7), and 1.0 (0.5) TC formations per month in the WNP (ATL) basin during warm, neutral, and cold episodes, respectively. The monthly CE formation frequencies are 0.8 (0.4), 0.6 (0.2), and 0.3 (0.2) in the WNP (ATL) basin during warm, neutral, and cold episodes, respectively. Figures 6 and 7 and Table 2 suggest that ENSO may create a better environment for CE formation in the WNP basin. In the ATL basin, the slightly higher monthly CE formation frequency during warm episode may be due to the farther south CE location as shown in Figure 8. For the WNP basin, Figure 8a suggests that CE cases during cold (warm) episodes tend to occur farther west (east). The eastward shift of the genesis region may be due to the warm sea water and moist air extending farther east (west) over the WNP during warm (cold) episodes, and the weak vertical wind shear in the southeast part of WNP during warm episodes. This result is consistent with the eastward shift of the TC genesis region in the warm episode [19, 20]. For the ATL basin, Figure 8b shows that the average location of CE formation during warm and cold episodes is similar. After 24 h of CE formation, however, the 850–200mb vertical wind shear in the cold episode is 2–6 m s−1 weaker than that in other episodes (not shown) and may help in CE maintenance. The farther south CE location during warm episode may lead to the slight CE formation frequency.
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Warm
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Cold
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Neutral
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WNP TC number/month
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69/46 = 1.5
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65/62 = 1.0
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130/103 = 1.3
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WNP CE cases/month
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38/46 = 0.8
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16/62 = 0.3
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59/103 = 0.6
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ATL TC number/month
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22/46 = 0.5
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34/62 = 0.5
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71/103 = 0.7
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ATL CE cases/month
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18/46 = 0.4
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10/62 = 0.2
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22/103 = 0.2
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Table 2.
The number of TCs, CE cases, and multiple CE cases per month during warm, cold, and neutral episodes.
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Figure 8.
Same as Figure 4 but during warm (red), cold (blue), and neutral (black) episodes. The triangle symbols represent the composite location of CE formation. The standard deviations of zonal and meridional locations are shown.
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Figure 9 suggests that there are only three CEM cases during cold episode in the WNP basin. In addition, there are 12% (3%) of CE cases with more than 30 h long duration in the WNP (ATL) basin. The CE storms in the cold episode have a more rapid intensification rate than that of the warm episode before the CE formation (Figure 10). Specifically, there are 13 out of 16 storms in cold episode with intensity change which meet the rapidly intensifying criteria of ∆Vmax ≥ 19.5 m s−1 in 24 h [39]. The storm intensity change after the CE formation during warm (cold) episodes often decreases slowly (quickly). The quick decline of intensity during cold episodes may be due to the encountering of unfavorable environmental factors such as the colder SST. Figure 10b indicates the similar trends of the average intensity before CE formation in the ATL basin. However, a rapid decreasing trend 24 h after CE formation is in the warm episode. In summary, the CE formation in the ATL basin may not be affected by ENSO because of the average location of CE formation during warm episode farther south over the ATL. After CE formation, the unfavorable environment which is created by ENSO may reduce the TC intensity quickly during warm episode.
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Figure 9.
The number of CE cases in different episodes as a function of duration time. The letters W and A mean the WNP and ATL basins, respectively.
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Figure 10.
Same as Figure 3 but during warm, cold, and neutral episodes and all CE cases.
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5. Summary and conclusions
\n
An objective method is developed to categorize concentric eyewall structures in the western North Pacific (WNP) TCs using the NRL SSM/I and TMI satellite imagery database. For the WNP (ATL) basin, there are 91 (33) CE TCs and 113 (50) CE cases identified from 29,785 (19,001) satellite images between 1997 and 2014. Excluding the cases that are 200 km close to landfall and cases with temporal resolution higher than12 h, 83 (34) CE cases were studied for the structural and intensity changes. The primary findings are as follows:
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Three CE types are categorized: CE with an eyewall replacement cycle (ERC; 51 and 56% in the WNP and ATL), CE with no replacement cycle (NRC; 27 and 29% in the WNP and ATL), and CE that is maintained for an extended period of time (CEM; 23 and 15% in the WNP and ATL). The mean duration of CEM type is 32 and 27 h in the WNP and ATL basins, respectively.
The CEM cases have relatively high intensity, large widths of both the moat and outer eyewall that last for a long duration time. The large widths of the moat and outer eyewall may reduce the barotropic instabilities of CE storms and thus maintain the CE structures for a long time.
Most CEM cases in the WNP basin are located to the west of 140°E with the smallest northward translation speed of 2.2 m s−1. The average location of CEM cases in the ATL basin is farther west than that of ERC and NRC cases with the smallest northward translation speed of 1.4 m s−1. The NRC cases often have fast northward translation speeds and are located in higher latitudes of relative strong vertical shear and cold SST zones. The unfavorable environmental conditions thus act to weaken the convective activity for these cases. On the other hand, the CEM cases occur in favorable environment and tend to form in the warm episode of ENSO in the WNP basin. There are 12% (3%) of CE cases with more than 30 h long duration in the WNP (ATL) basin.
The variabilities of intensity and structural changes in the WNP basin are larger than that in the ATL basin. For example, the moat size and outer eyewall width in the WNP (ATL) basin are approximately 20–50% (15–25%) larger in the CEM cases than that in the ERC and NRC cases.
In the WNP basin, a very good relationship of 0.77 was found between the annual CE TC numbers and the NCEP Oceanic Niño Index (ONI). The probability of CE TCs formation is strongly influenced by the ENSO environmental factors. For example, there are 29 out of 69 (42%) TCs that possess CE structures in the warm episode. In contrast, there are only 16 out of 65 (25%) TCs that possess CE structures in the cold episode. The averaged CE formation frequencies are 0.8 and 0.3 per month in the warm and cold episodes, respectively.
In the ATL basin, the correlation between ONI and CE formation frequency suggests that the ENSO may not influence the CE formation. It may be due to the average location of CE formation during warm episode farther south over the ATL in the relative warm SST region. After CE formation, however, the unfavorable environment that is created by ENSO may reduce the TC intensity quickly.
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Acknowledgments
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This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan under grants MOST 104-2111-M-002-002-MY3 and MOST 104-2625-M-002-006, and the Naval Research Laboratory under grant N62909-15-1-2008.
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\n',keywords:"concentric eyewall, microwave satellite, ENSO",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51652.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51652.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51652",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51652",totalDownloads:1495,totalViews:142,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:50,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 28th 2015",dateReviewed:"May 23rd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 2nd 2016",dateFinished:"July 9th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"An objective method is developed to identify concentric eyewalls (CEs) for tropical cyclones (TCs) using passive microwave satellite imagery from 1997 to 2014 in the western North Pacific (WNP) and Atlantic (ATL) basin. There are 91 (33) TCs and 113 (50) cases with CE identified in the WNP (ATL). Three CE structural change types are classified as follows: a CE with the inner eyewall dissipated in an eyewall replacement cycle (ERC, 51 and 56% in the WNP and ATL), a CE with the outer eyewall dissipated first and the no eyewall replacement cycle (NRC, 27 and 29% in the WNP and ATL), and a CE structure that is maintained for an extended period (CEM, 23 and 15% in the WNP and ATL). The moat size and outer eyewall width in the WNP (ATL) basin are approximately 20–50% (15–25%) larger in the CEM cases than that in the ERC and NRC cases. Our analysis suggests that the ERC cases are more likely dominated by the internal dynamics, whereas the NRC cases are heavily influenced by the environment condition, and both the internal and environmental conditions are important in the CEM cases. A good correlation of the annual CE TC number and the Oceanic Niño index is found (0.77) in WNP basin, with most of the CE TCs occurring in the warm episodes. In contrast, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) may not influence on the CE formation in the ATL basin. After the CE formation, however, the unfavorable environment that is created by ENSO may reduce the TC intensity quickly during warm episode. The variabilities of structural changes in the WNP basin are larger than that in the ATL basin.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51652",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51652",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection"},signatures:"Yi-Ting Yang, Hung-Chi Kuo, Eric A. Hendricks and Melinda S. Peng",authors:[{id:"24152",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Melinda Peng",slug:"melinda-peng",email:"melinda.peng@nrlmry.navy.mil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"24153",title:"Prof.",name:"Hung-Chi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",fullName:"Hung-Chi Kuo",slug:"hung-chi-kuo",email:"kuo@as.ntu.edu.tw",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Taiwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"179607",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Yi-Ting Yang",slug:"yi-ting-yang",email:"yyiting@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Taiwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"180632",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Hendricks",fullName:"Eric Hendricks",slug:"eric-hendricks",email:"eahendri1@nps.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Data and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Structural and intensity change of concentric eyewall",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The relationship between CE TC and ENSO",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Summary and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Willoughby, H. E., J. A. Clos, and M. G. Shoreibah, 1982: Concentric eye walls, secondary wind maxima, and the evolution of the hurricane vortex. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 395–411.'},{id:"B2",body:'Black, M. L., and H. E. Willoughby, 1992: The concentric eyewall cycle of Hurricane Gilbert. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 947–957.'},{id:"B3",body:'Kuo, H.-C., C.-P. Chang, Y.-T.Yang, and H.-J. Jiang, 2009: Western North Pacific typhoons with concentric eyewalls. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 3758–3770.'},{id:"B4",body:'Sitkowski, M., J. P. Kossin, and C. M. 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DeMaria, 2005: An operational statistical typhoon intensity prediction scheme for the western North Pacific. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 688–699.'},{id:"B37",body:'Krishnamurthy L., G. A. Vecchi, R. Msadek, H. Murakami, A. Wittenberg, and F. Zeng, 2016: Impact of strong ENSO on regional tropical cyclone activity in a high-resolution climate model in the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. J. Climate, 29, 2375–2394.'},{id:"B38",body:'Yang, Y.-T.,H.-C. Kuo, E. Hendrick, Y.-C. Liu, and M. Peng, 2015: Relationship between typhoons with concentric eyewalls and ENSO in the western North Pacific basin. J. Climate, 28, 3612–3623.'},{id:"B39",body:'Hendricks, E. A., M. S. Peng, B. Fu, and T. Li, 2010: Quantifying environmental control on tropical cyclone intensity change. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 3243–3271.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Typhoons Winnie (1997) and Amber (1997) were very large, and these quantities are calculated using a 600 km square box."}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Yi-Ting Yang",address:null,affiliation:'
Taida Institute for Mathematical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
Department of Atmospheric Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Eric A. Hendricks",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Meteorology, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Melinda S. Peng",address:null,affiliation:'
Marine Meteorology Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Monterey, California, USA
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1. Introduction
A baffling number of disparate symptoms have been ascribed to COVID-19 infection including respiratory, gastrointestinal, circulatory, urinary tract and nerve dysfunction that has resulted in multi-organ failure in some cases. An array of risk factors has also been identified ranging from age, sex, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension to cigarette smoking that can increase mortality rate dramatically [1]. So far, a surprising number of deaths have been recorded worldwide due to the coronavirus pandemic and the figure has surpassed the 5.5 million mark [2].
1.1 Symptoms
In general, COVID-19 infection is associated with the increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, C-reactive protein, increased risk of pneumonia, sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and heart failure [3]. Early reports from China suggested the most common symptoms of COVID-19 infection were fever (88%) and dry cough (67.7%). Rhinorrhea (4.9%) and gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea 4–14%) were less common [4].
It has been concluded that COVID-19 may predispose to both venous and arterial thromboembolism due to excessive inflammation, hypoxia, immobilization, and diffuse intravascular coagulation [5]. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with neurological symptoms and complications including anosmia, hypogeusia, seizures, and stroke [6]. COVID-19 complications in the brain can include delirium, inflammation, and encephalitis [7]. A temporary loss of smell (anosmia) can be a consistent indicator of COVID-19 infection [8]. COVID-19 is now recognized as a multi-organ disease with a broad range of effects. An unusually long recovery period also seems to be a common aftermath of COVID-19 (post-acute COVID-19 syndrome or, popularly, long-COVID) and may involve one or more of various clinical manifestations including fatigue/muscular weakness, joint pain, dyspnea, cough, sleep and cognitive disturbances, headaches, anxiety/depression, palpitations, chest pain, thromboembolism, chronic kidney disease, and hair loss [9].
Even though, initially, children were thought to be unaffected by the novel coronavirus, a cluster of children with hyperinflammatory shock and features similar to Kawasaki disease and toxic shock syndrome was first reported in England. Almost all these pediatric cases had positive SARS-CoV-2 test results. This hyperinflammatory condition can include serious inflammation of the blood vessels and coronary arteries. Consequently, this illness has been termed COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome [10].
1.2 Internal risk factors
Some scientists have opined that COVID-19 is highly contagious and highly lethal to a small subset of the population, while it produces milder symptoms in most people. Although, the SARS-CoV-2 virus infects people of all ages, the World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that the evidence to date suggests that older adults and adults with underlying medical conditions are at a higher risk of developing severe COVID-19 disease [11]. However, recent new mutations in variants of the virus may be shifting the age demographic to include younger populations under the age of 60 as reflected in the sudden rise in fatalities among young and middle-aged adults after identification of the Brazilian Gamma variant [12].
One large study seems to indicate that obesity, high blood pressure, and diabetes are strong risk factors for COVID-19 [13]. It has also been observed that cardiovascular disease and respiratory diseases could greatly affect the prognosis [14]. In fact, in an interesting study involving autopsies on 12 COVID-19 patients, the results revealed that coronary heart disease and asthma were common comorbid conditions in 50% of the deceased [15]. Other research suggests that certain cancer patients are more vulnerable to COVID-19 infection [16]. In addition, a surprising gender disparity appears to be present about SARS-CoV-2 infection. Statistics from Australia, Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, the UK and the US reveal that mortality rates from the virus are significantly higher in infected males than in infected females [17]. In the largest Chinese study to date assessing the severity of coronavirus infection in smokers, it was found that higher percentages of current and former smokers needed ICU support or mechanical ventilation. Higher percentages of smokers among the severe cases also died [18].
1.3 External risk factors
Italian researchers have proposed an association between higher mortality rates in Northern Italy and peaks of particulate matter concentrations in this region. The most polluted northern provinces of Italy were found to have more infection cases than the less polluted southern provinces and this correlated well with ambient particulate matter concentrations that often exceeded the legal limit in these areas [19].
This could have been a significant factor in the spread of the coronavirus in highly polluted and populated cities like Mumbai, India. Social conditions such as crowding in slums have also been considered contributory to the dispersal of the virus in developing countries like Brazil and India. Proximity to infected individuals increases the risk of person-to-person transmission since the SARS-CoV-2 virus is spread mainly by respiratory droplets, but can be aerosolized, as well [20].
No matter how healthy an individual may be, the more exposure they have to a particular virus, the greater risk they have of contracting the disease. The greater the number of particles of the virus one is exposed to, the greater the chance that they will overwhelm the body and immune responses. This is the reason that frontline healthcare workers have been getting serious cases of COVID-19 and, particularly, middle-aged male general practitioners have been dying at a higher frequency than the general population [21, 22].
1.4 Rise of the coronavirus variants
According to available information, during the first part of this study initiated in July 2020, the original strain of the novel coronavirus from Wuhan, China was the main agent of infection in India due to business travel, tourism, and trade between the two neighboring nations before lockdown and no vaccines were available [1]. In China, this would extend in the form of a ban on non-resident travelers from March 2020 and lifting it would not be contemplated until the February 2022 Winter Olympics.
Subsequently, the Alpha coronavirus variant, which had spread at least 50% faster than earlier lineages was linked to a rise in cases in southeast England by public health officials in November 2020. Approximately around the same time, the Beta variant was detected in South Africa and linked to the second wave of infections in the country. Not long after, the highly transmissible Gamma variant was localized to Amazonas state in Brazil. These three variants shared some common mutations, particularly in key regions of the spike protein that is involved in recognizing the host-cell ACE2 receptors used by the virus for entering human cells [1, 23].
Thus, by the time the second part of this study was undertaken in January 2021, the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma variants were also present within the Indian population and the UK variant became the dominant strain in Punjab state mainly due to unimpeded travel abroad [24]. Simultaneously, the homegrown Delta variant with multiple mutations had become dominant in the Indian state of Maharashtra and several factors such as large public gatherings at celebrations like Holi, which were not tightly restricted, are likely to have contributed to the precipitous rise of Delta within the country. Moreover, people had started to mingle socially without restraint and to travel to adjoining states thereby distributing the virus and its variants, notably Delta [24]. This is probably what lead to nearly a doubling of cases in March [23]. Up to this point, vaccines had not been available, but became available to the clinic staff shortly after in April, 2021. Soon, the Delta variant had been exported all over India, back to China, and around the world, where it became the predominant strain in many places due to its high transmissibility [24, 25].
2. Methods
Just until recently, India has had the second or third highest COVID-19 infection rate in the world. However, the mortality rate has been comparatively low, possibly due to a relatively younger average age of the general population. There is another current hypothesis that a national Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination program in countries seems to be associated with reduced mortality from COVID-19 and India has such a program [26]. This purely observational study to establish dosage and tolerance of prolonged vitamin and mineral supplementation was carried out at a private clinic located in a small town in the District of Nawan Shahr near the historic city of Rahon in North India (Kapoor Singh Canadian Hospital). There were 7500 inhabitants in the town and a total of five COVID-19 cases (4 male and 1 female) between March (when the epidemic began in India) and December 2020. Interestingly, there were no mortalities among these patients who were quarantined in a neighboring city and one of the main treatments current in India at this time was the malarial medication, chloroquine, which also displays anti-inflammatory activity [27]. There was a total state-wide lockdown between March and mid-June 2020. The clinic decided to re-open in July 2020 following the lockdown in the absence of any available coronavirus vaccine. During the second part of the study (January–March 22, 2021), approximately 50 coronavirus cases were recorded in this small town & adjoining village with a total of 1 or 2 deaths as a result of COVID-19 infection. At this stage, treatment at civil hospitals included steroids and antibiotics such as azithromycin for secondary infections [28]. Testing was also more widely available during this second surge, which started in March, peaked in May, and started to subside in October 2021.
The clinic that took part in this trial employed a total of 15 staff members; 9 men and 6 women. They included 2 doctors (one male, one female), 3 nurses, 2 laboratory technicians, 1 security guard, 1 cleaner and 6 general maintenance staff. All participants consented to take part in the study. Although, all 15 staff members participated in the first part of the study, one general staff member (a clinic clerk) dropped out of the second part of the study as a result of being vaccinated and thereby reduced the test group to 14. Although, the medical staff (7) were aware of the potential benefits of supplementation, the non-medical staff members (7/8) were not aware of the potential health benefits. However, they were informed that the supplements were not harmful in any way. In addition, all the non-medical staff was not equally exposed to patients as the medical staff. Each staff member took part voluntarily in the first trial that was initiated on July 1, 2020 and extended to December 31, 2020 and in the second trial that was initiated on January 1 and extended to March 22, 2021. It is unlikely that the townspeople were taking oral dietary supplements of any kind since they are not that popular in India and provided the background population for this study. The background population establishes the presence of active coronavirus cases in the community and forms a basis for comparison.
Vitamin, mineral, and amino acid supplementation is not an uncommon practice at European health clinics. For example, specific combinations of vitamins and minerals may be used to promote general good health. One such formula prescribed at a German vegetarian health clinic (Schlosspark Klink) included CoQ-10 (which stimulates ATP production), vitamin D3, and zinc. Supplementary protein pills were used regularly to complement the diet and boost the body’s overall metabolism in patients. Moreover, during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, they routinely recommended 20,000 IU per week of vitamin D3 (spring to fall) and 40,000 IU per week of vitamin D3 (winter months) as a preventive measure to their guests based on laboratory blood tests, even to those who regularly included meat and fish in their diet. Vitamin D was measured in blood samples from patients as 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and a minimum concentration of 55 ng/ml was recommended by the clinic doctors (whereas the sufficiency scale range is 20–70 ng/ml); although anything below this value was not deemed as representing a deficiency, it was judged as being too low for effective COVID-19 prevention.
Thus, in addition to standard precautionary measures adopted universally during the pandemic, a careful selection of vitamin and mineral supplements was made to help protect the staff at the Indian clinic participating in this particular study from coronavirus infection. The supplements selected for the staff included a combined daily dose of vitamin C (500 mg) and zinc (20 mg) in tablet form [Indian Drugs & Pharmaceutical Co.] plus a weekly dose of vitamin D3 (60,000 IU) capsules [Dr Morpen; Cipla; or, Cadila Co.]. The corresponding daily dose of vitamin D3, which is significantly higher than that normally recommended in Germany (800 IU per day) and in other countries around the world such as the US (2000 IU per day), is commonly prescribed as a therapeutic dose in India possibly due to the popularity of vegetarianism. The reason for this choice of combined supplements above biological doses was as follows:
2.1 Vitamin D
Vitamin D3 (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) is the most bioavailable form of vitamin D for the human body and the bioactive form (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) is synthesized by its enzymatic hydroxylation mainly in the kidney. This bioactive form of vitamin D also functions as a hormone that regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism via a nuclear receptor that can alter the expression of genes in the intestine, kidney, and bone [29].
Vitamin D enhances cellular innate immunity partly through the induction of antimicrobial peptides, including human cathelicidin, and, defensins. Cathelicidins exhibit direct antimicrobial activities against a spectrum of microbes including many types of bacteria, enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, and fungi. The main action of these host-derived peptides is to kill the invading pathogens by perturbing their cell membranes. Moreover, it is effective in reducing concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines that produce the inflammation that injures the lining of the lungs leading to pneumonia during viral infections like COVID-19 and increasing concentrations of anti-inflammatory cytokines [3].
Vitamin D deficiency is a worldwide problem, but is particularly pronounced in the elderly, who are at the greatest risk of contracting severe COVID-19 infection. The release of pro-inflammatory cytokines is one of the major causative factors in serious COVID-19 infections. However, vitamin D modulates its presence in the body by preventing macrophages from releasing too many inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Calcitriol has also been found to exert an influence on ACE-2 receptors. Thus, it is not surprising that vitamin D deficiency has been correlated with COVID-19 cases and an increased risk of mortality in a European study [30]. Conversely, medical doctors in Eastern Europe have rarely found COVID-19 patients with vitamin D sufficiency to require ICU stays in hospital (personal communication from Dr. Martin von Rosen, MD).
2.2 Zinc
RNA synthesis occurs in the life cycle of the SARS-CoV-1 virus to reproduce its genetic material and is catalyzed by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which is the core enzyme of a multiprotein replication/transcription complex. In the case of SARS-CoV-1, an excess of intracellular zinc ions has been found to efficiently inhibit the RNA-synthesizing activity of this replication and transcription multiprotein. Enzymatic studies in vitro have revealed that zinc directly blocks the activity of the RNA polymerase by inhibiting elongation and reducing template binding. This RNA polymerase core, which is a central component of the coronaviral replication/transcription machinery, is well conserved among the members of the coronavirus family including SARS-CoV-2 [31, 32]. Therefore, it is quite possible that zinc treatment would have a similar biochemical effect on SARS-CoV-2 and interfere with its ability to replicate.
In the human body, zinc displays antiviral effects by modulating the type I Interferon response and performs a variety of vital antioxidant functions [33]. Inside the cell, the harmful effects of free radicals are balanced by the action of antioxidant enzymes (such as copper-zinc superoxide dismutase) and non-enzymatic antioxidants (such as metallothioneins), which utilize zinc and help to regulate its intracellular levels [34, 35]. There are several other ways zinc functions in both adaptive and innate immune systems, as well. It regulates the proliferation, differentiation, maturation and functioning of lymphocytes, and other leukocytes. In addition, zinc regulates the immune response, and its deficiency increases susceptibility to inflammatory and infectious diseases, including pneumonia. Moreover, zinc deficiency may be present in 17% of the world’s population [36]. Interestingly, a trial with four COVID-19 patients suggested that therapy with high dose zinc salt oral lozenges [up to 200 mg/day] initiated a significant reduction of disease symptoms within 24 hours [37]. Short-term zinc use at these doses is considered safe [38]. Thus, low-risk ways of increasing zinc bioavailability in the body above biological levels can be safely considered.
2.3 Vitamin C
Vitamin C is known as an essential anti-oxidant that efficiently quenches damaging free radicals produced during normal metabolic respiration by the body and it functions as an enzymatic co-factor for physiological reactions such as hormone production, collagen synthesis and immune potentiation [39]. In addition, the anti-inflammatory action of ascorbic acid is evidenced in several cytoprotective functions under physiological conditions, including the prevention of DNA mutation induced by oxidation. In fact, it has been established in in vivo studies that the consumption of vitamin C-rich foods is inversely correlated with the level of oxidative DNA damage [40]. Moreover, vitamin C is a well-known anti-viral agent that has been demonstrated to show anti-viral immune responses, especially against the influenza virus at the onset of infection by the increased production of IFN-α/β [39]. There has also been some interesting evidence that oral vitamin C (2–8 g/day) may reduce the incidence and duration of respiratory infections, while intravenous vitamin C has been shown to reduce mortality, ICU and hospital stays, and time on mechanical ventilation in severe respiratory infections. Vitamin C deficiency has been observed in many respiratory infections, as well, and a recent study from New Zealand reported that patients with pneumonia had depleted vitamin C levels as compared with healthy controls suggesting that it may be potentially helpful in the treatment of COVID-19 at therapeutic doses [41].
3. Results
On average, the clinic was visited by 60 patients per day during July–December, 2020 and 45 patients per day during January–March 22, 2021. Thermal scanning was instituted at the clinic gates and any patient with a fever was seated outside and given a week’s supply of vitamin C plus zinc tablets, vitamin D capsules, and aspirin. The patients without fever were allowed inside the clinic compound after receiving hand sanitizer and a disposable mask. They were instructed to keep a 2-meter distance between themselves and other patients as they waited on chairs outside the clinic. Only 6 patients were allowed into the clinic waiting room at one time (while 10–12 is the usual number). All patients with cold symptoms other than fever also received oral vitamin C/zinc and vitamin D3 supplements. All the hospital staff wore medical masks. PPE was not considered necessary as there were relatively few coronavirus cases locally and anyone with a higher than the normal temperature was not allowed inside the clinic. So, the hazard was not deemed to be extreme. Infected individuals in the district were immediately removed to pre-designated quarantine locations by government health inspectors where they received medical treatment for 2 weeks.
There were no adverse reactions to the special selective supplementation in any of the staff members during the first or second trial. There were no COVID-19 cases recorded among any of the staff members for the duration of this preliminary study, even though, approximately a third of them were living in and commuting from nearby towns and cities where the incidence rate was higher. The length of this trial suggests that there was ample opportunity for COVID-19 infection to occur in any of the subjects, especially since routine social distancing was not being observed during much of this time in India. All the subjects would have been exposed to potential virus carriers during work hours at the clinic (via asymptomatic carriers or those with cold symptoms other than fever), on public transport, and at home in their social circle. Similarly, the townspeople often traveled on public transport to other towns and cities and would have been exposed to potentially infected individuals at social gatherings.
4. Discussion
Although, there is much interest in vitamin C, D, and zinc in the coronavirus literature, currently there is scant data about the potential synergistic role of these three supplements in COVID-19 prevention and clinical studies are lacking. Clinical trials for treating COVID-19 patients with these supplements are slightly more common; however, they usually do not focus on all three supplements together. Thus, the clinical study presented here appears to be the first of its kind [42].
A small two-part clinical trial with 14–15 subjects was undertaken to test the feasibility of taking specific supplements with anti-viral properties to aid in the prevention of COVID-19 infection, namely, vitamin C (500 mg/day), vitamin D (60,0000 IU/week), and zinc (20 mg/day) before the availability of any vaccine. It was concluded that this type of targeted supplementation of medical professionals and healthcare workers in an environment of potentially heightened exposure to coronavirus could be beneficial at the established dosages, which were non-biological doses well above corresponding biological doses. The combination of vitamins and mineral included in this preliminary study was selected for its special qualities in potentially combatting the coronavirus and was well-tolerated. On a biochemical level, the vitamin C likely acted by increasing the production of anti-viral Interferon α/β; vitamin D stimulated the secretion of antimicrobial peptides (defensins and cathelicidins) which perturb microbe cell membranes; and, zinc boosted the immune response in the subjects to ward off infection. Zinc may also have provided a secondary defense to clinic staff members by interfering with the SARS-CoV-2 replication machinery and disabling the viral RNA polymerase of invading virus particles. No other supplements aside from these three were provided to the participants to minimize confounding variables.
Even though, a variety of vaccines did become available following this study and all the clinic staff opted to be fully vaccinated (the vaccine supplied to healthcare workers in India was mainly Covishield), it was decided to continue with this special supplementation regimen (the vitamin D3 dose was gradually reduced to 30,000 IU per week), even after the six-month and two-and-three quarter month trial periods for several reasons. Firstly, it is not known, yet, exactly how long the antibody immunity generated by these vaccines lasts (although an estimate of 3–6 months has been suggested) and, therefore, there may be a lag period during which recipients are not protected. Lasting immunity following acute viral infection is variable and pathogen-specific ranging from life-long for smallpox or measles, to highly transient for common cold coronaviruses (CCC). It often requires maintenance of both serum antibody and antigen-specific memory B and T lymphocytes. Secondly, as new variant strains of the novel coronavirus continue to appear and change beyond recognition, many of the vaccines may become less effective or even ineffective at some point as antibodies can no longer recognize their corresponding antigens. For example, the Alpha, Beta, and Delta coronavirus mutant strains appear to have a modified spike protein with an increased binding capacity. The Gamma variant carries some of the same spike mutations [23]. This feature may render vaccines that target solely the novel coronavirus spike protein irrelevant. Evidence is already emerging that suggests fast-spreading coronavirus variants like Omicron with an ever-increasing number of multiple mutations in the spike protein may evade the main immune responses triggered by many vaccines and natural infection [43, 44, 45, 46, 47] possibly excluding T cell immunity [48, 49]. Thus, it is preferrable to seek protection simultaneously from several biochemical sources that disable different parts of the viral machinery. Thirdly, even though it is possible to alter existing vaccines to target these new variants, it takes some time to re-engineer them, so it is not desirable for recipients to have an unprotected interval. Finally, there is the question of how many vaccines an individual can safely receive each year without engendering negative physiological consequences or increasing the chances of experiencing long-term side-effects.
As an example, thimerosal is a mercury-containing organic compound (approximately 50% mercury by weight) that has been widely used as a preservative in many inactivated-virus vaccines since the 1930s [50]. Mercury is toxic to both animals and humans and is associated with several adverse health effects including anemia, cardiovascular disease, developmental abnormalities, neurobehavioral disorders, kidney and liver damage, and brain cancer [51]. Although, it is claimed that thimerosal is safe in small doses, it is unlikely that experiments have been conducted on human subjects receiving two to three or more vaccines per year as seems to be required in the case of coronavirus. Not all the new coronavirus vaccines like the mRNA vaccines contain thimerosal, but there may be other ingredients with unintended future consequences, which have not been adequately tested. Naturally, these could have the greatest negative impact on younger members of the population. Therefore, the most prudent approach for government health agencies to adopt may be to continue to offer annual booster vaccines for those 60 years or over and to other vulnerable members of society.
Further issues with the various available vaccines have also come to light. For example, in rare instances, the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine has been linked to blood clots, while the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines have been associated with severe allergic reactions in rare cases [52, 53]. It may be possible to mitigate some of these ill-effects by adjusting the vaccine dose according to a recipient’s weight (for example, a person who weighs 45 kg might receive a lesser dose than someone who weighs 90 kg or double their weight). Moreover, COVID-19 vaccination is associated with a lower risk of several, but not necessarily all, COVID-19 symptoms in those with breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infection including long-COVID features, renal disease, mood, anxiety, and sleep disorders [54]. However, there were no breakthrough cases of COVID-19 between April and December 2021 in any of the 14 hospital staff members who had been vaccinated, but simultaneously continued with supplementation. No mild cold-like symptoms were observed in any of the subjects either. It is also worth noting that none of the staff received a booster vaccine during this period, which would only become available to healthcare workers and medical professionals in January 2022. Thus, this study successfully spanned the rise of Alpha to Delta variants (pre-vaccine), while breakthrough cases were averted during the peak and decline of Delta and the onset of Omicron in India (post-vaccine).
Unfortunately, the small sample size [14, 15] of the test group in these trials could not be analyzed statistically in relation to the much larger population in the town, which merely formed a general basis for comparison. So, this may be regarded as an uncontrolled study without matched controls. Ideally, another private clinic of similar size with equivalent numbers of medical and non-medical staff members, who were not receiving supplementation, could have participated as the control group. A second similar placebo group might also have been informative. However, this would not be possible in any future studies as vaccines have become widely available to healthcare workers all over the country. At the same time, it is likely that the other hygienic practices adopted at the clinic during the pandemic may have contributed to the positive result. Moreover, the annual incidence of coronavirus cases was relatively low in the town as compared with urban centres and must also be taken into consideration. Nevertheless, it is more than likely that the clinic staff were exposed to persons infected with the coronavirus during the study (initially, the original strain, followed by the Alpha variant, at least, according to the region, and, then, later, the Delta variant), but local sequencing data was not available. Therefore, some interesting insights into supplementation with specific vitamins and minerals of medical personnel may have been gained as a result of these initial findings as no COVID-19 infections occurred among the unvaccinated hospital staff between July 1, 2020 and March 22, 2021 [Tables 1 and 2]. No breakthrough infections occurred either in the staff members, who were fully vaccinated with the Covishield vaccine, between April and December 2021 with continued supplementation [Table 3]. These results may prove useful for further clinical research into COVID-19 prevention, but, due to the small sample size, future studies should be conducted with much larger test groups, equally matched controls, placebo groups, and a complete statistical analysis. It may be particularly relevant for lower-income countries without immediate access to vaccines always and as an added precaution for healthcare professionals at higher-than-average risk of infection. This is also especially applicable in the event of waning vaccine efficacy as may be the case with the Omicron variant and some of its sub-variants, which seem equipped to evade antibody immunity (not necessarily T cell immunity), cause breakthrough infections, and initiate reinfections [55].
Oral supplementation of staff members—post-vaccine (April 1–December 31, 2021).
Finally, there is no doubt that there will be ever new SARS-CoV-2 variants in the future, which may be less virulent, or possibly more so. As the virus evolves, these variants may become more transmissible and even better able to evade vaccine and natural immunity. These currently unknown mutants are beyond the scope of this book or chapter. However, the approach remains the same and we must be prepared with an artillery of weapons against the novel coronavirus rather than just relying on one.
\n',keywords:"novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, vitamin C, vitamin D, zinc",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81283.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81283.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81283",totalDownloads:9,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 14th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 27th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 2nd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 15th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"At the time of this study India had the third highest COVID-19 infection rate in the world after the US and Brazil, but that statistic was in flux due to rapidly changing variables and, therefore, it seemed an appropriate setting for a supplementation study. Following a successful first trial of vitamin C, D and zinc supplementation in 2020 with the staff at a small medical clinic in India, a second opportunity arose to continue the trial from January-March 22nd due to an urban coronavirus outbreak during the beginning of March 2021. It resulted in nearly a doubling of COVID-19 cases within the country in two weeks (March 8th - March 22nd) possibly due to the new, highly infectious, Indian Delta variant with multiple mutations and/or other international variants like the UK Alpha variant that were also present in the population by this time. As a result, a nighttime curfew and other restrictions were imposed for the whole month. An outbreak also occurred locally in a nearby city where the incidence of coronavirus cases increased and this happened prior to vaccination of the medical staff as part of the country’s universal inoculation campaign for healthcare workers, which began in January 2021 (one clinic clerk who travelled to the district civil hospital to receive the vaccine during the course of this second study was disqualified; all other clinic staff were inoculated after March 22nd). Although the clinic had closed during the first lockdown between March and mid-June 2020, it remained open to the public for this second wave in March 2021. During this period, the medical & non-medical staff continued following the same supplementation regimen as they had in July-December 2020 for Part I of this trial with positive results. Once again, in Part II of the trial, there were no COVID-19 cases recorded among any of the staff members at the clinic, which is situated in a rural community. It was concluded that targeted vitamin/mineral supplementation may be a useful addition to the anti-COVID-19 arsenal for health professionals at higher than average risk of infection.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81283",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81283",signatures:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",book:{id:"11369",type:"book",title:"RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"RNA Viruses",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-667-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-666-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-668-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"232234",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",middleName:null,surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal",email:"moondustcosmetics@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Internal risk factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 External risk factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4 Rise of the coronavirus variants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1 Vitamin D",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Zinc",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.3 Vitamin C",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Siddoo-Atwal C. Chapter 2—Assembling an anti-COVID-19 artillery in the battle against the new coronavirus. In: Shah Y, Abuelzein E, editors. Some RNA Viruses. 2020. London, United Kingdom: IntechOpen; 2021. pp. 9-25. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95100'},{id:"B2",body:'Adam D. The pandemic’s true death toll: Millions more than official counts. Nature. 2022;601:312-315. 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University College London, England
Simon Fraser University, Canada
Medical College Wisconsin, United States
Moondust Cosmetics Ltd., Canada
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Viana",authors:[{id:"15565",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",slug:"julio-viana",fullName:"Julio Viana"},{id:"238389",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvia",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"silvia-cruz",fullName:"Sílvia Cruz"},{id:"247716",title:"Prof.",name:"Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"luis-rocha",fullName:"Luís Rocha"}]},{id:"6629",doi:"10.5772/7009",title:"Micro-Electro-Discharge Machining Technologies for MEMS",slug:"micro-electro-discharge-machining-technologies-for-mems",totalDownloads:5862,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3333",slug:"micro-electronic-and-mechanical-systems",title:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems",fullTitle:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems"},signatures:"Kenichi Takahata",authors:null},{id:"6621",doi:"10.5772/7001",title:"A Review of Thermoelectric MEMS Devices for Micro-power Generation, Heating and Cooling Applications",slug:"a-review-of-thermoelectric-mems-devices-for-micro-power-generation-heating-and-cooling-applications",totalDownloads:6486,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"3333",slug:"micro-electronic-and-mechanical-systems",title:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems",fullTitle:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems"},signatures:"Chris Gould and Noel Shammas",authors:null},{id:"6624",doi:"10.5772/7004",title:"Nanomembrane: A New MEMS/NEMS Building Block",slug:"nanomembrane-a-new-mems-nems-building-block",totalDownloads:5192,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3333",slug:"micro-electronic-and-mechanical-systems",title:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems",fullTitle:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems"},signatures:"Jovan Matovic and Zoran Jakšić",authors:null},{id:"40062",doi:"10.5772/50970",title:"Pseudogap and Local Pairs in High-Tc Superconductors",slug:"pseudogap-and-local-pairs-in-high-tc-superconductors",totalDownloads:1902,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"2184",slug:"superconductors-materials-properties-and-applications",title:"Superconductors",fullTitle:"Superconductors - Materials, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Andrei L. Solovjov",authors:[{id:"147358",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrei",middleName:"L\\'Vovich",surname:"Solovjov",slug:"andrei-solovjov",fullName:"Andrei Solovjov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61428",title:"Printing Technologies on Flexible Substrates for Printed Electronics",slug:"printing-technologies-on-flexible-substrates-for-printed-electronics",totalDownloads:3189,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:"Printing technologies have been demonstrated to be highly efficient and compatible with polymeric materials (both inks and substrates) enabling a new generation of flexible electronics applications. Conductive flexible polymers are a new class of materials that are prepared for a wide range of applications, such as photovoltaic solar cells, transistors molecular devices, and sensors and actuators. There are many possible printing techniques. This chapter provides an opportunity to review the most common printing techniques used at the industrial level, the most commonly used substrates and electronic materials, giving an overall vision for a better understanding and evaluation of their different features. Several technological solutions (contact/noncontact) and its critical challenges are also presented. Inkjet Printing Technology (IPT) has been receiving a great attention and therefore higher focus is given to this technology. An overview of IPT is presented to evidence its importance and potential as a key-technology on the research field for printed electronics development, as well as on large scale industrial manufacturing. A background and a review on prior work are presented along with used materials, developed applications and potential of IPT technology. The main features of the different printing technologies, advantages and main challenges are also compared.",book:{id:"6765",slug:"flexible-electronics",title:"Flexible Electronics",fullTitle:"Flexible Electronics"},signatures:"Sílvia Manuela Ferreira Cruz, Luís A. Rocha and Júlio C. Viana",authors:[{id:"15565",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",slug:"julio-viana",fullName:"Julio Viana"},{id:"238389",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvia",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"silvia-cruz",fullName:"Sílvia Cruz"},{id:"247716",title:"Prof.",name:"Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"luis-rocha",fullName:"Luís Rocha"}]},{id:"6637",title:"Ohmic Contacts for High Power and High Temperature Microelectronics",slug:"ohmic-contacts-for-high-power-and-high-temperature-microelectronics",totalDownloads:6113,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"3333",slug:"micro-electronic-and-mechanical-systems",title:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems",fullTitle:"Micro Electronic and Mechanical Systems"},signatures:"Lilyana Kolaklieva and Roumen Kakanakov",authors:null},{id:"60365",title:"Advanced Technologies for Large-Sized OLED Display",slug:"advanced-technologies-for-large-sized-oled-display",totalDownloads:1810,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Five years have passed, since the first 55″ full high-definition (FHD) OLED TV fabricated on Gen 8.5 glass was successfully launched into the TV market. For the time being, the size of OLED TV became diverse from 55″ to 77″, and the resolution was doubled into ultrahigh definition (UHD). The brightness and color gamut were enhanced, while the lower power consumption was realized. Utmost picture quality and slim form factor of OLED TV as well as the improved performance have made OLED TV recognized as the best premium TV. In this chapter, we describe the recent progress in three key technologies, which enable such an enhancement of performance in OLED TV, i.e., oxide thin-film transistor (TFT) and white organic light-emitting diode (WOLED), compensation circuit, and method to compensate the nonuniformity of oxide TFTs, OLED devices, and luminance.",book:{id:"6592",slug:"green-electronics",title:"Green Electronics",fullTitle:"Green Electronics"},signatures:"Chang Wook Han, Hong-Seok Choi, Chanki Ha, Hongjae Shin, Hyun\nChul Choi and In Byeong Kang",authors:[{id:"11132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chang Wook",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"chang-wook-han",fullName:"Chang Wook Han"},{id:"241122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",slug:"hong-seok-choi",fullName:"Hong Seok Choi"},{id:"241126",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanki",middleName:null,surname:"Ha",slug:"chanki-ha",fullName:"Chanki Ha"},{id:"241127",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Jae",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",slug:"hong-jae-shin",fullName:"Hong Jae Shin"},{id:"241132",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyun Chul",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",slug:"hyun-chul-choi",fullName:"Hyun Chul Choi"},{id:"241133",title:"Dr.",name:"In Byeong",middleName:null,surname:"Kang",slug:"in-byeong-kang",fullName:"In Byeong Kang"}]},{id:"58992",title:"Direct Growth of Graphene on Flexible Substrates toward Flexible Electronics: A Promising Perspective",slug:"direct-growth-of-graphene-on-flexible-substrates-toward-flexible-electronics-a-promising-perspective",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Graphene has recently been attracting considerable interest because of its exceptional conductivity, mechanical strength, thermal stability, etc. Graphene-based devices exhibit high potential for applications in flexible electronics, optoelectronics, and energy harvesting. In this paper, we review various growth strategies including metal-catalyzed transfer-free growth and direct-growth of graphene on flexible insulating substrates which are “major issues” for avoiding the complicated transfer process that cause graphene defects, residues, tears and performance degradation of its functional devices. Recent advances in practical applications based on “direct-grown graphene” are discussed. Finally, several important directions, challenges and perspectives in the commercialization of ‘direct growth of graphene’ are also discussed and addressed.",book:{id:"6765",slug:"flexible-electronics",title:"Flexible Electronics",fullTitle:"Flexible Electronics"},signatures:"Viet Phuong Pham",authors:[{id:"236073",title:"Dr.",name:"Phuong",middleName:"Viet",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuong-pham",fullName:"Phuong Pham"}]},{id:"61049",title:"Surface Modification of Polyimide Films for Inkjet-Printing of Flexible Electronic Devices",slug:"surface-modification-of-polyimide-films-for-inkjet-printing-of-flexible-electronic-devices",totalDownloads:1371,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Kapton polyimide films are one of the most commonly used flexible and robust substrates for flexible electronic devices due to their excellent thermal, chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties. However, such films feature an inert and highly hydrophobic surface that inhibits the deposition of functional materials with water-based fluids (solutions, suspensions, inkjet inks, etc.), which raise the need for their surface modification to reduce their inherent surface inertness and/or hydrophobicity in order to allow for the fabrication of electronic devices on the substrates. Traditional Kapton surface modification approaches use harsh conditions that not only cause environmental and safety problems but also compromise the structural integrity and the properties of the substrates. This chapter focuses on two recently-developed mild and environmentally friendly wet chemical approaches for surface modification of Kapton HN films. Unlike the traditional methods that target the polyimide matrix of Kapton films, these two methods target the slip additive embedded in the polyimide matrix. The surface modified Kapton films resulted from these two methods allowed for not only great printability of both water- and organic solvent-based inks (thus facilitating the full-inkjet-printing of entire flexible electronic devices) but also strong adhesion between the inkjet-printed traces and the substrate films.",book:{id:"6765",slug:"flexible-electronics",title:"Flexible Electronics",fullTitle:"Flexible Electronics"},signatures:"Yunnan Fang and Manos M. Tentzeris",authors:[{id:"83617",title:"Dr.",name:"Manos",middleName:null,surname:"Tentzeris",slug:"manos-tentzeris",fullName:"Manos Tentzeris"},{id:"240624",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunnan",middleName:null,surname:"Fang",slug:"yunnan-fang",fullName:"Yunnan Fang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"741",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/427722",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"427722"},fullPath:"/profiles/427722",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()