MSE versus neurons in the hidden layer for static neural network.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1311",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Cancer Therapy",title:"Advances in Cancer Therapy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book \"Advances in Cancer Therapy\" is a new addition to the Intech collection of books and aims at providing scientists and clinicians with a comprehensive overview of the state of current knowledge and latest research findings in the area of cancer therapy. For this purpose research articles, clinical investigations and review papers that are thought to improve the readers' understanding of cancer therapy developments and/or to keep them up to date with the most recent advances in this field have been included in this book. With cancer being one of the most serious diseases of our times, I am confident that this book will meet the patients', physicians' and researchers' needs.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-703-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6579-8",doi:"10.5772/1780",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"advances-in-cancer-therapy",numberOfPages:580,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"24db071212f134f4a7dc3dc0cc786fec",bookSignature:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib",publishedDate:"November 21st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1311.jpg",numberOfDownloads:70695,numberOfWosCitations:72,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:142,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 15th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 21st 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,10",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"57145",title:"Prof.",name:"Hala",middleName:null,surname:"Gali-Muhtasib",slug:"hala-gali-muhtasib",fullName:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57145/images/system/57145.jpg",biography:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib is a tenured Professor of Cell and Cancer Biology at the American University of Beirut (AUB), Lebanon. She received her PhD from Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA and joined AUB in 1994. She assumed many administrative positions at AUB including Interim Associate Provost, Chair of Enrollment Management, Chair of Biology Department and Director of Center for Drug Discovery. She is a prominent scholar with outstanding scientific contributions to the study of the role of natural products in cancer therapy and identifying their cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. She has published 95 peer reviewed articles, more than 10 book chapters and has edited a few books. 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by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56846",title:"Solar Radiation Prediction Using NARX Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70570",slug:"solar-radiation-prediction-using-narx-model",body:'\nThe human brain, like every vital organ, is constituted of a set of cells which are called neurons. It is through this organ that we can learn and reason, reflect and memorize. The geniality of human brain and more particularly of its neurons motivates several researchers to interest to this research and to benefit from its biological aspect. The idea was to reproduce, in an artificial way, the behaviors observed in man. It was in 1943 that the first artificial neural network was created by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts. It is a simple elementary processor imitating the structure and the functioning from the biological neuron. Artificial neural network is characterized by its capacity of learning and generalizing. It represents a very powerful tool; it provided multiple solutions to different complex problems. In these recent years, its effectiveness is proved in various researches fields. Artificial neural network are subdivided on two main groups, the static and dynamic neural network. The choice of the one or the other neural network type depends on the application to be processed and the complexity of model. For static neural network, information propagates in a single direction, layer by layer, and from the inlet to the outlet. They are generally used in various applications such as classifications, pattern recognition, and functions approximation. The connectivity between neurons in dynamic neural network is not limited. Each neuron can send and receive information from all other neurons. The dynamic neural network architecture includes frequently one or more cycles which necessarily contain at least one delay connection. This gives rise to the dynamism notion. This neural network type is more complex than the static one, but it is more efficient for some particular applications such as dynamic modeling, monitoring, and process control. In this chapter, nonlinear autoregressive models with exogenous input (NARX) model, as type of dynamic neural network, will be used to the solar radiation prediction. Simulation results will be presented to prove the effectiveness of this model compared to the static one.
\nStatic neural network was the first and simplest type. It is a nonlooped network since it does not contain a feedback or delay connection [1]. It is a statistical regression tool which allows the approximation of any nonlinear function sufficiently regular. The neural architecture of this network is presented as shown in \nFigure 1\n. It imitates the structure of the biological neuron. It is composed of a set of layers. The hidden one allows to receive a variable number of inputs, and information is moved only from inputs directly through hidden layer to the output layer without cycles or loops. Each connection is associated with a synaptic weight w, which represents the strength of each connection. The negative weight inhibits its input, while the positive weight accentuates it.
\nStatic neural architecture.
NARX model is the abbreviation of “nonlinear autoregressive models with exogenous input”. It is registered under recurrent dynamic neural networks. It is a nonlinear autoregressive model with exogenous inputs. NARX consists of a linear ARX model with two delays, one for input and the other for output. It is based on the multilayer perceptron and the recurring connections. Its effectiveness has been proven in the research work presented in [2] to predict the PV power. It is also used in other applications such as the electricity prices prediction and the air pollution prediction [3, 4, 5]. This model is commonly used for the time series, estimation, and prediction as well as for nonlinear dynamic systems modeling. Compared to other neural network types, NARX model is characterized by a good learning, fast convergence, and better generalization [6]. The PV power prediction results presented in [2] have proven an improvement performance when using NARX model compared to those obtained using the static neural network. NARX model performances are also compared to those of static neural network and radial neural network in the research works presented in [7]. NARX gave also the best prediction results in these studies.
\nNARX model defines the output as a function of its inputs and its past outputs as described in the following equation [8],
\nWhere u represents the exogenous data and y are the NARX model outputs. du and dy present respectively delays order of inputs u and outputs y. \nFigure 2\n presents the NARX model standard architecture.
\nNARX model standard architecture.
For example, the NARX architecture of a neural network composed of three inputs, one output and six neurons in its hidden layer is presented as shown in the \nFigure 3\n.
\nExample NARX model standard architecture
Learning and generalization are two specifics properties that characterize any neural network. Unlike traditional methods that build programs to solve a problem, neural network operates mainly on a learning basis. We do not program a neural network, but we learn it. This is why the learning phase is among the most important properties of neural network.
\nThe learning phase consists to estimate the parameter of the network in such a way that it can best fulfill the task assigned to it. This phase cannot be effective only after having accumulated a set of inputs/outputs. When creating a neural network, the inputs and outputs are fixed relative to the application to be accomplished, it is the network weights that are modified and adjusted during the learning phase. The weight adjustment cannot be done in a random way but according to a “learning algorithm.” The generalization phase, known also the test phase, is one of the characteristics that determines the neural network performance. It consists to treat the output network with respect to the nonlearned inputs. The network generalization capacity degrades in the case of under/on learning.
\nIn the present work, solar radiation will be predicted firstly with static neural network and then with NARX model. This study begins firstly with the observation of the solar radiation data base. In fact, the data base used in this work is composed of a set of solar radiation and temperature measurements correspond to an industrial company located on north of Barcelona [9]. These measurements are taken every day and every 5 minutes throughout 2010. In \nFigure 4\n, the daily evolution of solar radiation during 2010 is presented.
\nSolar radiation daily evolution during 2010.
As shown in the above figure, the presented database is so large. So in order to reduce this annual solar radiation descriptive curve, just the solar radiation weekly averages will be taken into consideration in the solar radiation prediction. The curve presented in \nFigure 4\n is thus reduced as presented in \nFigure 5\n.
\nWeekly evolution of solar radiation during 2010.
In this paragraph, solar radiation will be predicted using the static neural network. Inputs chosen for this neural network are the temperature and the output will be the radiation as presented in \nFigure 6\n.
\nInputs and the output for the static neural network.
To determine the optimal neural structure for this network, the learning and test performances are treated for different neurons in the hidden layer. The transfer functions chosen for the hidden layer and for the output layer are respectively “tansig” and “purelin.” As presented in \nTable 1\n, the optimal neurons number obtained for this static neural network is equal to 2. The simulation results of learning, test, and validation obtained with this structure are presented in \nFigure 7\n.
\nNumber of neurons | \nMSE | \n
---|---|
1 | \n0.0288 | \n
\n | \n\n | \n
3 | \n0.0140 | \n
4 | \n0.0041 | \n
5 | \n0.0071 | \n
6 | \n0.0298 | \n
7 | \n0.0043 | \n
8 | \n0.0058 | \n
9 | \n0.0106 | \n
10 | \n0.0097 | \n
MSE versus neurons in the hidden layer for static neural network.
Learning, test, and validation of static neural network.
The optimal neural structure for the static neural network is thus composed of temperature (T) as input, radiation (R) as output, and one hidden layer which contains two neurons as shown in \nFigure 8\n.
\nOptimal neural architecture for the static neural network.
The results of solar radiations prediction with static neural network are presented in \nFigure 9.\nAll inputs are normalized, so the maximum solar radiation value is equal to 1. The blue curve corresponds to the real solar radiation, and the red one corresponds to the predicted one. As shown in the figure, the predicted solar radiation follows the evolution of the real one, but there is not an approximation between the two curves. This is remarked especially when the solar radiation fluctuations are so important. To better treat these results, prediction error is presented in \nFigure 10\n, and the different error mean square error (MSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean square error (RMSE) are computed and presented in \nTable 2\n.
\nSolar radiation prediction using the static neural network.
Solar radiation prediction error with the static neural network.
Error | \nPerformances | \n
---|---|
MSE | \n0.0516 | \n
MAE | \n0.2076 | \n
RMSE | \n0.2272 | \n
MSE, MAE, and RMSE for solar radiation prediction with static neural network.
\n\nFigure 11\nshows that the prediction error is variable. It reaches a maximum value of 0.5 and a minimum value of 0.02. This is shows the performances of static neural network to predict the solar radiation for certain period of time and its weakness to predict it in other periods. The MSE value is equal to 0.0516; it is lower than MAE and RMSE. It is not considered too small, thus shows the inefficiency of the static neural network to best predict the solar radiation.
\nInputs and output for the NARX model.
In this part, solar radiation will be predicted using the NARX model. As presented in the previous paragraph, to predict a future value, NARX model is based on the historical data related to this value and involves some exogenous data. As temperature influences the solar radiation variation, it is chosen as an exogenous data. So the NARX model inputs will be the historical solar radiation data and temperature data as presented in \nFigure 11\n.
\nThe hidden layers number and their neurons must be chosen in such a way that they offer the best network performances in learning and in generalization. So in this paragraph, the network performances will be treated for different neural network architecture. Inputs for NARX model correspond to the historical solar radiations (R(t−1) and R(t−2)) and the ambient temperatures (T(t−1) and T(t−2)). The output will be the predicted solar radiation at time t (R(t)) as presented in \nFigure 12\n. The transfer functions used for the hidden layer and for the output layer are respectively “tansig” and “purelin.”
\nNeural architecture for the NARX model.
First, the network performances will be studied with just one neuron in the hidden layer; then, number of neurons will be incremented and the network performances will be restudied. Network performances are treated by the compute of the mean square error of learning and test (MSE). The optimal neural structure corresponds to the one which presented the minimal MSE. Simulations results for this study are presented in\nTable 3\n and in \nFigure 13\n. The optimal neural architecture obtained is the one which its hidden layer contains five neurons as presented in \nFigure 14\n.
\nNumber of neurons | \nMSE | \n
---|---|
1 | \n0.0047 | \n
2 | \n0.0217 | \n
3 | \n0.0122 | \n
4 | \n0.0072 | \n
\n | \n\n | \n
6 | \n0.0016 | \n
7 | \n0.0076 | \n
8 | \n0.0258 | \n
9 | \n0.0784 | \n
10 | \n0.0460 | \n
MSE versus neurons in hidden layer for NARX model.
Learning, test and validation of NARX model.
Optimal neural architecture for the NARX model.
Based on this neural network, solar radiation is predicted by NARX model. Simulation results are presented in \nFigure 15\n. The blue curve corresponds to the real solar radiation, and the red curve corresponds to the predicted one. As obtained with the static neural network, the predicted solar radiation follows the evolution of the real one. Furthermore, an approximation between the real and predicted curves is remarked, the two curves are overlapped for certain period of time especially when the solar radiation fluctuations are low. So an improvement in the quality of solar radiation prediction with NARX model is remarked compared to that obtained with the static neural network.
\nSolar radiation predicted by NARX.
To the best evaluation of the NARX model performances, the solar radiation prediction error is presented in \nFigure 16\n. The different error MSE, MAE, and RMSE are computed and presented in \nTable 4\n. As presented in \nFigure 16\n, the maximum error reaches the value of 0.42, and the minimum one is equal to 0. MSE is always the lowest one. It indicates a value of 0.0348. It is low compared to this one obtained with static neural network. Therefore, the performance of NARX model is proven in this work to predict the solar radiation.
\nSolar radiation prediction error with NARX model.
Error | \nPerformances | \n
---|---|
MSE | \n0.0348 | \n
MAE | \n0.1360 | \n
RMSE | \n0.1864 | \n
MSE, MAE, and RMSE for solar radiation prediction with NARX model.
In this chapter, the solar radiation is predicted using two different neural networks, the static one and the NARX model. Simulations results are presented and are proven the effectiveness of NARX model to predict the solar radiation compared to the static neural network. The efficiency of NARX model is proven especially for the low solar radiation fluctuations. The NARX model is characterized by the presence of a direct feedback of the output which has given it an additional predictive power.
\nSpecific definition of nanofibers can vary from one discipline to another, but according to one of the most common descriptions, fibers with a diameter below 100 nm are referred as nanofibers. Nanofibers have two alike dimensions (diameter) in the nanoscale and a third dimension, which is significantly larger (length). Going back to its origins, nanofibers are produced for the first time by Formhals (1934) by electrospinning of cellulose acetate solution. Although electrospinning process was used before Formhals, no one was able to form long filaments due to the use of inelastic Newtonian fluids [1]. The use of viscoelasticity in the solutions led the formation of nanofibers because the applied electric field caused a considerable reduction of the fiber diameter due to the bending instability, which is later mentioned by Reneker [2]. Forming fibers in nanoscale was a major drawback at that time, and not much attention was paid to the topic until the breakthrough of nanotechnology in the late 1990s. After almost 60–70 years later, Formhals’ work was appreciated, understood, and widened [3].
Nanofibers have many advantages because of their scales, which gave them high aspect ratio (length/diameter value) above 200 and high surface area. And because almost all their properties are tunable, one can select and use nanofibers in numerous applications. The vital point of nanofiber technology is the availability of a wide range of materials such as natural and synthetic polymers, composites, metals, metal oxides, carbon-based materials, etc., which can be used for fiber production process [4].
Types of nanofibers can vary due to their nature, structure, and composition. According to its nature, one can produce natural or engineered nanofibers while one can produce nonporous, porous, hollow, core-shell nanofibers due to its structure. It is also possible to blend fiber materials to acquire a composition that can be organic, inorganic, carbon-based, or a composite [5]. When all the advantages considered (high aspect ratio, tunable properties, ability to form 3D networks, etc.), nanofibers are perfect nominee for different biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering (TE), regenerative medicine, drug delivery, nanoparticle delivery, etc. [6].
This chapter mainly focuses on the different production methods of nanofibers, their characterization techniques, recent developments in tissue engineering applications.
Nanofiber production techniques can be divided into two main class: top-down and bottom-up approaches. Chemical and mechanical methods are considered in top-down approaches. In top-down techniques, nanofibers are formed from bulk materials. On the other hand, in bottom-up approaches such as electrospinning, drawing, phase separation, etc., nanofiber formation occurs from composing molecules. This chapter mainly focuses on bottom-up approaches since they are the widely used class of nanofiber production methods.
Electrospinning (ES) directly emerged from electrospraying (Electrohydrodynamic spray (EHD)), which was discovered by Morton and Cooley in 1902. Both methods depend on dispersing fluids by using electrostatic forces. There is one important distinction between these methods. By using ES, continuous fibers can be produced, whereas only small droplets are formed in EHD. After the electrospinning method was found to be more suitable for producing nanofibers rather than EHD, this method received more attention, and more studies were carried out in this field. As a result of these studies over the years, electrospinning method has undergone many modifications. By using different types of ES, one can produce hollow fibers, core-shell fibers, nanoparticles, or drug-incorporated fibers, etc.
For traditional ES, three main components are needed: (i) a high voltage source, (ii) syringe pump (nozzle), and (iii) a grounded collector (Figure 1a). The nozzle is preferably a metallic needle with a blunt tip to proper observation of the Taylor cone. During the ES process, first certain amount of polymeric solution (preferably dissolved in a volatile solvent with a w:v ratio.) is placed into a proper syringe and then to the syringe pump. Then high voltage is applied to the tip of the nozzle, and the elongating conical shape of the droplet is observed. To form nanofibers, the electrostatic force has to overcome the surface tension of the droplet, then Taylor Cone occurs at the tip of the nozzle, and a charged jet ejects from the Taylor Cone, resulting in the formation of nanofibers following by the fast evaporation of the solvent [10].
(a) Traditional electrospinning setup, (b) multijet electrospinning setup, and (c) coaxial electrospinning setup. (a and c were reproduced with the permission from Gonçalves et al. [
Morphology of the formed fibers can be controlled by many factors such as flow rate of the syringe pump, concentration of the polymer solution, collector type, solution viscosity, applied voltage, distance between the collector and the nozzle, diameter of the nozzle, etc. And each of these factors affects the fiber morphology significantly. For example, by increasing the voltage, fiber diameter can be decreased, low polymer concentrations can cause electrospraying rather than electrospinning, or increasing the flow rate can reduce the fiber diameter [11]. So, all these parameters have to be optimized before the ES process began in order to obtain fibers with maximum performance.
This method is also called “Multi Needle ES” in the literature. The reason for its development is to improve the productivity and produce composite fibers that cannot be dissolved in regular solvents (Figure 1b).
Needle diameter, needle number, and configuration play an important role in this approach such as the other ES methods. Unfortunately, this method holds one major drawback, which is a strong repulsion among the jets because of the multi needle system. This repulsion, which is generated by the coulomb force, may cause reduced fiber deposition and poor fiber quality. To avoid this problem, needles must be oriented at appropriate distance [12].
Coaxial ES method is used to form core-shell nanofibers by using multiple syringe pumps or one syringe pump with multiple feeding systems. Mainly, a polymer and a composite solution, one is to form shell and the other is to form core parts, can be used individually, or two different polymer solutions can be employed as forerunner solutions (Figure 1c). Directed by the electrostatic repulsions between the surface charges, the polymer solution, which will form the shell part of the composite nanofibers, will be lengthened and will create viscous stress. After that this stress will be delivered to the core layer, and the polymer solution, which will form the core part, will be promptly stretched. As a result, composite jets will be formed, which will have coaxial structures [13].
Addition to the conventional ES setup, melt ES technique requires a heating device such as heat guns, lasers, or electrical heating devices (Figure 2a). Polymer solution must stay in its molten state by a constant heat source. Main difference between melt ES and conventional ES method is the fiber formation process. In melt ES, instead of a solution, a molten polymer is used, and desired product is obtained on cooling; however, in conventional ES, fibers are formed with the help of solvent evaporation [14]. Other than this difference, the parameters that affect the fiber diameter, fiber quality, and the ES process are the same with the conventional ES method.
(a) Melt electrospinning setup, (b) centrifugal electrospinning setup, and (c) magnetic-field-assisted electrospinning setup. (a was reproduced with the permission from Brown et al. [
Main advantages of this method can be described as the absence of a solvent system and the high throughput rate of the polymer. This method can be used with the polymers that do not have a suitable solvent at room temperature. But in most of the cases, one of the major problems of melt ES is broad fiber diameter range due to the high viscosity of the melt polymer. Because of the high viscosity of the polymer, greater charge is required to initiate the jets. To reduce the fiber diameter or to obtain fibers with uniform diameters, some research groups used polymer blends or additives [17]. Requirement of high temperatures to melt the polymer can also be a disadvantage at this point. The melting temperature of the polymer can affect the structure and function of these additives (e.g., proteins, drugs, etc.) [18]. This situation makes selection and optimization steps critical.
Centrifugal ES is known by force spinning or rotary spinning as well. In this method, the electric field is replaced with a centrifugal force, which distinguishes centrifugal ES from conventional ES. Fiber formation is almost the same with conventional ES with a slight difference, instead of electric field, rotating speed surpasses the critical point to form a Taylor cone, and then the liquid jet gets ejected from the needle (Figure 2b) [19]. Therefore, rotating speed is one of the key parameters that determines the quality of the fibers along with the nozzle configuration, collector type, temperature, etc.
There are many advantages of this system due to the use of centrifugal force in place of electric field. Numerous conductive and nonconductive polymers can be electrospun with this method. Because no high voltage is needed, this method lightens safety-related concerns greatly. By adjusting the rotating speed, production efficiency can be improved, and large-scale production is allowed as well. Main limitations of conventional ES process (high voltage, misdirection of the jet, high cost, etc.) can be eliminated with this method. Aside of the advantages, the main disadvantage of this method is the spinneret design and material properties, which can highly affect the fiber quality and the yield of the process [20].
In this method, magnetic properties are gained by incorporating magnetic nanoparticles to the polymer solution or using polymers that can respond to magnetic field (Figure 2c). This magnetic field can be obtained by two parallel permanent magnets, Helmholtz coils, or a magnetic field responder solution [21]. Besides mixing different polymers, adding non-polymeric materials (e.g., metals, ceramics, etc.) is another approach by which magnetic-field-assisted ES can be used. Fibers that are maintained with this method are reported to be more uniform. By using magnetic field fiber splitting from the jet can be prevented because of the magnetic field orientation. High velocity of the process supports smaller fiber diameter [22].
Some researchers proposed a new technique called “Needleless ES” to avoid the limitation caused by the capillaries and needles. Basis of this approach relies on a single principle, which is: Waves of an electrically conductive liquid self-organize on a mesoscopic scale and form jets when the intensity of the applied electrical field rises above a critical value (Figure 3a). Setup of the system can be divided in two groups: one of which is ES with a constrained feeding system and ES with an unconstrained feeding system. For the first system, a supply for the polymer solution, which is afterward injected into a closed nozzle, is preferred. On the contrary, for the second system, no nozzles are needed because the Taylor cones are formed on a free liquid surface. For both groups, high voltage source is a must to attract the polymer jets into nanofibers [25].
(a) Needleless electrospinning setup, (b) emulsion electrospinning setup. (a was reproduced with the permission from Li et al. [
With the use of multiple jets without the needles, chances to increase the production rate of nanofibers are higher compared with the traditional ES systems. Some studies report an increase in polymer yield compared with single-needle solution and an improvement in fiber deposition, in opposition to multi-needle ES, which resulted from a reduction in mutual fiber repulsion [26].
Emulsion ES is developed to produce fibers from two immiscible solutions. To blend these immiscible solutions and obtain an emulsion, vigorous stirring is required. Then this emulsion is loaded a glass syringe connected to a needle and a high voltage source (Figure 3b). Because this emulsion contains two immiscible solutions, fibers are difficult to produce due to properties and immiscible phases of these solutions. To overcome these difficulties, nanoparticles and surfactants such as detergents, sodium dodecyl sulfate, etc., are generally used. Even with this solution, there is a constant necessity for the emulsion to stay stable through the ES process, which is a major drawback [27, 28].
Wet spinning (WS) is an alternative nanofiber fabrication method for polymers that are derived from natural sources. It is much cheaper and simpler in comparison to any ES method. Because there is no high voltage source, it is much easier to load therapeutic agents into fibers, which expands the range of polymers from natural or synthetic sources handled by means of WS [29]. It is also a developing approach, but it is possible to gather wet-spun nanofibers to produce biodegradable and biocompatible scaffolds with a 3D network for regenerative medicine approaches. This method is mainly based on extrusion of a polymeric solution into a coagulation bath where the solution in the coagulation bath contains a poor solvent or solvent/non-solvent mixture (Figure 4).
Wet spinning setup. (Figure was reproduced and adapted with the permission from Wang et al. [
Main goal here is to obtain coagulating fibers in the coagulation bath, which at the end solidifies as a constant fiber, as the extrusion process continues. Typical WS setup composed of a needle contains the polymeric solution, which is placed in a syringe pump and a coagulation medium. The needle must be immersed in the medium to initiate fiber coagulation. Different strategies have been developed for the collection or assembly of the fibers such as rotating drum, 3D assembly of the fibers by thermomechanical treatments, manually or computer-controlled motion of the coagulation bath or the needle, etc. After the WS setup is complete, quality and final morphology of the fibers still depend on several parameters, which include temperature, solvent system, properties of the selected polymer, needle diameter, flow rate of the syringe pump [31].
Drawing technique is usually used to produce continuous individual nanofibers. It is based on a sharp probe tip or a micropipette, which is soaked into the edge of the droplet deposited on a container. Then the sharp tip is withdrawn from the solution with a constant rate (usually 100 μm/s) to fabricate liquid fibers. The drawn nanofibers will be deposited on the surface by contacting the surface with the edge of the micropipette (Figure 5a). To form a 3D structure or a network, this process was repeated several times for every droplet [33], and continuous fibers in many adjustments can be fabricated with drawing method to use in biomedical applications.
(a) Drawing method, (b) template synthesis method, and (c) phase separation method. (Figures were adapted from Ramakrishna et al. [
In addition, specific control of the drawing process parameters such as drawing speed, viscosity, properties of the used polymer allows repeatability of the process, control of the fiber quality and fiber dimensions. Besides the advantages such as fabricating continuous fibers, simplicity, and the cost-effectiveness of the process, there are also some limitations. Because drawing causes nanofibers to be produced one single fiber at a time, productivity of this process is low. The only material type that can be used in this process is viscoelastic materials. Viscoelastic materials can resist the increased stress produced by drawing, and they can preserve their integration while going through a strong deformation [34].
Template synthesis method allows to produce solid or hollow, discontinuous nanofibers with different properties such as polymeric, metallic, ceramic, semiconductor nanofibers. It is possible to convert multiple materials into fibrils or tubules in nanoscale diameter to use them in many applications, which include regenerative medicine, electronics, optoelectronics, gas sensors, etc. [35].
This method relies on the usage of a nanoporous membrane as a template/mold, containing cylindrical pores. The template/mold often refers to a metal oxide membrane such as aluminum oxide membranes or silica-based membranes, etc. Nanofibers are formed by passing through the polymer solution from the pores of the nanoporous membrane/template (Figure 5b). During the extrusion, polymer solution comes in contact with the solidifying solution and nanofibers are formed. The major disadvantage of this method is the continuity of the fibers. Only a few micrometers long fibers can be obtained with this method, and the diameter of these fibers depends on the pore size of the template [36]. By using template with different pore sizes, a variety of diameters can be achieved with template synthesis.
Phase separation method was developed by Zhang and Ma to mimic the 3D structure of collagen under the name of thermally induced liquid-liquid phase separation (Figure 5c). This method is mainly composed of five stages, which include preparing a homogeneous polymer solution, phase separation process, gelation, extraction of the solvent, freezing, and freeze-drying under the vacuum. Polymer solution is often prepared by dissolving the polymer at room temperature. Then the solution reaches the gelation temperature, which is the most critical step in this method because the duration of gelation depends on the concentration of the polymer and the gelation temperature. If the polymer acquires high gelation temperature, platelet-like structures are formed due to the nucleation of crystals so low gelation temperatures are required for this process. After gelation step was completed, solvent was extracted from the gel with water, and the freeze-drying stage was applied to the final product [37, 38].
For this method, minimum equipment is needed. Nanofiber matrix can be directly fabricated, and by adjusting the polymer concentration, properties of the matrix can be accustomed. Process parameters such as polymer concentration, polymer type, solvent type, etc., were found to influence the nanofiber quality, morphology, and the final nanofibrous matrix. The matrix fabricated by the phase separation method exhibits high porosity of almost 98% within the overall material. The major drawback of this method is that only a few polymers (e.g., polylactide, polyglycolide, etc.) can be used to obtain nanofibers by phase separation due to the fact that not all polymers are compatible with this process since it requires a certain gelation capability [39].
This method relies on the idea of spontaneous organization of amphiphile compounds, which can be considered as active molecules (Figure 6). Because self-assembly is a bottom-up fabrication method, it is based on gathering small units together by the help of intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic reactions, biomolecule-specific interactions, etc. These units will organize and arrange themselves to form macromolecular nanofibers.
Self-assembly method. (Figure was adapted from Xu et al. [
The overall shape of the nanofibers is determined by the shape of small units. With this method, it is possible to produce nanofibers smaller than 100 nm with a length of several micrometers, but the process is time-consuming. Also, low productivity, difficult control of the fiber dimensions, and limited active compound choices, which can self-assemble themselves, are the main disadvantages of self-assembly method [41].
This method depends on two different monomers, which can dissolve in different phases. Basically, this is a polycondensation reaction between two reactive monomers, which are dissolved in immiscible solvents. After these two different phases are prepared and mixed, polymerization will occur at the interface of the emulsion droplet. Homogeneous nucleated growth is the key factor in interfacial polymerization [42]. By separating the monomer precursors in different phases, localized reaction and nanofiber formation can be achieved (Figure 7).
Snapshots showing interfacial polymerization of aniline in a water/chloroform system. From a to e, the reaction times are 0, 1.5, 2.5, 4, and 10 min, respectively. (Figure was reproduced and adapted with the permission from Huang et al. [
By selecting different kinds of monomers, a variety of polymers can be synthesized. The properties and quality of the nanofibers are highly dependent on the reactivity and concentration of the monomers, reactive groups attached to the monomers, and the stability of the interface [44].
Nanofibers can be produced by many different methods according to the area in which they are to be used. After choosing the appropriate production method for the application area and producing the nanofibers, some characterization studies are required to examine the quality, composition, morphology, and structure of the nanofibers. Characterization methods are still improving, and request for the establishment of effective techniques is continuously increasing. Therefore, commonly used methods for the characterization of nanofibers are described below.
Generally, microscopic imaging techniques are routinely used to observe fiber diameters, alignment, porous structure, fiber morphology, and orientation. With scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging, high-resolution images of a scaffold surface can be obtained and surface properties (roughness, porosity, smoothness, etc.) can be determined.
In order to obtain a high-resolution image from scaffolds, samples have to be conductive, so sputtering with a thin layer of a conductive metal such as gold or titanium is a common modification for nonconductive samples. After sputtering, an electron gun is used to produce beams as a cathode source and focuses by electromagnetic lenses to an exact spot on the sample. Selected spot is shaped by deflection coils so that the surface of the sample can be scanned. This procedure depends on the interaction between the beam and the secondary electrons, which are produced from the sample. Interaction between the secondary electrons from the surface of the sample and the electron beam is monitored, amplified, and illustrated in the form of an image of the surface (Figure 8a) [45].
(a) Schematic image of scanning electron microscope, and (b) schematic image of transmission electron microscope. (Figures are reproduced from
For the first evaluation of the nanofiber scaffolds, SEM is the most common characterization method due to its availability and the ease of use. It is possible to determine the porosity, the width, and length of pores on the surface, which can help understand the structure of the nanofibers [46]. To analyze the qualitative characteristics of the nanofibers, a convenient number of samples are needed to obtain statistical information about the materials.
Evaluation of nanofibers, cells, living organisms, or biological materials is also possible without any coating treatment required by using environmental SEM (ESEM). In this characterization method, the electron beam is wielded under water vapor environment. The ionization of water prevents the accumulation of the surface charges, which allows nonconductive materials to be evaluated without any modifications.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) technology is considered one of the most important characterization techniques because of its ability to evaluate the interior structure of the samples. The pore structure of the scaffolds can be clearly seen by the images taken with TEM. The pore size and distribution of scaffolds are crucial parameters in tissue engineering field due to the fact that these parameters directly affect the ability of the cells to penetrate through the pores of the material. Similar to SEM imaging, TEM also yields two-dimensional (2D) images of nanofibers and pores as well [45, 46, 47].
The common method includes transmitting electron beams through the ultrathin part of the samples, which causes a phase shift in portion of the electrons. When the incoming electron beam descends from the microscope column, it interacts with the sample fluorescent screen. And then the electron beam hits the sample, which leads a large amount of radiation to be emitted from the sample. This interaction causes the elastic and inelastic scattering of the emitted electrons. Images that take origin from the elastically scattered electrons allow the observation of the structure of the scaffolds or the defects at a high resolution (Figure 8b). Ultrathin samples are required for TEM evaluation (~20–200 μm) because electron beams are absorbed completely by the thick samples and no image can be formed. It is a very common characterization technique, but it is also a detrimental technique as well because of the possibility to damage the samples, especially the biological samples, by the electron beam going through them [45, 46].
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique is mostly used for the evaluation of surface topography. The analytical capabilities of AFM are limited to the uppermost atomic layer of a sample because its operation is based on the interactions with the electron clouds of atoms at the surface. This technique also gives information about morphology, surface roughness, fiber orientation, and particle/grain distribution from the surface of the samples [45].
In this technique, a small tip is attached to a cantilever, and when the tip encounters with the sample surface, Van der Waals and electrostatic interactions between atoms at the tip and those on the surface create a force profile and cause attraction of the tip to the surface. A photodiode detector detects the changes and converts them into data, which are later to be converted into images (Figure 9) [45, 49].
Atomic force microscopy setup. (Figure is reproduced with the permission from Deng et al. [
The operation of AFM can be carried out by three modes depending on the application: contact, noncontact, and tapping modes. The contact mode measures the repulsion between the tip and the surface of the sample where the force of the tip against sample surface remains constant. At this mode, sensitive samples can be damaged because scanning requires constant contact of the tip to the surface. The noncontact mode on the other hand measures the attractive forces between the tip and the sample surface. Van der Waals forces between the tip and the sample surface are detected. Characterization of soft materials is often made with noncontact mode. At last, the tapping mode depends on the vertical oscillation of the tip. The tip contacts the surface of the sample and then lifts off at a certain frequency. Oscillation amplitude reduces as the tip contacts the surface due to the loss of energy. This mode overcomes problems with friction, adhesion, and electrostatic forces [49].
X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy is a safe non-damaging characterization technique, which can be performed on wide range of materials such as minerals, metals, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, etc. This technique is mostly applied to evaluate structural properties of the samples such as phase formation, crystallite size, lattice strain, contents of each phase, and crystal structure. The wavelength of X-Rays (0.5–50 A°) is similar to the distance between atoms in a solid, they are ideal for exploring atomic arrangement in crystal structure [46].
XRD, rather than measuring how the absorbance of X-rays affects the sample, examines how X-rays are diffracted from the atoms in a sample. Diffraction occurs when incident rays are scattered by atoms in a way that reinforces the waves (Figure 10). Working principle of XRD is basically a filament is heated to produce electrons in a cathode tube. By applying voltage, electrons are accelerated toward the sample and the sample is bombarded with electrons. Characteristic X-ray spectra are produced when electrons have enough energy to remove the inner shell electrons of the target sample. These X-rays are adjusted and located onto the sample, and the intensity of the reflected X-rays is recorded. Then these recorded signals are processed and converted to a count rate and directed to a printer or a computer monitor as an output [51].
Working principle of X-ray diffraction. (Figure is adapted from Kaur et al. [
Thermal methods can be examined under two categories: (a) differential thermal analysis and (b) thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Differential analysis depends on the changes in heat content, which is measured as a function of increasing temperature. On the other hand, thermogravimetric analysis depends on the changes in weight, which is measured as a function of increasing temperature (Figure 11) [53].
Thermogravmetric analysis diagram. (Figure is adapted from Loganathan et al. [
TGA technique relies on the use of uniform heating to decompose all organic contents at high temperature, which eventually gives information about the compositions of the sample. Mainly, by increasing the temperature at a constant rate, the decrease in the mass of the sample is recorded. The sample is located on a balance with a platinum melting pot, which is placed inside a furnace, and the procedure is generally carried on under air gas. As a result of this analysis, mass against temperature or time plot is obtained to measure the changes in the physical and chemical properties of the sample. The obtained data provide information about thermal stability of the remained sample, dehydration, pyrolysis, solid/gas interactions, etc. [54]
Mechanical characterization of the scaffolds plays a critical role in tissue engineering applications. The designed scaffold’s mechanical properties have to match the mechanical properties of the desired tissue. The mechanical strength of a scaffolds is crucial especially for in vivo applications, where the scaffold exposed mechanical loading repeatedly.
Most common characterization technique for nanofibrous scaffolds is tensile testing or nano-tensile testing. The theory is based on the attachment of the scaffold from both sides to the grips of the tensile testing machine and then pulling the scaffold with a constant rate until the rupture occurs (Figure 12a). The results give information about the stress-strain values, modulus, and strength of the scaffolds. But there are two limitations, which need to be overcome. Firstly, sample gripping is a problem because fibers tend to slip from the grips or break at the grips. These machines generally are not equipped to perform under micro sizes, so the small size of the specimen is a major limitation for this process. Second, alignment of the scaffolds is needed because randomly oriented fibers may lead to premature sample failure due to unwanted bending caused by misalignment [56].
(a) Tensile testing of nanofiber scaffolds, and (b) nanoscale bending test schematic. (a was author’s unpublished thesis images, b was reproduced with the permission from Zhou et al. [
Another characterization technique that is widely used is bending test for nanofibers (nanoscale three-point bending test). The capability of an AFM system to apply forces in the nano/pico-Newton range and measure the deformation in the range of Angstroms has made this characterization method very useful. The nanofiber sample is produced or deposited on a substrate with holes in it. Then the nanofiber is positioned such that a part of it is suspended over a hole. The adhesion between the sample and the substrate is enough for the test to be performed without a failure (Figure 12b). With three-point bending test, Young modulus and fracture strength can be obtained. The downside of this method is that it is only limited to samples that can be produced using AFM anodization [45, 56].
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) technique is one of the most powerful characterization techniques because of the ability of giving chemical information about the surface of the material, both elemental and molecular composition (Figure 13a). It can also differentiate chemical states of the same element to determine their depth distribution at a thickness between 5 and 10 nm. Useful electron signal is obtained only from a depth around 10–100 A° on the surface. Basically, the surface is irradiated by hitting the core electrons of the atoms. X-ray absorption causes the removal of an electron from one of the innermost atomic orbitals, and the kinetic energy of the emitted electron is recorded. The recorded kinetic energy is then converted into a spectrum by a computer. Binding energies of the elements from the sample will be determined according to the peaks from the spectrum. In literature, the kinetic energy and binding energy values assigned to each element can be found. This method often requires an argon ion bombardment step to eliminate surface impurities [45, 59].
(a) Working principle of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and (b) schematic of Fourier’s transform infrared spectroscopy. (a was adapted from Seyama et al. [
Fourier’s transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to collect an infrared spectrum of an emission or an absorption of a solid, liquid, or gas. It is used to identify organic, inorganic, and polymeric materials utilizing IR light to scan samples. Standard FTIR setup is composed of a source, sample cell, detector, amplifier, A/D converter, and a computer (Figure 13b).
IR radiation is passed through the sample, and the emitted radiation could be absorbed and/or transmitted from the sample. Changes in the patterns of the absorption bands pinpoint a change in the composition of the material. So, the obtained signals are amplified, changes got detected by the detector, converted by the A/D converter, and as a result, a spectrum will be obtained. The obtained spectrum provides information about chemical composition of the material because the wavelength of absorbed light indicates characteristics of the chemical bonds. Just like fingerprints, two individual molecular structures cannot generate same IR spectrum. Every molecule has a specific fingerprint, which makes this technique a valuable tool for chemical identification. Also, this feature makes FTIR very preferable for many analyses such as determining the components in a mixture, identifying unknown materials, detecting contaminants in a material, finding additives, or determining the quality of a sample [60].
Raman spectroscopy (RS) method is based on irradiating a sample with a powerful laser source consisting of a monochromatic beam and measuring the scattered beam from a specific angle. During light scattering, the energy of most of the scattered light becomes equal to the energy of light interacting with the specimen. This type of elastic scattering is called Rayleigh scattering. In addition to elastic scattering, if a small part of the scattered light includes inelastic scattering, it is called Raman scattering. In Raman scattering, the excess or decrease in the energy of the scattered light relative to the energy of the light interacting with the molecule is as much as the energy difference between the energy levels of the molecule interacting with the light. This excess or scarcity at the energy levels is called the Raman shift. These shifts are measured in Raman spectroscopy (Figure 14) [62].
Working principle of Raman scattering. (Figure was adapted from Kim [
This method is used to evaluate vibrational and rotational frequency modes in physical and chemical systems. The intensity of Raman scattering depends on the change in polarizability. RS is suitable for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic, inorganic, and biological systems. With the obtained spectrum, unknown material identification, material differences, crystallinity, and material amount can be determined [60].
As mentioned in the introduction section, natural and synthetic fibers from different sources have been widely used in many areas for hundreds of years, and tissue engineering area happens to be one of them. TE maintains an alternative way to the restoration and regeneration of the injured tissues. TE is an interdisciplinary field that requires knowledge of biological, chemical, and engineering sciences toward the objective of tissue regeneration using cells, factors, and biomaterials alone or in combination with each other. With the light of this brief information, widely used TE applications of nanofibers are discussed below.
Bone tissue is mainly composed of organic bone matrix, which mostly includes collagen fibers (95% of these fibers are collagen type I) and inorganic compounds such as hydroxyapatite crystals [63]. There is a global need for bone grafts because of the high incidence of bone defects, which are caused by bone tumors, infections, and bone loss by traumas. Main treatment approaches for these injuries are autografts, allografts, or xenografts. But there are some challenges to these approaches such as inflammation, scarring, infection, immunological graft rejection, hematomas, high-cost procedures, etc. [64, 65] At this point, bone tissue engineering (BTE) approaches present an alternative treatment way for these injuries. BTE field aims to form materials that can outperform bone autografts and allografts. The ultimate goal is to manufacture a scaffold that can be implanted to the defect area and then remodeled by patient’s own cells. The key is to fulfill the role of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in the defect area. The design of the scaffolds for BTE is also modeled by the structure and function of healthy bone tissue, which is crucial to its function, for example, highly porous trabecular bone or highly dense cortical bone, which surrounds the trabecular bone. But still, regardless of recent advancements in TE and RM, reconstruction of critical-size bone injuries is still challenging [66].
For bone tissue regeneration, wide range of biomaterials can be used to mimic the function, structure, and composition of bone ECM with proper osteogenic activity. First studies for stimulating bone regeneration were done by ES of widely used polymers such as polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), gelatin, silk, and chitosan. The common feature of all these polymers was biodegradability because if the scaffolds are not biodegradable, a second surgery is necessary to remove the scaffold, which can result in infection, patient discomfort, or additional costs. According to the study of Cai et al., a 3D PCL/PLA scaffold was produced, and its bone regeneration efficiency was investigated in a rabbit tibia bone defect model by using human embryonic stem cell–derived mesenchymal stem cells (hESC-MSCs) [67]. They reported that the attachment of the hESC-MSCs to the 3D scaffold was successful due to the differentiation of the cells from round-like shape to a spindle-like form. Additionally, the histology and radiography studies resulted in 3D bone tissue formation after 6 weeks. Another study conducted by Nedjari, et al. is based on the development of a novel 3D honeycomb-shaped scaffold made by electrospun hybrid nanofibers, which includes poly(l-lactide-ℇ-caprolactone) and bone ECM protein fibrinogen (FBG) (Figure 15) [68].
SEM images of random (A, D), aligned (B, E) and honeycomb (C, F) PLGL-FBG nanofibers. Bottom row represents the immunofluorescent imaging of FBG within the fibers (red) on random (G), aligned (H), and honeycomb (I)-shaped scaffolds (the arrows indicate the higher accumulation of FBG at the walls of the honeycomb shapes.). Relative expression of alkaline phosphatase gene (J) and RunX2 gene (K) of ADMS cultured for 21 days in osteogenic medium on different shaped scaffolds. (Figure was reproduced with the permission of Nedjari et al. [
Results of this study indicate that PLCL/FBG scaffolds support osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADMSCs). Besides ES, melt ES writing is a promising method to design scaffolds with controlled structure. Abdalhay et al. manufactured PCL/HAp composite 3D scaffolds with high porosity (96–98%) by using melt ES writing method [69]. According to the results, infiltration and proliferation of seeded osteoblasts were achieved, which supports high interconnectivity and porosity of the PCL/HAp scaffolds. Velioglu et al. fabricated 3D-printed PLA scaffolds with different pore sizes for trabecular bone repair and regeneration. Their findings showed that the resemblance between 3D-printed scaffolds and native trabecular bone in terms of pore size, porosity, and mechanical properties of the scaffolds, the 3D-printed PLA scaffolds printed in this study can be considered as candidates for bone substitutes in bone repair [70]. In 2019, Lukasova et al. produced 3D and 2D nanofibrous scaffolds by using centrifugal ES and needleless ES methods, respectively. Cyclone device was used as a spinneret for centrifugal ES, and the spin guidance was sideways. Needleless ES on the other hand was performed by using Nanospider® technology. Scaffolds were then tested for metabolic activity, cell differentiation, and proliferation by using hMSCs. Scaffolds obtained with centrifugal ES showed higher cell proliferation due to their 3D, porous, and interconnective architecture [71].
Tendon/ligament injuries, which are caused by tears, ruptures, traumas, and inflammation, result in severe pain and are generally seen in physically active young patients. Natural healing of these tissues is challenging due to their poor healing capacity and scar tissue formation, which then result in poor mechanical properties. Standard treatment approaches for these injuries are grafts or artificial prosthesis. Autografts are considered “gold standard” because of their lack of immune response, but they are limited by donor site availability and morbidity. Allografts hold the same concerns as in BTE, which are rejection, risk of disease transmission, and high re-rupture rates caused by mismatches between the donor and the recipient. To overcome these challenges, TE approaches are widely used for tendon/ligament tissue repair [72].
These soft tissues are mainly composed of dense and aligned collagen fibers, so the mechanic load of tendons and ligaments is restricted to one direction. As a result, scaffolds composed of aligned nanofibers are highly promising for tendon/ligament tissue repair studies because they can mimic the anisotropic nature of the native tissues. In the light of these information, a novel, multilayer scaffold was proposed by Yang et al., which was composed of fibrous PCL and methacrylated gelatin produced by dual ES [73]. The scaffold was formed by five sheets, which were cross-linked. The scaffold was then reinforced with gelatin layer bearing the stem cells, which were treated with TGF-β3 for 7 days to stimulate differentiation. Results showed an increase of tendon markers tenascin-C and scleraxis, which implies the scaffolds were porous enough for the diffusion of bioactive molecules. Another study conducted by Perikamana et al. reported that immobilization of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in a gradient scaffold, which is also composed of aligned nanofibers, enhanced the expression of tenomodulin compared with a non-modified nanofiber scaffold [74]. Rinoldi et al., fabricated a bead-on-string fibrous scaffold and incorporated with silica particles to enhance the biological activities and modify the properties of the scaffolds such as wettability, degradation rate, etc. The results imply that their bead-to-string fibrous scaffold is a significant candidate for guided tissue regeneration [75]. In a recent study, Chen et al. proposed a three types of core-shell nanofibrous scaffolds [76]. For one group, HA (hyaluronic acid) is the core and PCL (random) is the shell while the other groups are HA/PRP (platelet-rich plasma) core–PCL shell (Random+) and HA/PRP core–PCL shell (Align+) (Figure 16). Tenocytes were used in in vitro studies, and the cells in Align+ showed the highest cell proliferation rate while Random+ is also significantly higher than Random study group. According to the expression studies, by day 14, Random+ and Align+ showed significant downregulation of collagen III gene expression when shift of collagen III to collagen I occurs during the tendon maturation.
The cell proliferation rates from DNA assays (a) and SEM images (b) of tenocytes cultured on different core-shell nanofiber scaffolds. The relative mRNA expression of type-I collagen (c), type III collagen (d), tenascin-C (e), and biglycan (f) by tenocytes after cultured on different core-shell nanofiber scaffolds for 7, 14, and 21 days. (Figures are reproduced with the permission from Chen et al. [
It is safer to study tendon/ligament tissue regeneration compared with tendon/ligament-bone interface regeneration, which is also called the enthesis. Regeneration enthesis is exceptionally challenging due to its complex and gradient structure. The enthesis possesses location-dependent changes such as gradients, in terms of composition of ingredients and structural properties.
Still, there are many studies and research groups trying to fabricate scaffolds to repair tissue-tissue interfaces by incorporating bone-like biomaterials such as hydroxyapatite, hyaluronan, etc. (Figure 17) [74, 77]. Yet still, it remains a challenge in the field, which requires much more time and effort.
Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectrum of polycaprolactone (PCL)-only and PCL-nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) meshes at different flow rates corresponding to different nHA concentrations (a–c). Representative scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs taken from (d) polycaprolactone (PCL)-rich and (e) nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA)-rich surfaces of the spatially graded meshes. White arrows in E indicate nHA particulates embedded into nanofibers. (Figure was reproduced with the permission from Bayrak et al. [
Other than tendons and ligaments, cartilage tissue is another class of connective tissues that presents elastic behavior and protects the end of bones at joints. Nose, ears, knees, and many other parts of the body contain cartilage tissue. The main ECM components of dense cartilage tissue are collagen and proteoglycans, which are produced by a low number of chondrocytes. After an articular cartilage injury such as rupture, trauma, aging, etc., remodeling and regeneration of the native tissue are challenging due to the low availability of chondrocytes and the complex structure of the tissue. Current approaches are mostly grafts, decellularized structures, microfracture, etc.; however, these approaches pose significant risk to the patient such as inflammation, rejection, implant loosening, or failure.
To repair the damaged articular cartilage, Tuli et al., prepared nanofibrous PCL scaffolds by ES method. The fetal bovine chondrocytes (FBCs) were seeded onto these scaffolds and examined in terms of their ability to maintain chondrocytes in a functional state. According to their results, PCL scaffold seeded with FBC is able to preserve the chondrocyte phenotype by expressing cartilage-specific ECM components such as aggrecan and collagen [78]. In another study, electrospun gelatin/PLA nanofibers were fabricated, and one group was modified by cross-linking with hyaluronic acid to examine the ability to repair cartilage damage. These scaffolds were then subjected to an in vivo study on rabbits using an articular cartilage injury model. Results of the in vivo studies demonstrated that the hyaluronic-acid-modified scaffolds could increase the repair of cartilage along with their super-absorbent properties and cytocompatibility (Figure 18) [79].
Macroscopic images (a, d, and g) of the cartilage joints from three groups at 12 weeks after surgery. Histological analysis of cartilage defect area from three groups at 12 weeks after surgery, stained with safranin O-fast green (b, e, and h) and H&E (c, f, and i). Arrows and dotted lines indicated the defect sites. (OC: Original cartilage tissue. RC: Repaired cartilage tissue.) (Figure was reproduced with the permission from Chen et al. [
Another research group fabricated a scaffold by using coaxial ES with poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) and collagen as the shell and kartogenin solution as the core. Kartogenin’s release behavior was monitored over 2 months, and it is shown that the proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation of rabbit bone-marrow-derived MSCs are increased due to the chondrogenesis inducement properties of kartogenin [80]. Furthermore, incorporation of cartilage-derived ECM into nanofibrous scaffolds is another novel way for stimulation of chondrogenic bioactivity [81].
The skin is the largest organ in mammals and acts as a physical barrier between the human body and the external environment, which means it is directly exposed to harmful microbial, thermal, mechanical, and chemical damage. Skin tissue, mainly composed of epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer, suffers from integral skin loss with every injury, which can cause functional imbalance in case of large full-thickness skin defects or loss of large skin areas. Skin loss can occur for many reasons, such as disorders, burns, and chronic wounds. For years, autografts and allografts have been used to treat burns or other skin defects, yet the inability of damaged skin tissue to fully heal has opened up the field of tissue engineering for repair broadly to resolve skin-related defects. The basic prerequisite for a material to qualify as a biomaterial is biocompatibility, which is the ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host response [82].
Nanofibrous scaffolds with high porosity can enable cell respiration, infiltration, and absorb exudates. Natural polymers such as chitosan, collagen, and elastin are widely used biomaterials for wound dressing according to their biocompatible and biodegradable properties [83]. Ghosal et al. extracted the silk sericin protein (SS) and blended it with PCL, fabricating a scaffold by using emulsion ES method to examine the effect of the silk sericin protein in the scaffold morphology and proliferation of human primary skin fibroblasts. Results showed an increase in proliferation of the cells on PCL/SS scaffolds [84]. Nanoparticles due to their antioxidant and antibacterial properties are also widely used in this field. Augustine et al. incorporated cerium oxide (CeO2) nanoparticles into electrospun poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) scaffolds and analyzed the wound healing properties. The results showed increased cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and wound healing [85]. Chantre et al., prepared a scaffold by centrifugal ES composed of hyaluronic acid to repair cutaneous tissue. In vitro test showed that due to the high porosity, the infiltration of seeded dermal fibroblasts was successful, and scaffolds present biocompatible and bioactive properties. In vivo studies supported their research as well by the acceleration of the tissue formation, neovascularization, and re-epithelialization [86]. Recently, portable electrospinning devices have been widely used to understand in situ deposition of fibers for wound coverage. This technology allows fibrous scaffolds to form directly on the wound site in a matter of minutes.
For example, Liu et al. fabricated electrospun zein/poly (ethylene oxide) nanofibrous scaffolds modified with thyme essential oil (TEO) by using portable handheld ES device directly onto partial thickness wounds on mice dermal tissue defect (Figure 19). It is found that electrospun nanofibers improved the wound healing process within 11 days [87].
In situ deposition of electrospun zein/PEO and zein/PEO/TEO fibrous meshes onto wounds of Kunming mice: (a) no treatment, (b) zein/PEO (control group), and (c) zein/PEO/TEO (study group); gross observation of wounds healing at 0, 3, 7, and 11 days after injury for no treatment (a1−4), zein/PEO (b1−4), and zein/PEO/TEO (c1−4), respectively. (Figure is reproduced with the permission from Liu et al. [
Cardiovascular diseases such as coronary artery, cardiomyopathy, hypertension, valve disorders, heart failure, etc., are the leading cause of death globally, and the incidence rates are drastically increasing day by day. Common approach is vascular graft transplantation, but it has some limitations such as lack of organ donors, mismatches, preexisting vascular diseases. These limitations cause a need for more stable, flexible grafts with low toxicity and immunity. Since cardiac tissue ECM causes cardiomyocytes to form into fiber-like cell bundles and these bundles elongate and align themselves, a polymeric scaffold that could mimic this specific feature of cardiac tissue could be a potential candidate for cardiovascular tissue engineering.
To stimulate myocardial regeneration, a 3D PCL-based scaffold with hexagonal structure was fabricated using melt electrowriting method. The aim of the study was to create functional cardiac patches, human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CM) were seeded onto these scaffolds. Results of the in vitro studies showed increased cell alignment, cardiac-maturation-related markers, and sarcomere content. Furthermore, in vivo studies, which are conducted on a contracting porcine heart with a minimally invasive approach, showed that the scaffolds express successful biaxial deformation and also supported high tensile stress [88]. Recently, many studies focus on the development of conductive nanoporous scaffolds for cardiovascular tissue engineering approaches. Bertuoli et al. developed an electrospun conducting and biocompatible uniaxial and core-shell fibers having PLA, PEG, and polyaniline (PAni) for cardiac tissue engineering (Figure 20) [89]. They produced PLA, PLA/PAni, and PLA/PEG/PAni fibers and core-shell PLA/PLA/PAni and PLA/PEG//PLA/PAni fibers successfully via uniaxial and coaxial electrospinning, respectively. The proposed PLA/PAni-5% uniaxial and PLA//PLA/PAni coaxial fibers offer very good adhesion for cardiac cells, also being able to modulate cell shape and orientation, something important for the characteristic anisotropy of the cardiac tissue.
Biocompatibility of PLA/PAni uniaxial fibers expressed as relative viability of normal rat fibroblasts (NRK) and osteosarcoma (MG-63) culture cells onto the fibrous mats after (a) 24 h (cell adhesion) and (b) 96 h (cell proliferation). Biocompatibility of (c, d) PLA/PEG/PAni uniaxial and (e, f) PLA/PEG//PLA/PAni core-shell fibers expressed as relative viability of NRK and MG-63 cells onto the fibrous mats after (c, e) 24 h (cell adhesion) and (d, f) 96 h (cell proliferation). (g) Electrical conductivity of PLA, PLA/PAni, PLA/PEG/PAni, PLA//PLA/PAni, and PLA/PEG//PLA/PAni fibrous mats. (Figures were reproduced with the permission from Bertuoli et al. [
Liang et al. fabricated a conductive nanofibrous scaffold by encapsulating polypyrole (PPY), which is a conductive polymer, in silk fibroin electrospun fibers. Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCM) and iPSC-CM cells were used to evaluate cardiomyocyte contraction studies. Results showed that both cell lines attached and proliferated onto these scaffolds successfully. Contraction study indicated that scaffolds with different amount of PPY exhibit contraction behavior starting from day 5 [90]. Another group developed a lab-on-a-chip system integrated with PLLA and PU nanofiber mats for cardiovascular diseases. The aim of the study was to create a model of hypoxic myocardial tissue. The microfluidic system allows simultaneously conducting cell cultures under different circumstances. Cardiac cell lines were used for this study, and results showed that cell viability was high, and cells were positioned parallelly on the scaffolds. The hypoxia study indicates that the amount of ATP molecules decreased during biochemical simulation [91].
Injuries affecting peripheral or central nervous systems can cause long-lasting loss of neurological functions due to the severity of the injuries. The usual path of an injury is the inhibition of nerve regeneration, which triggers the formation of compact scar tissue at the defect site. The scar tissue inhibits the connection of the axons across the gap, which will result in disruption of the native tissue and signaling pathways. Short nerve injuries, which have less than 20 mm transaction gap between nerves, are usually repaired surgically; however, long-distance nerve defects require nerve healing/regeneration. For long-distance nerve defects, allografts are usually the gold standard, but there are some disadvantages such as limited donor source, nerve size mismatch, neuroma, etc. To overcome these challenges, design and fabrication of nerve grafts composed of synthetic or natural polymers are a promising approach for neural tissue engineering.
Nanoporous scaffolds for neural tissue engineering purposes should provide enough surface area for Schwann cells growth and migration, which will direct axons to elongate. Since the orientation structure of axons is axial, some researchers recommended the use of aligned scaffolds, which can provide better contact guidance for cells. Hu et al. fabricated aligned and random PCL scaffolds via ES, and PC-12 (pheochromocytoma of the rat adrenal medulla) neural-like cells were seeded (Figure 21).
In vitro release profiles of BSA and NGF. (A) Release curve of BSA from (R/A)-PCL-BSA scaffolds, (B) release properties of NGF from (R/A)-PCL-NGF scaffolds, (C) NGF release from (R/A)-PCL-NGF&BSA scaffolds. Fluorescent images of PC12 cells cultured for 8 days on the surface of different samples with labeling of cytoplasm (red) and nuclei (blue). (D) R-PCL, (E) R-PCL-BSA, (F) R-PCL-NGF, (G) R-PCL-NGF&BSA, (H) A-PCL, (I) A-PCL-BSA, (J) A-PCL-NGF, (K) A-PCL-NGF&BSA, (L) CS-positive, (M) CS-blank for immunofluorescent staining, (N) CS-negative. (yellow arrow indicates the alignment direction for the underlying nanofibers, and blue arrow shows the neurite-bearing PC12 cells.) (Figure was reproduced with the permission from Hu et al. [
The results showed that aligned scaffold increased the length of the neurites and directed the extension parallely to the fiber axis. The study also showed that NGF and bovine serum albumin (BSA) incorporated PCL core-shell nanofibrous scaffolds provide sustained release of NGF and neuronal marker expressions and differentiation of PC-12 cells, which indicates that cells were responded to released NGF [92]. Zhang et al. fabricated a conductive scaffold composed of polyaniline (PAN) and poly (L-lactic-co-Ɛ-caprolactone)/silk fibroin nanofibers with incorporation of nerve growth factor (NGF) by using coaxial ES method. The scaffolds successfully support the neurite outgrowth of PC-12 cells, and under electrical stimulation, the amount of neurite-bearing cells and median neurite length were increased [93]. Oxidative stress has a negative impact on nerve cells, so novel approaches, which include antioxidant agents, were investigated. Wang et.al fabricated an antioxidant scaffold composed of lignin/PCL copolymer, and results showed increased mechanical properties of the scaffold and antioxidant activity on cells.
The need for less invasive treatment approaches, biocompatible, tailorable, and biodegradable tissue constructs, which can properly mimic native tissues, is still a major challenge for tissue engineering field, and the surface is barely scratched. But nanofibers, due to their tailorable structure, variety of biomaterial options, fabrication routes, and application areas became a popular class of nanomaterials for tissue engineering field. Besides tissue engineering, are other biomedical applications such as drug delivery, biosensor technology, etc. Applications described in this chapter are only a minor proportion of all the results proving the great potential and usefulness of nanofibers. Within this chapter, different fabrication routes, characterization methods, and tissue engineering applications are explained briefly.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Telomeres length is maintained by the activity of the telomerase complex. These structures are protected by a specialized protein complex named shelterin. In the absence of telomerase activity and/or protection telomeres are shortened after each round of DNA replication. When a critical size is reached, telomeres are recognized as damaged DNA by the cell p53-dependent DNA-repair system. Persistent activation of this pathway finally results in cell apoptosis or senescence.",book:{id:"5085",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"37424",doi:"10.5772/37904",title:"Flow Cytometry Applications in Food Safety Studies",slug:"flow-cytometry-applications-in-food-safety-studies",totalDownloads:2441,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1578",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"Antonello Paparella, Annalisa Serio and Clemencia Chaves Lopez",authors:[{id:"114721",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonello",middleName:null,surname:"Paparella",slug:"antonello-paparella",fullName:"Antonello Paparella"},{id:"116805",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Serio",slug:"annalisa-serio",fullName:"Annalisa Serio"},{id:"116807",title:"Dr.",name:"Clemencia",middleName:null,surname:"Chaves Lopez",slug:"clemencia-chaves-lopez",fullName:"Clemencia Chaves Lopez"}]},{id:"43453",doi:"10.5772/55683",title:"Chromatin Remodelers and Their Way of Action",slug:"chromatin-remodelers-and-their-way-of-action",totalDownloads:2677,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"3536",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Laura Manelyte and Gernot Längst",authors:[{id:"164322",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Längst",slug:"gernot-langst",fullName:"Gernot Längst"},{id:"164410",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Manelyte",slug:"laura-manelyte",fullName:"Laura Manelyte"}]},{id:"51978",doi:"10.5772/64713",title:"Telomere Length and Its Relation to Human Health",slug:"telomere-length-and-its-relation-to-human-health",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Telomeres are complex nucleotide sequences that cap the end of chromosomes from degradation, unwanted recombination‐fusion, inappropriate activation of DNA damage response and play a critical role in cell division and chromosome stability. There is growing evidence that telomere stability can be affected by occupational and environmental exposure, as some of these factors have been correlated with increase in inflammation, oxidative stress, DNA damage, chromosome aberration, and epigenetic alterations. Both extremely short and long telomeres have been associated with neurodegenerative, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and cancer risk. Occupational and environmental exposure to several synthetic and natural chemicals has been found to be associated with changes in telomere length, although the molecular mechanism is not fully understood. Telomeric DNA is relatively less capable of repair, resulting in accelerated shortening during the cell cycle and replicative senescence. It is recognized that diet plays an important role in telomere maintenance. Prevention of exposure to environmental and occupational hazards as well as psychological stressors can reduce the risk of telomere instability. This review provides a broad evaluation of the associated mechanism between human health and environmental and occupational exposure with telomere length, including recent findings and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5085",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Vivian F. S. Kahl and Juliana da Silva",authors:[{id:"170193",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"juliana-da-silva",fullName:"Juliana Da Silva"},{id:"187307",title:"MSc.",name:"Vivian Francilia",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Kahl",slug:"vivian-francilia-silva-kahl",fullName:"Vivian Francilia Silva Kahl"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:3278,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Immunophenotyping is an essential part of the modern diagnostic workup of acute leukemias and thus for an appropriate treatment of these complex and heterogeneous diseases. It provides a lot of useful information in this setting that transfers directly from laboratory to clinical management of patients. Lineage definition is the first goal leading to proper initial therapy. Some phenotypic patterns define specific subsets correlating with poor (mixed phenotype, dendritic cell neoplasm) or favorable (cortical T-lymphoblastic leukemia) outcome, thus guiding the application of treatment modalities. An advanced analysis of phenotypic data can address specific issues, such as the still debated role of multilineage dysplasia. The quality of response to chemotherapy is monitored by the detection of minimal residual disease and peripheral blast clearance during chemotherapy delivering. That allows a sharp discrimination of prognosis and again can drive the intensity of therapies proportionally to the disease chemosensitivity.",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}]},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:3119,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Lives of patients with solid organ failure depend physically, emotionally, and economically on others. Improvement in organ transplantation is one of the most important medical breakthroughs of the twenty-first century. Being healthy upon organ transplantation is the second chance to live the life. This is frequently observed in heart-, lung-, and liver-transplanted patients. For instance, upon kidney transplantation, dialysis dependence terminates and life quality of the patients increases. The major difficulty in organ transplantation is the low number of organ donation. Thus, the number of patients in the waiting list for the cadaveric transplantation increases day by day. Under these limited circumstances, required conditions should be further provided for the long survival rates of recipients with allogeneic graft without any problem. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) tissue typing and anti-HLA antibodies produced before and after the transplantation adversely affect the graft survival and thus the survival of an individual. Investigation of pretransplantation immune status of recipients is significant. Particularly, donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies determine early and long-term graft survival. Flow cytometer is one of the most important devices used in anti-HLA antibody detection and also for other clinical and scientific purposes. Compared to conventional methods, it supports transplantation clinics due to its high sensitivity and specificity. The use of flow cytometer dependent methods in transplantation field increases progressively.",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}]},{id:"44225",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3915,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3536",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]},{id:"48399",title:"The Multiplexing of Assays for the Measurement of Early Stages of Apoptosis by Polychromatic Flow Cytometry",slug:"the-multiplexing-of-assays-for-the-measurement-of-early-stages-of-apoptosis-by-polychromatic-flow-cy",totalDownloads:1742,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The detection of apoptosis has been a stalwart application for flow cytometric analysis for decades and this review of flow cytometric methods to detect early stages of apoptosis includes the use of the pivotal assay to detect early and late apoptosis, the Annexin V assay which when multiplexed with biologically functional fluorescent dyes to measure mitochondrial function and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation allows further identification of functionally different subsets within apoptotic populations. Here we show how this polychromatic approach can be used to demonstrate which subset of cells show changes in mitochondrial function and when ROS is generated in a time dependent manner. This polychromatic approach to flow cytometry leads to the identification of over ten sub-populations of cells during classic apoptosis or programmed cell death (PCD).",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"G. Warnes",authors:[{id:"108846",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Warnes",slug:"gary-warnes",fullName:"Gary Warnes"}]},{id:"49834",title:"The Role of Telomeres and Telomere-associated Proteins as Components of Interactome in Cell-signaling Pathways",slug:"the-role-of-telomeres-and-telomere-associated-proteins-as-components-of-interactome-in-cell-signalin",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Telomeres represent ends of all eukaryotic chromosomes and serve specialized biological role in maintaining genomic integrity by preventing end fusions and degradation. Various protein complexes associate with telomeres to either protect them from DNA damage machinery or maintain telomere length homeostasis. These protein complex subunits cross talk with a variety of cell-signaling components to either maintain telomere integrity or perform other functions, which are either dependent or independent of telomeres and/or their telomeric role. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/427468",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"427468"},fullPath:"/profiles/427468",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()