Some syndromes with clinical manifestations of severe periodontitis.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7264",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Since the development of microelectronic clamping methodology and fluorescent indicators for direct measurement of dynamic intracellular calcium transients, our understanding of biological signal transduction has progressed dramatically since the 1980s. Calcium is a universal signal in biology that modulates gene expression, transmitter and hormone release, muscular movement, and even "programmed" cell death. This book represents a compilation of chapters from a diverse set of expert biologists throughout the world who have conducted research in the general area of calcium signaling in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. In accord with priorities of resolving human disease, the reader will also benefit from learning calcium\'s role in cellular signaling pathology relating to acute or chronic conditions such as vomiting, sepsis, obesity, hypertension, and cancer.',isbn:"978-1-78984-250-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-249-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-797-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74489",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9471,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 1st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"92428",title:"Dr.",name:"Erik J.",middleName:null,surname:"Behringer",slug:"erik-j.-behringer",fullName:"Erik J. Behringer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92428/images/system/92428.jpg",biography:"Assistant Professor in Pharmacology at Loma Linda University (LLU) in Loma Linda, California. He received his B.S. degree in Biochemistry at California State University, San Bernardino (2005) and PhD in Pharmacology at LLU (2009). His dissertation research focused on intracellular calcium signaling in sympathetic neurons in the context of cerebral blood flow regulation throughout development and aging. As a postdoctoral fellow and Research Assistant Professor at the University of Missouri (Columbia), he developed tools for the fundamental examination of calcium, oxidative and electrical signaling in resistance artery endothelium during the aging process. Dr. Behringer has received multiple NIH grants (F32, K99/R00 mechanisms) and has published >15 peer-reviewed manuscripts and >20 conference abstracts. Also, he has served as an expert reviewer for numerous journals and the NIH for >2 years.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Missouri",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"47",title:"Cell Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-cell-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"62035",title:"Regulation of Calcium Signaling by STIM1 and ORAI1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78587",slug:"regulation-of-calcium-signaling-by-stim1-and-orai1",totalDownloads:1239,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"STIM1 and ORAI1 proteins are regulators of intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. This Ca2+ mobilization is essential to shape Ca2+ signaling in eukaryotic cells. STIM1 is a transmembrane protein located at the endoplasmic reticulum, where it acts as an intraluminal Ca2+ sensor. The transient drop of intraluminal Ca2+ concentration triggers STIM1 activation, which relocates to plasma membrane-endoplasmic reticulum junctions to bind and activate ORAI1, a plasma membrane Ca2+ channel. Thus, the Ca2+ influx pathway mediated by STIM1/ORAI1 is termed store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). STIM and ORAI proteins are also involved in non-SOCE Ca2+ influx pathways, as we discuss here. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge regarding the role of SOCE, STIM1, and ORAI1 in cell signaling, with special focus on the modulation of the activity of kinases, phosphatases, and transcription factors that are strongly influenced by the extracellular Ca2+ influx mediated by these regulators.",signatures:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero, Carlos Pascual-Caro, Aida Lopez-\nGuerrero, Noelia Espinosa-Bermejo and Eulalia Pozo-Guisado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62035",authors:[{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero"},{id:"186588",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulalia",surname:"Pozo-Guisado",slug:"eulalia-pozo-guisado",fullName:"Eulalia Pozo-Guisado"},{id:"186603",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida M.",surname:"Lopez-Guerrero",slug:"aida-m.-lopez-guerrero",fullName:"Aida M. Lopez-Guerrero"},{id:"186604",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Pascual-Caro",slug:"carlos-pascual-caro",fullName:"Carlos Pascual-Caro"},{id:"243894",title:"Ms.",name:"Noelia",surname:"Espinosa-Bermejo",slug:"noelia-espinosa-bermejo",fullName:"Noelia Espinosa-Bermejo"}],corrections:null},{id:"62187",title:"Calcium and Cell Response to Heavy Metals: Can Yeast Provide an Answer?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78941",slug:"calcium-and-cell-response-to-heavy-metals-can-yeast-provide-an-answer-",totalDownloads:1240,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Despite constant efforts to maintain a clean environment, heavy metal pollution continues to raise challenges to the industrialized world. Exposure to heavy metals is detrimental to living organisms, and it is of utmost importance that cells find rapid and efficient ways to respond to and eventually adapt to surplus metals for survival under severe stress. This chapter focuses on the attempts done so far to elucidate the calcium-mediated response to heavy metal stress using the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The possibilities to record the transient elevations of calcium within yeast cells concomitantly with the heavy metal exposure are presented, and the limitations imposed by interference between calcium and heavy metals are discussed.",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu, Claudia Valentina Popa and Lavinia\nLiliana Ruta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62187",authors:[{id:"203734",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Farcasanu",slug:"ileana-farcasanu",fullName:"Ileana Farcasanu"},{id:"203865",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Ruta",slug:"lavinia-ruta",fullName:"Lavinia Ruta"},{id:"255728",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Valentina",surname:"Popa",slug:"claudia-valentina-popa",fullName:"Claudia Valentina Popa"}],corrections:null},{id:"62901",title:"The Endothelium: The Vascular Information Exchange",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79897",slug:"the-endothelium-the-vascular-information-exchange",totalDownloads:1055,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maintenance of adequate blood flow to tissues and organs requires that endothelial cells dynamically respond in a stimulus-specific manner to elicit appropriate changes in smooth muscle contractility and thus, arterial diameter. Endothelial cells can be stimulated directly by increases in blood flow and by humoral factors acting on surface receptors, as well as through flux of second messengers from smooth muscle cells activated by release of neurotransmitters from perivascular nerves. The ability of endothelial cells to generate stimulus-specific responses to these diverse inputs is facilitated by organization of ion channels and signaling proteins into microdomains that permit finely-tuned, spatially-restricted Ca2+ events to differentially activate key effectors such as nitric oxide (NO) synthase and Ca2+-activated K+ (KCa) channels. NO is a diffusible mediator which acts locally to cause vasodilation. Opening of KCa channels causes hyperpolarization of the endothelial membrane potential which spreads to surrounding smooth muscle cells to also cause local vasodilation. However, once initiated, hyperpolarization also spreads longitudinally through the endothelium to effect coordinated changes in blood flow within multiple arterial segments. Thus, the signaling pathways activated by a particular stimulus determine whether it’s effects on arterial diameter are localized or can impact blood flow at the level of the vascular bed.",signatures:"Ran Wei, Stephanie E. Lunn, Stephen L. Gust, Paul M. Kerr and\nFrances Plane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62901",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62901",authors:[{id:"246223",title:"Dr.",name:"Frances",surname:"Plane",slug:"frances-plane",fullName:"Frances Plane"},{id:"246226",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Kerr",slug:"paul-kerr",fullName:"Paul Kerr"},{id:"246227",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephanie",surname:"Lunn",slug:"stephanie-lunn",fullName:"Stephanie Lunn"},{id:"246228",title:"BSc.",name:"Ran",surname:"Wei",slug:"ran-wei",fullName:"Ran Wei"},{id:"260441",title:"BSc.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Gust",slug:"stephen-gust",fullName:"Stephen Gust"}],corrections:null},{id:"62744",title:"Mineralocorticoid Receptor in Calcium Handling of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79556",slug:"mineralocorticoid-receptor-in-calcium-handling-of-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells",totalDownloads:1042,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For decades, the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonists have been used for the management of cardiovascular diseases; however, the molecular mechanisms involved in their beneficial effects are not fully understood. Recent publications point to the fundamental role of aldosterone and vascular MR in the regulation of arterial tone, vascular contractility, and cell proliferation. However, the intricate transduction machinery activated by vascular MRs has begun to be revealed with the help of transgenic rodent models and novel transcriptional analysis approaches. Specifically, in this chapter, we review and discuss the most recent contributions about the fine-tuning that the MR exerts on the expression and function of ion channels that participate in calcium handling of vascular cells and the therapeutic implications for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Rogelio Salazar-Enciso, Nohemi A. Camacho-Concha, Thassio R.\nMesquita, Débora Falcón, Jean-Pierre Benitah, Ana M. Gómez and\nAngélica Rueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62744",authors:[{id:"64594",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Gomez",slug:"ana-gomez",fullName:"Ana Gomez"},{id:"71606",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",surname:"Benitah",slug:"jean-pierre-benitah",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Benitah"},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda"},{id:"247956",title:"MSc.",name:"Rogelio",surname:"Salazar-Enciso",slug:"rogelio-salazar-enciso",fullName:"Rogelio Salazar-Enciso"},{id:"247957",title:"MSc.",name:"Nohemi",surname:"Camacho-Concha",slug:"nohemi-camacho-concha",fullName:"Nohemi Camacho-Concha"},{id:"247958",title:"Dr.",name:"Thassio R",surname:"Mesquita",slug:"thassio-r-mesquita",fullName:"Thassio R Mesquita"},{id:"247964",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",surname:"Falcón",slug:"debora-falcon",fullName:"Debora Falcón"}],corrections:null},{id:"62345",title:"Calcium Signaling in Prokaryotes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78546",slug:"calcium-signaling-in-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1345,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Calcium (Ca2+) functions as a universal messenger in eukaryotes and regulates many intracellular processes such as cell division and gene expression. However, the physiological role of Ca2+ in prokaryotic cells remains unclear. Indirect evidence suggests that Ca2+ is involved in a wide variety of bacterial cellular processes including membrane transport mechanisms (channels, primary and secondary transporters), chemotaxis, cell division and cell differentiation processes such as sporulation and heterocyst formation. In addition, Ca2+ signaling has been implicated in various stages of bacterial infections and host-pathogen interactions. The most significant discovery is that similar to eukaryotic cells, bacteria always maintain very low cytosolic free Ca2+, even in the presence of millimolar extracellular Ca2+. Furthermore, Ca2+ transients are produced in response to stimuli by several agents. Transport systems, which may be involved in Ca2+ homeostasis are present in bacteria but none of these have been examined critically. Ca2+-binding proteins have also been identified, including proteins with EF motifs but their role as intracellular Ca2+ targets is elusive. Genomic studies indicate that changes in intracellular Ca2+ up and downregulate hundreds of genes and proteins suggesting a physiological role. This chapter presents an overview of the role of Ca2+ in prokaryotes summarizing recent developments.",signatures:"Delfina C. Domínguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62345",authors:[{id:"245235",title:"Prof.",name:"Delfina C",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"delfina-c-dominguez",fullName:"Delfina C Dominguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"61852",title:"Role of Calcium in Vomiting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78370",slug:"role-of-calcium-in-vomiting",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cisplatin-like chemotherapeutics cause vomiting via calcium (Ca2+)-dependent release of multiple neurotransmitters/mediators (dopamine, serotonin, substance P, prostaglandins and leukotrienes) from the gastrointestinal enterochromaffin cells and/or the brainstem. Intracellular Ca2+ signaling is triggered by activation of diverse emetic receptors (including neurokininergic NK1, serotonergic 5-HT3, dopaminergic D2, cholinergic M1, or histaminergic H1), whose stimulation in vomit-competent species evokes emesis. Other emetogens such as cisplatin, rotavirus NSP4 protein, and bacterial toxins can also induce intracellular Ca2+ elevation. Our findings demonstrate that application of the L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC) agonist FPL 64176 and the intracellular Ca2+ mobilizing agent thapsigargin (a sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor) cause vomiting in the least shrew. On the other hand, blockade of LTCCs by corresponding antagonists (nifedipine or amlodipine) not only provide broad-spectrum antiemetic efficacy against diverse agents that specifically activate emetogenic receptors such as 5-HT3, NK1, D2, and M1 receptors, but can also potentiate the antiemetic efficacy of palonosetron against the nonspecific emetogen, cisplatin. In this review, we will provide an overview of Ca2+ involvement in the emetic process; discuss the relationship between Ca2+ signaling and the prevailing therapeutics in control of vomiting; highlight the current evidence for Ca2+-signaling blockers/inhibitors in suppressing emetic behavior and also draw attention to the clinical benefits of Ca2+-signaling blockers/inhibitors for the treatment of nausea and vomiting.",signatures:"Weixia Zhong and Nissar A. Darmani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61852",authors:[{id:"246199",title:"Prof.",name:"Nissar",surname:"Darmani",slug:"nissar-darmani",fullName:"Nissar Darmani"}],corrections:null},{id:"62560",title:"Calcium Signaling Initiated by Agonists in Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from the Human Adipose Tissue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79097",slug:"calcium-signaling-initiated-by-agonists-in-mesenchymal-stromal-cells-from-the-human-adipose-tissue",totalDownloads:932,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) from different sources represent a heterogeneous population of proliferating non-differentiated cells that contain multipotent stem cells capable of originating a variety of mesenchymal cell lineages. By using Ca2+ imaging and the Ca2+ dye Fluo-4, we studied MSCs from the human adipose tissue and examined Ca2+ signaling initiated by a variety of GPCR ligands, focusing primarily on adrenergic and purinergic agonists. Being characterized by a relative change of Fluo-4 fluorescence, agonist-induced Ca2+ responses were generated in an “all-or-nothing” fashion. Specifically, at relatively low doses, agonists elicited undetectable responses but initiated quite similar Ca2+ transients at all concentrations above the threshold. The inhibitory analysis and Ca2+/IP3 uncaging pointed at the phosphoinositide cascade as a pivotal pathway responsible for agonist transduction and implicated Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR) in shaping agonists-dependent Ca2+ signals. Altogether, our data suggest that agonist transduction in MSCs includes two fundamentally different stages: an agonist initially triggers a local, gradual, and relatively small Ca2+ signal, which next stimulates CICR to accomplish transduction with a large and global Ca2+ transient. By involving the trigger-like mechanism CICR, a cell is capable of generating Ca2+ responses of virtually universal shape and magnitude at different agonist concentrations above the threshold.",signatures:"Polina D. Kotova, Olga A. Rogachevskaja, Marina F. Bystrova,\nEkaterina N. Kochkina, Denis S. Ivashin and Stanislav S. Kolesnikov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62560",authors:[{id:"247350",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Kolesnikov",slug:"stanislav-kolesnikov",fullName:"Stanislav Kolesnikov"},{id:"254809",title:"Dr.",name:"Polina",surname:"Kotova",slug:"polina-kotova",fullName:"Polina Kotova"},{id:"254811",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Rogachevskaja",slug:"olga-rogachevskaja",fullName:"Olga Rogachevskaja"},{id:"254814",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Bystrova",slug:"marina-bystrova",fullName:"Marina Bystrova"},{id:"254820",title:"Ms.",name:"Ekaterina",surname:"Kochkina",slug:"ekaterina-kochkina",fullName:"Ekaterina Kochkina"},{id:"254827",title:"Mr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Ivashin",slug:"denis-ivashin",fullName:"Denis Ivashin"}],corrections:null},{id:"63731",title:"Alterations in Calcium Signaling Pathways in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80811",slug:"alterations-in-calcium-signaling-pathways-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1344,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is the second most common cancer in women and the fifth cause contributing to death due to the cancer condition. It is essential to deeply understand the complex cellular mechanisms leading to this disease. There are multiple connections between calcium homeostasis alterations and breast cancer in the literature, but no consensus links the mechanism to the disease prognosis. Among the cells contributing to the breast cancer are the breast telocytes, which connect through gap junctions to other cells, including cancer cells and myoepithelial cells. Multiple proteins (i.e., voltage-gated calcium channels, transient receptor potential channels, STIM and Orai proteins, ether à go-go potassium channels, calcium-activated potassium channels, calcium-activated chloride channels, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, etc.) coupled with calcium signaling pathways undergo functional and/or expression changes associated with breast cancer development and progression, and might represent promising pharmacological targets. Unraveling the mechanisms of altered calcium homeostasis in various breast cells due to the cancer condition might contribute to personalized therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Adrian Dumitru, Daniela Oana Toader, Sanda Maria Cretoiu, Dragos\nCretoiu, Nicolae Suciu and Beatrice Mihaela Radu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63731",authors:[{id:"65176",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos",surname:"Cretoiu",slug:"dragos-cretoiu",fullName:"Dragos Cretoiu"},{id:"71558",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanda",surname:"Cretoiu",slug:"sanda-cretoiu",fullName:"Sanda Cretoiu"},{id:"256857",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolae",surname:"Suciu",slug:"nicolae-suciu",fullName:"Nicolae Suciu"},{id:"258093",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Dumitru",slug:"adrian-dumitru",fullName:"Adrian Dumitru"},{id:"258094",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Oana",surname:"Toader",slug:"daniela-oana-toader",fullName:"Daniela Oana Toader"},{id:"258095",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",surname:"Radu",slug:"beatrice-radu",fullName:"Beatrice Radu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"11",series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",issn:"2631-8261",editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6964",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"045f3a964a9628162956abc06ef5777d",slug:"cell-culture",bookSignature:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6964.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182118",title:"Dr.",name:"Radwa Ali",surname:"Mehanna",slug:"radwa-ali-mehanna",fullName:"Radwa Ali 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to present an overview of different magnetic materials including theoretical study, synthesis, characterization, and application of magnetic materials. The chapter and different topics of the book hope to provide a key understudying on different magnetic materials. It will be very much helpful to students, researchers, academicians, and professionals. This book hopes to give the readers new ideas and insights into scientific advances and technology related to magnetic materials. Novelties on magnetic materials development will display attractive properties for a wide range of applications in advanced technologies.
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He has worked as a postdoctoral researcher and visiting scientist at several institutions, including National Taiwan University, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, and the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa. He has published more than 112 peer-reviewed articles and more than 110 research articles in conference proceedings and meetings. He has also published four books and five book chapters.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251855/images/system/251855.png",biography:"Dr. Dipti Ranjan Sahu is Associate Professor of Physics, Department of Natural and Applied Sciences, Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST). He received a Ph.D. in Physics from the Institute of Materials Science, Utkal University, India. He has worked as a postdoctoral researcher and visiting scientist at several institutions, including National Taiwan University, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, and the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa. His research focuses on multifunctional materials including nanomaterials, ceramics, composites, spintronics, ferroelectrics, and magnetic materials, and the application of these functional materials in devices. He has published more than 112 peer-reviewed articles and more than 110 research articles in conference proceedings and meetings. 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Although there is significant improvement in oral health in developed countries, oral disease still persists as a global problem, especially among underprivileged groups in both developing and developed countries [2]. The global public health problems associated with oral disease are a serious burden on governments [3]. In the Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) [4, 5], health was described as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well‐being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Moreover, the Preamble proposes: “The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition.” Therefore, the WHO suggests that complete health should be an endpoint that people and society should struggle to achieve. At the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986), the WHO added that “health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living.” This means that health is a necessity for people’s daily lives. “Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health.” For this purpose, government and health care workers have important duties to extend health services for people. What is “complete physical and mental health” and “absence of disease or infirmity”? Unfortunately, these questions have not been—and probably never will be—answered satisfactorily [1].
Tooth caries, periodontal diseases, loss of teeth, oral mucosal lesions, and cancers are some of the major oral health problems that the public face. Pain and trouble with eating, chewing, smiling, speaking, and communication due to discolored, rotten, or missing teeth are factors that adversely affect people’s everyday lives [6]. Periodontal diseases have historically been considered one of the most important global oral health burdens for governments [7, 8].
Periodontal health means the absence of any clinical signs and symptoms of current or past periodontal disease [1]. For many patients, healthy periodontium is comfortable and free of functional and aesthetic problems [9]. The American Academy of Periodontology (AAP) has defined health as “the condition of a patient when there is function without evidence of disease or abnormality” (AAP 2001). It could be said one has periodontal health if there are no disease signs and symptoms of periodontal tissues. The diagnosis of periodontal disease is usually documented by the presence of bleeding on probing (BOP), probing pocket depth (PPD), and clinical attachment level (CAL) loss. However, other symptoms of periodontal disease include the results of chronic gingival inflammation and the destruction of tooth‐supporting tissues, such as redness, bleeding on brushing, loosening of affected teeth, and persistent bad breath [10]. These symptoms affect the quality of daily life of people.
The most commonly accepted systems of classification of periodontal disease have been offered by the American Academy of Periodontology (AAP). (
Partial list of periodontal disease which may be associated with genetic conditions has been given below [11].
Hereditary gingival fibromatosis
Other
Localized chronic periodontitis
Generalized chronic periodontit
Localized aggressive periodontitis
Generalized aggressive periodontitis
Acquired neutropenia
Leukemias
Other
Familial and cyclic neutropenia
Down’s syndrome
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndromes
Papillon‐Lefévre syndrome
Chediak‐Higashi syndrome
Langerhans cell disease (histiocytosis syndromes)
Glycogen storage disease
Chronic granulomatous disease
Infantile genetic agranulocytosis
Cohen syndrome
Ehlers‐Danlos syndrome (types IV and VIII)
Hypophosphatasia
Crohn disease (inflammatory bowel disease)
Marfan syndrome
Other
Periodontal diseases are major global oral health problems that occur on teeth and tissues around the teeth. One of the most common periodontal disease is periodontitis. Periodontitis starts first on gingiva and progresses to periodontal ligament and alveolar bone, which causes the degradation of supporting tissues of teeth and eventually leads to loss of teeth [12]. Periodontitis is primarily caused by pathogenic microorganisms in the biofilm. The other predisposing factors are genetic and environmental factors [13].
The shifting of the nucleotides in the genes can lead to periodontitis. Susceptibility to periodontitis among patients is different [14]. The correlation between genetic composition and periodontal diseases is complex and not clearly explained [11]. Only a special gene is not correlated with the all mechanisms of the disease [14]. Family history is a criterion for periodontal diseases that must be taken into consideration [11]. Although the family aggregation may be affected by both genetic and environmental factors, studies on twins reared apart have shown that genetic factors are effective parameters for diseases [15].
According to the studies on monozygotic and dizygotic twins, 50% of variance in periodontal disease has been associated with genetic factors [16]. Also, genetic factors have an important role on the balance between protective and destructive chemical mediators [17, 18]. Genetic components may determine the roles of the immune system, host response, and cytokines in periodontal disease [19]. Researchers who have investigated the genetic effect on periodontal diseases have focused on familial aggregation and genetic components of aggressive periodontitis (AP) [20], periodontitis associated with Mendelian‐inherited diseases [20], twin research [15, 21], and segregation analysis and linkage studies [22, 23].
Chronic periodontitis (CP) is the most common type of periodontitis and shows a slow rate of progression. It can begin in adolescence but usually does not become clinically significant until 35 years of age [24, 25]. There is no proven genetic determinant for patients with chronic periodontitis in any research. To determine the role of genetic factors in chronic periodontitis, twin and family studies are the optimal methods [26].
In a study, chronic periodontitis was shown to be 50% of heritable [16]. Chronic periodontitis has shown familial heredity in a Dutch population epidemiological study [27]. Also, there is some evidence that shows a correlation between IL‐1, IL‐6, IL‐10, VDR, and CD14 genes and chronic periodontitis susceptibility [26]. IL‐1 polymorphisms have been associated with severity of periodontitis [28, 29].
Aggressive periodontitis (AP) is a type of periodontitis that is characterized by destruction of periodontal tissues and alveolar bone, despite the presence of a small amount of dental plaque. It occurs in systemically healthy individuals who are generally younger in age, but patients may be older [11]. There are two types of aggressive periodontitis. Generalized and localized forms of aggressive periodontitis are rare types of periodontal disease that first occur with rapid attachment and bone loss and tend to appear in the families [30]. The prevalence of localized aggressive periodontitis (LAP) is less than 1% and that of generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP) is 0.13%. Black populations are at higher risk than whites; male population is at higher risk of GAP than females [31].
Both genetic and environmental factors have crucial roles in the occurrence of these diseases. Chronic periodontitis and aggressive periodontitis are also affected by the combined effects of environmental and genetic factors [32, 33].
Although the familial aggregation of aggressive periodontitis is known, the mode of inheritance is still unclear. Family linkage studies have informed different modes of inheritance such as X‐linked‐dominant [34], autosomal‐dominant [23], autosomal‐recessive [22], or both X‐linked‐dominant and autosomal‐dominant [35].
Polymorphisms in the cytokine genes, such as interleukin‐1 receptor antagonist (
IL‐10 promoter polymorphisms at positions −1082 G‐A, −819C‐T, and −590C‐A [44] and FPR348 T‐C gene polymorphism in African‐American people [45] are potential risk indicators for GAP. It is said that Fc gamma RIIIb‐NA2 allele and Fc gamma RIIIb‐NA2/NA2 genotype, composite genotype FcaRIIIb‐NA2/NA2, FCgammaRIIIa‐H/H131 [46], and FCgamma polymorphisms [47] may lead to aggressive periodontitis. IL‐1 (IL‐1α and IL‐1β) genes genotype‐positive individuals have higher levels of virulent bacterial complexes. The number of virulent bacterial species in deep pockets is seen at higher levels in IL‐1 genes genotype‐positive people than genotype‐negative people [48].
Angiotensinogen, cathepsin C, E‐selectin, formyl peptide receptor, NADPH oxidase, plasminogen activator inhibitor 1, calprotectin, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2, and tissue plasminogen activator have been correlated with aggressive periodontitis [49]. TLR‐4 399 Ile polymorphism has shown a protective effect against aggressive periodontitis in contrast to chronic periodontitis [50]. HLA‐DR4 gene polymorphism is found in higher frequency in rapidly progressive periodontitis patients, and HLA‐A9, B‐15 gene polymorphisms are found to be significantly elevated [51, 52]. HLA‐DQB1 plays a crucial role in pathogenesis of aggressive periodontitis [53].
Periodontal diseases include a wider spectrum of diseases than just periodontitis. Some periodontal diseases are affected by genetic variations. Thus, it could be said that genetic factors play a crucial role in periodontal health and disease (Table 1) [16, 54].
Syndrome | Mutated gene | Chromosome region |
---|---|---|
Ehlers‐Danlos syndrome | Collagen alpha‐1(V) gene (COL5A1) or the collagen alpha‐2(V) gene (COL5A2) | 9q34, 2q31 |
Type III collagen for EDS type IV, unknown for EDS type VIII | ||
Papillon‐Lefévre syndrome and Haim‐Munk syndrome | Cathepsin C (CTSC gene) (dipeptidyl aminopeptidase) | 11q14.1–q14.3 |
Hypophosphatasia | ALPL, tissue non‐specific alkaline phosphatase | 1p36.12 |
Chediak‐Higashi syndrome | Lysosomal trafficking regulator CHS1/LYST, abnormal transport of vesicles to and from neutrophil lysozyme caused by mutations in lysosomal trafficking regulator gene (LYST) | 1q42.1–q42.2 |
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I | Beta‐2 integrin chain | 21q22.3 |
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type II | GDP‐fucose transporter‐1 | 11p11.2 |
Congenital and cyclic neutropenia | ELANE | 19p13.3 |
Glycogen storage disease | SLC37A4 | 11q23.3 |
Down syndrome | Multiple, vertical trisomic regions at least 5Mb (megabase) long | Trisomy 21 |
Some syndromes with clinical manifestations of severe periodontitis.
Linguistically, the word “consanguinity” is reproduced from two Latin words: “con” meaning common or shared and “sanguineus” meaning blood. The meaning of consanguineous marriage is a relationship between biologically related individuals. As a clinical genetic term, “a consanguineous marriage” is a union between couples who are related as second cousins or closer [55–57]. The terms of inbreeding and consanguinity are used to define relations between couples who have at least one common ancestor [58, 59]. It is estimated that more than one billion of the global population who live in different communities and countries prefer consanguineous marriage [56, 60]. At present, this rate corresponds about 20% of world populations [56]. Categories of consanguineous marriages are different (Figure 1).
Categories of consanguineous marriages.
Consanguinity rates differ in communities depending on religion, culture, and geography. The prevalence is high among Middle Eastern and Arab citizens [61]. The highest rates of consanguineous marriages in the world are seen in many Arab countries where 20–50% of all marriages include consanguineous marriages, especially first cousin marriages [62]. In developed countries, the rate of consanguineous marriage has decreased to a low level but includes different ethnic groups, some of which continue to practice their traditional cultural habits [63]. It is commonly accepted that consanguinity is more prevalent among underprivileged persons in poor communities [64–66]. Education level and socio‐economic status of the persons may have a potential effect on consanguinity [67].
Studies of consanguineous marriage and genetic disorders have yielded conflicting results [68, 69]. The correlation between relationship and proportion of genes is as follows [70] (Table 2).
Relationship | Relationship degree | Proportion of genes |
---|---|---|
Identical (monozygotic) twins | 100% | |
Brothers and sisters, non‐identical (dizygotic) twins, parents and children | First degree (1°) | ½, 50% |
Uncles and aunts, nephews and nieces, grandparents and half‐brothers and half‐sisters | Second degree (2°) | ¼, 25% |
First cousins, half‐uncles and aunts and half‐nephews and nieces | Third degree (3°) | 1/8, 12.5% |
Proportion of genes among the relatives [70].
Research on the association between consanguinity and the different parameters of oral and periodontal health is limited, both in quantity and in quality [71].
Consanguineous marriage leads to increased genetic homogeneity of inbred individuals. Inbred individuals have similar paternal and maternal genetic materials. The detrimental effects of inbreeding are the result of homozygosity of harmful genes [58].
Consanguineous marriages have generally been accepted as having important detrimental effects on offspring [72, 73]. Some of the rare autosomal‐recessive diseases can commonly be seen in consanguineous marriages. Health workers should be aware of these conditions and should inform patients about possible syndromes [73, 74].
The high consanguinity rates in communities could induce the expression of autosomal‐recessive diseases. These include very rare or new syndromes. Therefore, health workers must be aware of the risks associated with consanguineous marriages. Currently, many young consanguineous couples planning to have children are afraid of the consequences of consanguinity for their offspring [74].
If there is a closer biological relationship between parents, identical copies of one or more detrimental recessive gene will be transferred to their offspring [73]. If one of the parents is affected, in general, consanguineous marriage does not increase the risk for autosomal‐dominant conditions in offspring [75].
If parents are not related, their offspring have a 2–3% possibility of inheriting detrimental genes. If parents are first cousins, their offspring have up to 5–6% possibility of inheriting detrimental genes because they will both transport the same autosomal‐recessive mutation. If parents are consanguineous, no increased rate is observed for X‐linked or autosomal‐dominant genes [70].
Although consanguineous marriages are common in the world, the effects on oral diseases have not been thoroughly investigated. We do not have enough of an understanding of the effects of consanguineous marriage on oral and periodontal diseases.
Genetic disorders with periodontal manifestations are as follows: familial and cyclic neutropenias (CyN); Crohn disease; chronic granulomatous disease (CGD); agranulocytosis; Langerhans’ cell disease; glycogen storage disease; hypophosphatasia; and leucocyte adhesion deficiency, Papillon‐Lefèvre, Chédiak‐Higashi, Cohen, Ehlers‐Danlos (types 4 and 8), Marfan, Down, Haim‐Munk, and Kindlers syndromes [13].
Familial gingival fibromatosis is a rare hereditary condition that causes aesthetic, functional, psychological, and masticatory problems for patients [76]. It may manifest as an autosomal‐dominant and autosomal‐recessive mode of inheritance [77, 78]. Consanguinity has been observed in the recessive mode of familial gingival fibromatosis [79, 80].
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) type I is caused by the combined loss of expression on the surface of leukocytes of the leukocyte integrins LFA‐1, Mac‐1, and pl50, 95. It is a rare, inherited, autosomal‐recessive, immunodeficiency disease [81]. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type II is a disease with impaired fucosylation leading to an abnormal sialyl‐lewis X (CD15). It is characterized by recurrent infections, persistent leukocytosis, and severe mental and growth retardation [82]. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency II was first described in two nonrelated children who have consanguineous parents [83, 84]. In a study, consanguinity has been found as a major factor for the distribution of LAD [85].
Langerhans‐cell histiocytosis (LCH), once known as histiocytosis X, is considered a rare and non‐hereditary disorder that includes a variety of diseases characterized by the dysregulated proliferation of Langerhans cells and infiltration of organs by pathological Langerhans cells [86]. Research on the relationship between periodontitis and consanguineous marriage is limited [87].
Glycogen storage disease type 1 (GSD‐1) is a autosomal‐recessive disorder that is caused by a deficiency in microsomal glucose‐6‐phosphatase activity [88]. Because of neutrophil dysfunction and neutropenia, there is an increased susceptibility to bacterial infection. This leads to symptoms of periodontitis [89, 90]. In a linkage analysis, consanguineous marriages and glycogen storage disease type 1 have been found to be related to each other [88].
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is a rare inherited disease of the innate immune system that is characterized by impaired phagocyte microbicidal activity. It is caused by genetic defects in the superoxide‐generating NADPH oxidase of phagocytes [91]. In a retrospective study, 14 patients with CGD were investigated. According to results of this study, a high consanguinity rate (75%) was observed [92].
Infantile genetic agranulocytosis is rare, inherited as an autosomal‐recessive pattern, and characterized by severe neutropenia [93]. Patients may suffer from recurrent gingivitis and even severe periodontitis [94]. To have a family history of consanguineous parenthood may be a predisposing factor for infantile genetic agranulocytosis [95].
Some rare syndromes affecting phagocytes, epithelia, connective tissue, and teeth may cause severe periodontal conditions. Some genes that were responsible for these syndromes were identified. Haim‐Munk and Papillon‐Lefèvre syndromes (PLS) are rare autosomal‐recessive disorders associated with periodontitis onset at early stage of the life. At childhood, both deciduous and permanent teeth are lost early. Mutations in the cathepsin gene (CTSC) on chromosome 11q 14–21 are the cause of PLS [96–98]. Papillon‐Lefèvre syndrome is an autosomal‐recessive disorder, and consanguinity in 20–40% of patients has been demonstrated in some studies [99, 100]. Consanguineously married parents may have offspring with PLS [101, 102]. In patients with PLS, deciduous teeth are lost early, but gingiva remains healthy. When permanent teeth erupt, gingivitis and periodontitis occur and all permanent teeth except the third molars are lost in a short time [103].
Ehler‐Danlos syndrome is a group of autosomal‐recessive disorders that affect the connective tissues such as skin, blood vessels, joints, etc. [104, 105]. In a case study, a patient with third‐degree consanguineous parents has been described as having the appearance of old age, hypermobile joints, and skin laxity [106].
Once a patient’s host response or immune system is impaired, severe periodontal disease and loss of periodontal tissues are often seen. Various systemic diseases such as leukemia, thrombocytopenia, and leucocyte disorders, such as agranulocytosis, cyclic neutropenia, and leucocyte adhesion deficiency, could result in increased severity of periodontal disease [13].
Cyclic neutropenia (CyN) is defined as an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) less than 0.5 × 109/L for at least 3–5 days per approximately 21‐day cycles [107]. Neutrophil elastase (NE) gene (ELANE, formerly known as ELA2) located on chromosome 19p13.3 is the suspected gene that is the only known genetic defect in patients with CyN. This condition shows an autosomal‐dominant transmission [108, 109]. Alangari et al. [110] have investigated both cyclic neutropenia and severe congenital neutropenia (SCN) phenotypes in an extended consanguineous multiplex family. According to results of this study, they have shown for the first time that a G6PC3 homozygous mutation resulted in a phenotype that is compatible with CyN in addition to the classical phenotype of SCN. They have reported that mutations in that gene could be said to have an autosomal‐recessive pattern of inheritance in patients with CyN.
Chediak‐Higashi syndrome (CHS) is a severe autosomal‐recessive disease. It is characterized by partial oculocutaneous albinism, a predisposition to infections, the presence of abnormally large granules in many different cell types, and insufficient natural killer cell activity [111–113]. In consanguineous families, patients with Chediak‐Higashi syndrome were found to have homozygous for the haplotype defined by the markers DlS235 and DlS2649 [111].
Cohen syndrome is a rare autosomal‐recessive syndrome [114]. Diagnosis of Cohen syndrome is determined as the presence of at least seven of the following clinical symptoms as originally reported by Cohen et al. [114] and further described by Norio et al. [115]: mental retardation, microcephaly, characteristic facial appearance, slim tapering extremities with relative truncal obesity, hypotonia, joint hyperextensibility, benign neutropenia, and ophthalmic abnormalities such as myopia and retinal dystrophy. Cohen syndrome has been shown to be related with consanguinity [116].
Down syndrome is one of the most common human chromosomal disorders. Incidence of Down syndrome is quite high about 1 in 700 live births [117]. It is a result of an extra copy of the human chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) [118], and it is the most frequent genetic cause of mental retardation [117]. Studies investigating the relationship between Down syndrome and consanguineous marriage are contradictory [119–121].
Marfan syndrome is an autosomal‐dominant disorder and a heritable disorder of fibrous connective tissue. The main symptoms occur in three systems: skeletal, ocular, and cardiovascular [122]. It appears to be due to heterozygous mutation in the fibrillin‐1 gene on chromosome 15q21. De Vries et al. [123] described Marfan syndrome in two cousins from a consanguineous Turkish family.
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) in the form of Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis result from a dysregulated immune response to environmental factors in genetically susceptible people [124]. In a study, Crohn disease was found to be related with consanguinity [125].
Kindler syndrome, a rare subtype of inherited epidermolysis bullosa, shows oral symptoms such as gingivitis, periodontitis, and loss of teeth. Kindler syndrome is reported more frequently in populations with high rates of consanguinity [126].
There does not seem to exist sufficient research on periodontal diseases related to the genetic disorders. Moreover, further research is needed on periodontal diseases in relation to consanguineous marriages.
Globally, the building sector is accountable for 30% of the total final energy consumption and without action, the energy demand in this sector could increase by another 30% by 2060 [1]. Again, buildings represent 28% of global energy-related CO2 emissions worldwide [2]. This sector’s energy consumption is related to human programmes involving the use of equipment, lighting and other electrical appliances [3]. The household/residential sector, which forms part of the total building stocks, has been identified as one of the target groups for energy efficiency programmes [4, 5] also underscored that households can adopt and implement energy efficiency measures to reduce energy consumption significantly.
The residential sector in Ghana accounts for 47% of the total final energy consumption [6], compared to other countries such as the United States (25%), United Kingdom (30%), Japan (26%), Saudi Arabia (50%), China (15.8%) and Malaysia (15%) [5, 7, 8, 9]. Electrical appliances such as refrigerators, freezers and room air conditioners (RACs), which are energy-intensive, are among the most common Ghanaian household appliances. Whilst refrigerators and freezers consume between 25–30% of the total residential energy use, air conditioners account for 6.5% of residential energy use in Ghana [10]. Whilst [11] indicated that most of the markets in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries are inundated with “used electrical appliances” [12], assert that this phenomenon was a result of the proliferation of used or “second-hand” goods from Europe and elsewhere. For instance, it has been estimated that there were over two (2) million used and inefficient refrigerating appliances in Ghana in 2012 that were laden with hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) [13]. This large number was primarily due to the introduction of standards and labelling in developed countries and the era of energy efficiency programmes in Europe in the early 1970s saw many of these countries disposing of their old and energy inefficient appliances into SSA [14]. The share of the used electrical appliance market in Ghana at the time was about 80%, thereby promoting climate injustice [14]. These used and inefficient refrigerating appliances consume, on average, 1200 kWh per unit per year compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per year in Europe and the US respectively [15].
Minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and the introduction of more efficient appliances through energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) programmes have been identified as potential means of reducing the energy consumption of these inefficient appliances. It has been noted that improving energy efficiency is the best way to simultaneously meet sustainable development goals (SDGs) 7 and 13 in the energy sector [16]. This approach, when used judiciously, frees resources for other projects, helps economies to grow and reduces environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. MEPS programmes have also proven to be effective in stimulating the development of cost-effective, energy-efficient technologies and are said to be the cornerstone of most national energy and climate change mitigation programmes [17].
Ghana’s move to improve its energy efficiency is part of a larger energy sector reform programme designed to support the country’s long-term economic developmental agenda. In 2002, Ghana, therefore, identified the benefits of MEPS such as EES&L programmes for equipment and other electrical appliances such as deep freezers, RACs, refrigerators, industrial motors and lighting systems [18]. These standards and labelling programmes serve as benchmarks and catalysts in meeting the MEPS objectives.
According to [19], energy efficiency legislations and policies have continued to increase globally through energy efficiency research and developmental programmes [20]. However, several barriers attributable to the low adoption and implementation of MEPS in SSA have to be overcome. These barriers, according to [21, 22], include financial constraints, techno-economic, political-institutional barriers, market barriers, lack of incentives and lack of information (knowledge). As a result of market failures in SSA, [23] suggested in his paper, “The market for lemons: Quality and uncertainty in the market mechanism”, that in markets where consumers do not have reliable and adequate information in respect of the quality of the products, it leads to the proliferation of cheaper and low-quality products. The effect of this failure is that more efficient products or appliances are pushed out of the market space.
Notwithstanding these continental constraints, Ghana was able to overcome these barriers through stakeholders’ consultative engagements using the
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2005 (L. I 1815);
Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations 2008 (L. I 1932);
Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations 2009 (L. I 1958); and
Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations 2017 (L. I 2353).
These standards and labelling initiatives provide a mandatory labelling regime in Ghana, where energy guide labels have to be affixed conspicuously on these appliances to indicate the minimum energy performance levels of these appliances. The indicators on these energy guide labels include annual energy consumption, type of refrigerant, climate class, star rating, manufacturer, model number, fresh and frozen volumes. This mandatory labelling regime is intended to promote energy efficiency, transform the appliances market, reduce energy demand in households and reduce Ghana’s energy-related CO2 and ozone-depleting substances (ODS) emissions. This paper reviews the impact of the first three regulations and other energy efficiency projects between 2007 and 2020.
To commence the enforcement of these regulations, the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme was launched by the Government of Ghana, on the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission in July, 2012. The objective was to recover about fifty thousand (50,000) inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and encourage individuals to use more energy-efficient ones. So, in 2013, the Ghana Energy Commission commenced the full implementation of these regulations at the ports of entry. It is therefore imperative to review and establish the impact of these regulations between 2007 and 2020.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the next section following the introduction looks at the methodology being employed. The concept of energy efficiency is examined in Section 3. Section 4 provides the Global and National overviews of MEPS implementations. Testing and inspection protocols for refrigerating, lighting and air-conditioning equipment in Ghana are considered in Section 5. Section 6 offers the discussion of the results of some of the real impacts due to MEPS whilst Section 7 concludes the paper.
This section explains the methodology adopted for this work.
The content of this desktop review is based on energy efficiency appliance import data, policy documents and market transformation data from the Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research (CSIR-IIR), Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA-Custom Division) and Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). Other sources of information include the International Energy Agency (IEA) as well as other related web searches. Besides, global and SSA energy efficiency documents were also reviewed by examining secondary data from standards, regulations, protocols, market report series and other available statistical data.
The basic assumption for computing electricity savings is that without MEPS regulation and its accompanying awareness programmes. Eqs. (1)–(4) were used to estimate the annual energy saving per appliance, total energy savings for all the appliances and CO2 emissions reductions between 2007 and 2020 as a result of MEPS implementation. Therefore, the annual electricity saving,
where
The total annual electricity saving,
The total cost savings from MEPS implementation are computed in terms of the electricity savings from operating a more efficient appliance. Thus, the annual electricity savings computed using Eq. (2) is used to estimate the total cost savings by multiplying the computed electricity savings with the electricity tariff as shown in Eq. (3):
where
The annual carbon emission reduction,
where
Several definitions for energy efficiency have emerged over the years. Energy efficiency may be considered as investing in more energy-efficient technologies or appliances which results in more energy savings. [24] defines energy efficiency as “using energy cautiously and economically to sustain everyday life, live comfortably and support wellbeing”. According to [25], energy efficiency is achieving the same service and performance while using technology with less energy use and therefore enhancing the security of the energy supply. For [26], energy efficiency is an effective tool for reducing electricity or energy consumption which limits greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and thereby reducing global warming.
This section reviews the Global and the Ghanaian perspectives of MEPS and EES&L programmes.
Both minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and energy efficiency standards and labelling (EES&L) for appliances are the two known key mitigation strategies for electricity conservation worldwide [27]. MEPS is a technique of eliminating inefficient performing appliances through the prescription of minimum efficiency (or maximum energy consumption) that manufacturers must achieve [28]. The benefits of MEPS, according to [29, 30] include the following:
It allows manufacturers and suppliers to increase appliance efficiency since less-efficient appliances will no longer be tolerated for sale in the regulated market;
It encourages manufacturers to explore innovative and efficient technologies to gain a competitive edge;
It provides market consistency and certainty, thus creating economies of scale;
Consumers enjoy electricity cost savings over the lifetime of the appliance as these appliances on the market now consume less energy to operate; and
Appliance purchase prices are largely falling in real terms in many countries with MEPS regulations due to competition, economies of scale and marketplace innovations.
The main objectives of the EES&L regime are to [31];
Prevent the influx of substandard appliances on the market;
Provide the consumer an appliance the needed information to make an informed choice;
Provide information regarding the running cost of the appliance; and
Fulfil environmental treaty commitments such as the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Accord, Kigali Amendment, Montreal Protocol, Rotterdam Convention and Basel Convention.
EES&L programmes, introduced in the 1970s, are now being implemented in over eighty (80) countries including Ghana. The programmes cover more than fifty (50) types of appliances and equipment [32]. Testing protocols are used to determine appliance performance relating to energy efficiency. These protocols are periodically revised to ensure they keep up with trends and advances in technology.
Over the past decades, Ghana has made significant progress in its energy energy efficiency programmes [33]. These programmes put Ghana on the world map as a pioneer in SSA as a result of extensive collaborations of stakeholders and institutions such as the Ghana Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, Ghana Standards Authority, Ghana Energy Foundation and CLASP [14]. Ghana experienced widespread power shortages due to series of droughts spanning from the 1980s to the 1990s. Energy efficiency programmes were identified to solve these power shortages as it delivers benefits faster than building new generating power plants [14]. The Government of Ghana, therefore, decided to support energy efficiency standards, policies and programmes. Consequently, the Ghana Electrical Appliance Labelling and Standards Programme (GEALSP) was launched to help transform the country’s appliance market. An initial assessment to determine the energy savings potential was then carried out from energy efficiency projects [10].
A comprehensive national household survey on demand-side management (DSM) was then conducted by the Ghana Energy Commission between 2003 and 2006. The results from the survey revealed that residential energy consumption, for example, was 50% of the total national energy use and refrigerating appliances accounted for nearly 59% of the residential use [15]. These used refrigerating appliances consume on average 1200 kWh per annum compared to 250 kWh and 400 kWh per annum in Europe and the US respectively [15] as illustrated in Figure 1 for comparative energy use basis.
Refrigerator Electricity use for Ghana, Europe and US in 2007 [
Energy efficiency programmes for household appliances was crucial and therefore needed to be adopted and implemented without further delay to bring Ghana’s consumption down (proposed standard—the green line in Figure 1). According to [33], energy efficiency is considered a “
No | Types of barriers | Measures |
---|---|---|
1. | Financial | Implementation of tax incentives and national programmes. For instance, between 2003 and 2016, import duties and taxes were removed from the importation and sale of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). |
2. | Market | Import duties and value-added tax (VAT) on compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) were removed by government in April 2003, thus making them available and affordable to consumers. |
3. | Lack of information (knowledge) | Organization of national energy efficiency campaigns throughout the country using both print and electronic media. Also, leaflets, brochures and flyers were printed and distributed, including town hall meetings where relevant stakeholders were engaged. |
4. | Institutional | Holding stakeholders’ consultations and institutional reforms. For instance, Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC) is mandated to set electricity tariffs independent of governmental influence and to reward efficient users and punish inefficient users of electricity. Also, the Ghana Energy Commission came in with the labelling programme in 2005 to help in transforming the appliance market. |
5. | Technical | Technical cooperation with developmental partners was encouraged to offer training to Ghanaians. For instance, between 2012 and 2013, over 600 technicians were trained to carry out installation, repairs and maintenance of the new and efficient refrigerating appliances under the Ghana Energy Foundation and UNDP project to transform the appliance market. |
6. | Political | Independent regulatory bodies were created to deal with the energy crisis. For instance, the Ghana Energy Commission and Public Utility Regulatory Commission were mandated to carry out technical and economic regulations of the power sector respectively. The Ghana Grid Company was also responsible for the national network, separated from the distribution operator. All these programmes were moved from the Ministry of Energy to prevent any political interference. |
Types of energy efficiency barriers and measures to overcome them.
Four (4) Legislative Instruments (L.Is) were subsequently enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament in collaboration with the Ghana Energy Commission and Ghana Standards Authority. The first, energy efficiency regulations for non-ducted room air conditioners (RACs) and compact fluorescent lights (L.I. 1815) was developed in 2005 [34], which mandates that all RACs imported into Ghana must meet the minimum energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 2.8 W of cooling per watt of power input, equivalent to a 1-star rating. The second energy efficiency regulations (L.I. 1932) was also enacted in 2008 to help prevent the importation or sale of used inefficient refrigerating and air conditioning appliances in Ghana. To ensure that only energy efficient refrigerating appliances are imported and sold in Ghana, the energy efficiency standards and labelling regulation for household refrigerating appliances (L.I. 1958) was enacted in 2009. Finally, in 2017, the energy efficiency standards and labelling for light-emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent regulations (L.I. 2353) was enacted. The purpose of the fourth regulation is to enforce the standards for minimum energy efficiency for self-ballasted fluorescent lamps and light-emitting diode lamps imported or manufactured in Ghana.
Details of these four regulations and standard protocols for determining the energy efficiency star ratings for (non-ducted air-conditioners, household refrigerating appliances and lamps and CFLs), categories of household refrigerators and initial luminous efficacy of the lamps are available and can be assessed under Legislative Instruments (list of L.I’s for energy efficiency) at [35].
In conclusion, Ghana has developed and implemented four (4) main end-use policies, regulations and standards to promote demand-side management (DSM). Seventeen (17) other regulations are currently being developed for other electrical appliances such television (TV) sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. Table 2 lists the four (4) regulations, its scope and targets, the year they were enacted by the Ghanaian Parliament and their implementation dates.
L.I. | Regulation | Scope & targets | Year passed | Year implemented |
---|---|---|---|---|
1815 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (non-ducted air conditioners and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Gives legal backing to the use of energy-efficient non-ducted air conditioners and fluorescent lamps. | 2005 | 2014 |
1932 | Energy efficiency (prohibition of manufacture, sale or importation of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air-conditioner) regulations. | Places total ban on the importation and sale of incandescent filament lamp, used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer, used freezer and used air conditioners effective January 2012. | 2008 | 2013 |
1958 | Energy efficiency standards and labelling (household refrigerating appliances) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for household refrigerating appliances. | 2009 | 2013 |
2353 | Energy commission (efficiency standards and labelling (light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps) regulations. | Provides for the enforcement of minimum energy efficiency and labelling for light emitting diode and self-ballasted fluorescent lamps. | 2017 | 2020 |
Main end-use policies and regulations.
To achieve the full potential of the MEPS programmes, Ghana adopted rigorous testing, approval and inspection procedures for importing these regulated appliances into the country. Currently, Ghana does not manufacture these appliances, so testing is done by third-party accredited laboratories such as Vkan Certification & Testing Co., Ltd. (CVC), Intertek, TUV-Rhineland, DEKRA Product Testing & Certification, General Society of Surveillance (SGS) and Bureau Veritis (BVAC). These testing facilities are recommended and designated by the Ghana Standards Authority and Ghana Energy Commission. A performance test report, which details the performance of the appliance in terms of energy consumption, approved refrigerant, climate class, star rating, etc. from these facilities, is then submitted to the Ghana Energy Commission by the importer concerning a particular model, for evaluation. Certificate of approval (COA), containing parameters of the said model, is issued to the importer for model(s) that meet the MEPS requirements as laid down in the energy efficiency guidelines [31].
The testing, approval and inspection procedures of a model are summarized in Figures 2 and 3.
Testing and approval processes for model(s) to be imported into Ghana.
Physical inspection procedures of a model at the ports of entry.
Having reviewed all the available documents, regulations, standards, procedures and processes, the next section provides some of the real impacts resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana since 2007.
This section discusses the impact of the major energy efficiency programmes resulting from MEPS implementation in Ghana based on Eqs. (1)–(4) between 2007 and 2020.
In 2007, Ghana implemented an efficient lighting project (CFL exchange programme) regarding its policy directions in the area of energy efficiency. On the advice of the Ghana Energy Commission, the Government procured and distributed over six (6) million compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) to replace the estimated six million incandescent lamps at no cost to the beneficiaries [36]. As a result of this project, incandescent lamp usage in households has reduced from 58–3% while CFLs penetration increased from 20% in 2007 to 79% in 2009 [36]. The country’s peak electricity demand was accordingly reduced by 124 MW and peak electricity consumption by 72.8 GWh per year due to this policy implementation. This resulted in an energy cost saving of about US$ 39.5 million per year and carbon dioxide (CO2) savings estimated at 105,000 tonnes per year [36]. Consequently, there was a delay in the generation expansion of thermal energy investment of US$ 105 million. At US$ 120/bbl, energy cost saving would amount to US$ 39.5 million per year [37]. The project received a Global Energy Efficiency Award in 2010 organized by the Energy Efficiency Global Forum in Brussels, Belgium (12–14 April 2011) [36].
Reports available at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the Government of Ghana, in September 2012, through the Ghana Energy Commission, launched the national refrigerator turn-in and rebate scheme with the support of the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol (MFMP). The scheme, which encouraged consumers to exchange their old refrigerators for new and efficient ones, available at a discounted price, was to recover about 50,000 inefficient refrigerating appliances from homes and promote the use of more energy-efficient ones and transform the refrigerating appliances market in the country. By mid-June, 2016, a total of 10,472 units of old energy-inefficient appliances have been replaced across the country with new energy-efficient ones [38]. Customers who participated in the project had their consumption reduced from 1200 kWh per year to 385 kWh per year, resulting in a saving of about 400 GWh of electricity, 1.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and about 1500 kg of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) recovered [38]. This translated into a household income saving of about US$ 140 per year [38].
The enforcement of L.I. 1932 at Ghana’s ports of entry by the Ghana Energy Commission prohibited the importation of an estimated number of 4,854,864 units of used refrigerating appliances between 2013 and 2020. A total of 5825.84 GWh of electricity would have been consumed with over 2.33 million tonnes of CO2 released into the atmosphere if the ban was not enforced. However, data available at the Ghana Energy Commission shows that a total of 46,666 used refrigerators and 11,003 used RACs were imported through illegal means by some recalcitrant importers. They were subsequently confiscated by the Ghana Energy Commission inspectors positioned at the ports and evacuated for e-disposal [39]. Figure 4 shows the yearly trend in the importation of used refrigerators, particularly the downward trend between 2013 and 2020 during MEPS implementation.
Yearly imported used refrigerating appliances to Ghana from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumptions of a used refrigerator and used RAC are 1200 kWh per year and 4000 kWh per year respectively [39]. The rigorous enforcement of L.I. 1932 since 2013, yielded a total of 100 GWh of electricity and 40,000 tonnes of CO2 savings for those confiscated used appliances based on Eqs. (2) and (3).
Enforcing L.I. 1958 resulted in the importation of 2,378,432 new and efficient refrigerating appliances into the country between 2013 and 2020, thus preventing the importation of used and inefficient ones [39]. Data analysis indicated that 92% of all refrigerating appliances imported between 2013 and 2020 were new and efficient in accordance with L.I. 1958. About 74.8% of these appliances were 2- to 5-star rated with 87.2% of all imports laden with R600a refrigerant (hydrocarbon) [39], which has both low global warming potential (GWP) and low ozone-depleting potential (ODP) and therefore more energy-efficient [40]. The remaining 8%, which were used refrigerators were confiscated. The rise in the importation and sale of new refrigerating appliances is primarily due to strict regulations, procedures and controls implemented at the ports of entry, regular market surveillance and stringent compliance monitoring. These measures help to ensure that only appliances that meet MEPS are permitted into the Ghanaian market. Figure 5 shows how the refrigerating appliance market in Ghana has evolved/transformed over the years (2005–2020) from being a completely used and inefficient refrigerator market (88.9% inefficient in 2005) to new and efficient ones (99.1% efficient in 2020) as a result of MEPS implementation.
Evidence of transformed market through MEPS from 2005 to 2020.
The average annual energy consumption of these new and efficient appliances has dropped drastically due to MEPS implementation compared with the used refrigerators. Consumption values reduced from about 1400 kWh per unit per year to 340 kWh per unit per year [39]. Figure 6 shows the trend in the average annual energy consumption patterns of refrigerating appliances over the years especially that during the implementation period.
Average annual energy consumption patterns for new fridges.
Assuming that 90% of the new refrigerating appliances were sold between 2013 and 2020. Figure 7 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings based on Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, a total of 5845 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 2.56 million tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1958 enforcement. This is equivalent to more than 3.4% of the total
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for refrigerating appliances.
A total of 904,923 new RACs were imported and inspected at the Port of Tema since 2014 [39]. About 54.6% of the RACs on the Ghanaian market are 1-star rated with an average EER of 2.87, which is above the minimum EER of 2.80 with an average annual rated power consumption of 3347.4 kWh [37]. Also, 56% of the RACs were laden with R410a refrigerant which is more energy-efficient than R22 [40]. The average annual energy consumption of a used RAC is 4000 kWh per year [39]. Therefore, 652.6 kWh of electricity has been saved per unit per year due to MEPS. Assuming that 90% of the new RACs were sold between 2014 and 2020. Figure 8 presents the analysis of the total electricity and CO2 emission savings using Eqs. (1)–(3). From the analysis, about 1900 GWh electricity has been saved with a corresponding 783,000 tonnes of CO2 emission savings resulting from MEPS due to L.I. 1815 enforcement.
Analysis of total electricity and CO2 emission savings for RACs.
Analysis of some of the reports at the Ghana Energy Commission indicated that the compliance levels of the refrigerating appliances and RACs have been increasing over the years. Between 2017 and 2020, the compliance level of the imported refrigerating appliance increased from 92.6% to 97.0% whilst that of RACs also saw an upsurge from 79.2% to 96.8% [37, 39]. Figure 9 shows the trends in the compliance levels of these appliances from 2017 to 2020.
Trends in compliance levels for refrigerating appliances and RACs from 2017 to 2020.
The analysis further revealed that the following factors contributed to the high compliance levels in an attempt to transform the appliance market in Ghana [37, 39]:
Submission of performance test report by importers from third-party accredited laboratories to the Ghana Energy Commission for evaluation and approval or otherwise;
Establishment of import appliance database/register;
Operationalization of the GCNet/ICUMS digital portals for approving only appliances that meet MEPS;
Rigorous physical examination procedures/protocols put in place at the ports of entry;
Regular and consistent market surveillance;
Stringent compliance monitoring;
Removal of non-compliant appliances from showrooms for testing and re-labelling;
Payment of enforcement fees for non-compliance;
Verification and challenge testing procedures; and
Development of a Certified Appliances Mobile Application (APP) which contains all the approved appliances, nearby shops, tips on how to save energy. This APP also helps consumers to make an informed purchase decision. To download the APP, retailers and consumers are required to search for
Ghana’s drive to transform the appliance market from the used and inefficient appliances to new and efficient ones has been highly recommended over the years. From this review or study, Ghana developed and implemented MEPS successfully for refrigerating appliances, RACs and lighting systems. This was done through the engagement of relevant stakeholders with complementary financial and technical assistance from development partners. Through MEPS implementation, annual average energy consumptions of refrigerating appliances and RACs have decreased drastically. The implementation of MEPS programmes in Ghana during the period under review yielded 8317.8 GWh (8.32 TWh) of electricity savings, while at the same time reducing fossil CO2 emissions by 4.60 million tonnes. This figure roughly corresponds to the total thermal electricity generated (8424 GWh) in 2017 [6]. At 10 US cents per kWh, about USD 832 million has been saved on electricity bills. This enormous financial saving and environmental benefit resulting from deferred electricity consumption amplifies the positive implication of energy efficiency and MEPS programmes. In conclusion, the implementation of energy efficiency programmes delayed the construction of a 950 MW power plant capacity. The 17 other regulations that are currently being developed for other electrical equipment such as television sets, electric motors, washing machines, blenders, etc. must be concluded in good time to enable further energy savings for the country.
I would like to thank the following organizations that contributed valuable information on the subject: Ghana Energy Commission, Energy Foundation, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Institute of Industrial Research, Ghana Revenue Authority, International Energy Agency (IEA), European Union (EU), Collaborative Labelling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).
The author, Edwin Kwasi Tamakloe is an employee of the Ghana Energy Commission which is one of the stakeholder institutions discussed in the article. This is indicated transparently in the author affiliations.
See Figure A1.
Sample of a three (3) star rated energy guide label for refrigerating appliance in Ghana [
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In addition, integrated thinking philosophy provides systematic disclosure of value creation, namely how organizations made resource allocations in the past and how they will create value in the future according to their business models.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Pınar Okan Gökten and Beyhan Marşap",authors:[{id:"204188",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Okan Gokten",slug:"pinar-okan-gokten",fullName:"Pınar Okan Gokten"},{id:"204189",title:"Prof.",name:"Beyhan",middleName:null,surname:"Marsap",slug:"beyhan-marsap",fullName:"Beyhan Marsap"}]},{id:"56092",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69103",title:"Value Relevance of Accounting Data in an Emerging Market: Did Accounting Reforms Make a Difference?",slug:"value-relevance-of-accounting-data-in-an-emerging-market-did-accounting-reforms-make-a-difference-",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This study investigates the association of accounting earnings (NI) and book value of equity (BV) with stock prices in Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE), currently Borsa Istanbul (BIST), during the 1992–2006 period. We also explore the effect of accounting reforms on value relevance that is measured as the strength of the association between a firm’s NI and BV and its market value. We specifically investigate the impact of the Turkish Uniform Chart of Accounts (1994), mandatory inflation accounting, consolidations and voluntary (2003–2004), and the mandatory (2005) adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). We hypothesize that these reforms have reduced information asymmetry and thus are expected to enhance the value relevance of accounting information. We find strong evidence that the Ohlson model is a valid model, and BV is more value relevant than NI in BIST. We also find that inflation accounting and consolidations have enhanced the value relevance of BV, while IFRS has increased the value relevance of NI, but reduced that of BV. We contribute to the debate by exploiting the unique sequence of reforms, to come up with comparative value relevance testing designs and interesting results for all major reforms, which we believe will be instructive for researchers and for all emerging and developed economies undergoing similar reforms and best practices.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Mine Aksu, Ayse Tansel Cetin and Can Simga Mugan",authors:[{id:"203574",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mine",middleName:null,surname:"Aksu",slug:"mine-aksu",fullName:"Mine Aksu"},{id:"204249",title:"Prof.",name:"Can Simga",middleName:null,surname:"Mugan",slug:"can-simga-mugan",fullName:"Can Simga Mugan"},{id:"204250",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayse",middleName:null,surname:"Tansel Cetin",slug:"ayse-tansel-cetin",fullName:"Ayse Tansel Cetin"}]},{id:"61095",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76867",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. Hypotheses were tested using ordinary least squares regression, and the results show that, based on the participants’ average responses, CPAs are affected mainly by the level of their ethical awareness in decision making about an ethical issue or transparency of financial reports, which indicates that the three concepts are strongly connected to each other.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Nida Türegün",authors:[{id:"238085",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Türegün",slug:"nida-turegun",fullName:"Nida Türegün"}]},{id:"55385",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68778",title:"Public Accounting Reform from Institutional Theory Perspectives: Case of Turkey",slug:"public-accounting-reform-from-institutional-theory-perspectives-case-of-turkey",totalDownloads:1711,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In the literature, it is often found that institutional theory is used as the theoretical framework to explain the development and application of accounting. By means of these studies, it becomes easier to understand accounting as a social and political activity within itself and thus to be able to understand the economic, institutional, political and social environment of the turnover of the practices. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to explain the development of the public accounting system in Turkey with the help of institutional theory. Thus, it is aimed to explain all the dynamics that provide the institutionalization of state account in the national sense, together with the economic, political and social processes of the period in question. It is revealed that the regulatory arrangements directly contribute to the institutionalization of a field, and as a result, how the public organizations directly contribute to the institutionalization process.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Ceray Aldemir and Tuğba Uçma Uysal",authors:[{id:"204342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceray",middleName:null,surname:"Aldemir",slug:"ceray-aldemir",fullName:"Ceray Aldemir"},{id:"204348",title:"Dr.",name:"Tugba",middleName:null,surname:"Ucma Uysal",slug:"tugba-ucma-uysal",fullName:"Tugba Ucma Uysal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"78825",title:"Accounting Quality and Its Challenges in 21st Century",slug:"accounting-quality-and-its-challenges-in-21st-century",totalDownloads:256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This paper describes current research to drive future research challenges in accounting quality. The definition of accounting quality is mainly varying depending on the objective that the study pointed. Previous research revealed that many proxies describe the accounting quality but most of them from the financial perspective. Furthermore, this paper tries to expose this research issue in the behavioural approach and drive future research in the mixed method. It concludes that the behavioural issues can be a research model, triggering future research challenges in accounting quality. The authors support these triggers from the perspectives of political hegemony, bureaucracy ratcheting, cognitive distortion, and international accounting standard. Finally, we infer and simultaneously predict that accounting quality would broaden its concepts and lasting impression in the 21st century.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sumiyana Sumiyana, Hendrian Hendrian, Ruslan Effendi, Krisnhoe Fitrijati and Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely",authors:[{id:"328451",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumiyana",middleName:null,surname:"Sumiyana",slug:"sumiyana-sumiyana",fullName:"Sumiyana Sumiyana"},{id:"328452",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriwidharmanely",middleName:null,surname:"Sriwidharmanely",slug:"sriwidharmanely-sriwidharmanely",fullName:"Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely"},{id:"350499",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrian",middleName:null,surname:"Hendrian",slug:"hendrian-hendrian",fullName:"Hendrian Hendrian"},{id:"350500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruslan",middleName:null,surname:"Effendi",slug:"ruslan-effendi",fullName:"Ruslan Effendi"},{id:"350501",title:"Dr.",name:"Krisnhoe",middleName:null,surname:"Fitrijati",slug:"krisnhoe-fitrijati",fullName:"Krisnhoe Fitrijati"}]},{id:"61095",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. Hypotheses were tested using ordinary least squares regression, and the results show that, based on the participants’ average responses, CPAs are affected mainly by the level of their ethical awareness in decision making about an ethical issue or transparency of financial reports, which indicates that the three concepts are strongly connected to each other.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Nida Türegün",authors:[{id:"238085",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Türegün",slug:"nida-turegun",fullName:"Nida Türegün"}]},{id:"78745",title:"Analysis of Return and Risk of Cryptocurrency Bitcoin Asset as Investment Instrument",slug:"analysis-of-return-and-risk-of-cryptocurrency-bitcoin-asset-as-investment-instrument",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This study aims to explore the potential use of the cryptocurrency bitcoin as an investment instrument in Indonesia. The return obtained from bitcoin cryptocurrency is compared to other investment instruments, namely stock returns, gold and the rupiah exchange rate. The research period was carried out based on research data from 2011 to 2020. This study employee compares means test (t test) and analysis of variance (F test) on rate of return of bitcoin investment. The bitcoin return compare to the rate of return form the others investments instruments namely exchange rate, gold and stock. The study collected 120 data of each investments instruments: bitcoin, exchange rate, gold and stock from various of sources during 2011–2020. Then, we calculate the return and risk of individual investment instruments. The results showed that the bitcoin currency had the highest rate of return 18% with a standard deviation of 61% compared to exchange rate, gold and stock returns. While the rate of return for the others investment instruments showed less than 0.5% with standard deviation less than 5%. The rate of return bitcoin has significance difference compare to the rate of return of exchange rate, gold and stock. The study contribute for the investors who would like to invest on bitcoin. The investors should understand the characteristic of bitcoin in term of rate of returns and also the risk. This study also contributes to government of Indonesia on crypto currency development. The Indonesia government should adopt and regulate on crypto currency in the future to secure the investor and economic growth.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sunita Dasman",authors:[{id:"348739",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunita",middleName:null,surname:"Dasman",slug:"sunita-dasman",fullName:"Sunita Dasman"}]},{id:"55587",title:"Historical Development of Government Accounting",slug:"historical-development-of-government-accounting",totalDownloads:2774,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Government accounting aims at preventing waste in government services and establishing a balance between optimal expenditure and services by managing government assets and government sources in the most efficient way. This balance can be established only by obtaining complete and accurate information from government accounting system on time. Since the users have a low level of knowledge needs in government accounting system, it has been recorded for long years in a cash basis manner. However, as the government’s area of operation expanded and the needs increased, it became obvious that cash basis system had lacking parts. So it started to focus on recording financial transactions and financial reporting. These lacking parts in the accounting system tried to be overcome through a new regulation by focusing on the areas where cash basis accounting system was insufficient; and a change was experienced with regard to applying the accrual basis in the areas of government accounting and financial reporting. This study aims to explain the historical development of government accounting by applications in countries and especially by detailed expressions for Turkey. As a result of the literature review and the examination of countries’ government accounting practices, it has been determined that the government accounting practice has made the correct transition from cash basis to accrual basis.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan",authors:[{id:"203724",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihriban",middleName:null,surname:"Coşkun Arslan",slug:"mihriban-coskun-arslan",fullName:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan"}]},{id:"55289",title:"Behavioral Accounting and its Interactions",slug:"behavioral-accounting-and-its-interactions",totalDownloads:4019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Behavioral accounting is a branch of accounting that is related to behavior besides the accounting knowledge. It deals with the attitude and behavior of people when they are encountered with an accounting phenomenon which determines the behavior that they will show in decision‐making. This special area of accounting addresses such aspects as human information‐processing behavior, judgment quality, accounting problems that are created by users and providers of accounting information, and accounting information users’ and producers’ decision‐making skills. Behavioral research tries to find out how individuals make decisions and interact and influence other individuals, organizations, markets, and society. Behavioral accounting concept is examined under the topics of the influence of accounting information on behavior, managerial control (budget participation, nonfinancial measures, leadership, and balanced scorecard), auditing (auditor‐client negotiations, auditor’s judgment, and decision‐making), and ethics (ethical decision‐making, ethical orientation, and rationalizations on unethical behavior) in this chapter.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Filiz Angay Kutluk",authors:[{id:"203083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Angay Kutluk",slug:"filiz-angay-kutluk",fullName:"Filiz Angay Kutluk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"62",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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