\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10886",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Genetic Polymorphisms - New Insights",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:"New Insights",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides a glimpse into the dynamic process of genetic polymorphism by presenting studies carried out on different kinds of organisms at the DNA level or gene expression level. Chapters address such topics as genetic polymorphism in animals, gametocyte biomarkers, thrombotic disorders, prostate cancer, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-811-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-810-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-812-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95195",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"genetic-polymorphisms-new-insights",numberOfPages:224,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a71558dd7dfd16ad140168409f887f7e",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalışkan",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10886.jpg",numberOfDownloads:684,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 26th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 25th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"61",title:"Population Genetics",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-population-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"78200",title:"Genetic Polymorphism in Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99423",slug:"genetic-polymorphism-in-animals",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biological diversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources of nature. Genetic polymorphism study support a lot when any economically important particular species is taken into consideration. The knowledge of genetic background of a species and its population structure is very essential for their successful conservation and management. Molecular techniques have been supporting in the determination of population diversity and also to determine the genetic architecture of a wide variety of closely related individuals. Molecular techniques based on DNA polymorphism are now used in population genetic studies, systematic and molecular taxonomy. This chapter will provide information on genetic diversity of various economically important species such as protozoa, worms, insects, pearl oyster, fishes and birds. The study of genetic variations in economically important species has practical significance for developing strategies to control the disease, to improve reproductive traits, yield more beneficiary products like honey, silk, pearl, manure, etc. Since there are some data gaps, most suitable and promising technology must be used to elucidate the role of every single gene involved in the pathways to be studied in order to apply for more benefit to the society.",signatures:"Subodh Kumar Jain, Shweta Yadav and Sapna Sedha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78200",authors:[{id:"302640",title:"Dr.",name:"Subodh Kumar",surname:"Jain",slug:"subodh-kumar-jain",fullName:"Subodh Kumar Jain"},{id:"309434",title:"Dr.",name:"Sapna",surname:"Sedha",slug:"sapna-sedha",fullName:"Sapna Sedha"},{id:"421904",title:"Prof.",name:"Shweta",surname:"Yadav",slug:"shweta-yadav",fullName:"Shweta Yadav"}],corrections:null},{id:"78331",title:"From Genes to Biomarkers: Understanding the Biology of Malaria Gametocytes and Their Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99364",slug:"from-genes-to-biomarkers-understanding-the-biology-of-malaria-gametocytes-and-their-detection",totalDownloads:115,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Each year, approximately 230 million malaria cases and 400,00 malaria deaths are reported worldwide. Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites that are transmitted from one individual to another through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Malaria parasites replicate asexually in the human host, and, in each replication cycle, a portion of the asexual stages develops into sexual gametocytes that permit transmission. The proportion of infections that carries gametocytes and the infectivity of gametocytes are indicators of human-to-mosquito transmission potential. In P. falciparum, gametocytes appear 10–14 days after infection, whereas in P. vivax gametocytes appear simultaneously with asexual schizonts. Such difference in development not only increases the length of time that an individual is infectious, but also increases the likelihood of transmission before treatment. The conversion from asexual parasites to gametocytes is also highly variable between infections. Differences in age, host immune response, parasite genetic composition, density of red blood cells, presence of co-infecting parasite strains, and antimalarial drug use could affect gametocytes production. In P. vivax, the unique ability to produce hypnozoites, a dormant liver stage of the parasite, may allow gametocytes to be produced periodically from relapse and contribute to transmission. In this chapter, we will provide an overview of the biology of Plasmodium gametocytes, existing tools for gametocyte detection, and features of gametocyte genes. The biological insights and genetic findings are essential to developing better detection biomarkers and effective strategies to reduce transmission in malaria-endemic countries.",signatures:"Daniel Kepple, Anthony Ford, Ebony Little, Gabrielle Kolesar, Beka R. Abagero, Ashley N. Blackwell, Swarnapali De Silva Indrasekara, Delenasaw Yewhalaw and Eugenia Lo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78331",authors:[{id:"175958",title:"Dr.",name:"Delenasaw",surname:"Yewhalaw",slug:"delenasaw-yewhalaw",fullName:"Delenasaw Yewhalaw"},{id:"334185",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",surname:"Lo",slug:"eugenia-lo",fullName:"Eugenia Lo"},{id:"355913",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Kepple",slug:"daniel-kepple",fullName:"Daniel Kepple"},{id:"424861",title:"MSc.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Ford",slug:"anthony-ford",fullName:"Anthony Ford"},{id:"424862",title:"Ms.",name:"Ebony",surname:"Little",slug:"ebony-little",fullName:"Ebony Little"},{id:"424863",title:"Ms.",name:"Gabrielle",surname:"Kolesar",slug:"gabrielle-kolesar",fullName:"Gabrielle Kolesar"},{id:"424864",title:"MSc.",name:"Beka R.",surname:"Abagero",slug:"beka-r.-abagero",fullName:"Beka R. Abagero"},{id:"424865",title:"Ms.",name:"Ashley N.",surname:"Blackwell",slug:"ashley-n.-blackwell",fullName:"Ashley N. Blackwell"},{id:"424866",title:"Dr.",name:"Swarnapali",surname:"De Silva Indrasekara",slug:"swarnapali-de-silva-indrasekara",fullName:"Swarnapali De Silva Indrasekara"}],corrections:null},{id:"77598",title:"Thrombosis-Related DNA Polymorphisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98728",slug:"thrombosis-related-dna-polymorphisms",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Venous and arterial thrombosis are complex disorders involving several genetic inherited thrombotic and environmental risk factors as well as many mechanistic pathways including those of hemostatic, inflammatory and oxidative homeostasis. To provide an overview of genetic polymorphisms associated with thrombotic disorders, we studied related pathways and mechanisms of venous and arterial thrombosis along with their genetic polymorphisms in association with their clinical significance. We considered classical polymorphisms in the coagulation pathway factors, particularly the thrombophilia predisposition factors: Factor V, Prothrombin and MTHFR as well as PROC, PROS and antithrombin III. Other known and novel genetic polymorphisms having an impact on the pathogenesis of and the susceptibility to venous and/or arterial thrombotic disorders, in particular those involving inflammatory, immune and oxidant/antioxidant/redox signaling systems, were reviewed.",signatures:"Nouha Bouayed Abdelmoula and Balkiss Abdelmoula",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77598",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77598",authors:[{id:"357263",title:"Prof.",name:"Nouha",surname:"Bouayed Abdelmoula",slug:"nouha-bouayed-abdelmoula",fullName:"Nouha Bouayed Abdelmoula"},{id:"421630",title:"Dr.",name:"Balkiss",surname:"Abdelmoula",slug:"balkiss-abdelmoula",fullName:"Balkiss Abdelmoula"}],corrections:null},{id:"79804",title:"Cytokine Gene Polymorphism and Cancer Risk: A Promising Tool for Individual Susceptibility and Prognostic Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99363",slug:"cytokine-gene-polymorphism-and-cancer-risk-a-promising-tool-for-individual-susceptibility-and-progno",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cytokines are potent molecules produced mainly by specific activated immune cells to control inflammatory responses besides other biologic processes. Although active participation of cytokines provides defense against carcinogenesis on the other hand, deregulation at the genetic level influences their activity to promote tumor development. Among many aspects, constitutional polymorphic sequence variations are key factors that derange the cytokine expression to lead an individual’s propensity to risk for different cancers. Cytokine polymorphisms are now believed to alter these critical molecules that have a dual face in carcinogenesis as, when implicated in the activation of the immune response, these molecules check the cancer development while their persistent inflammatory reaction can envisage the development of malignancy and tumor growth. We have given ample evidence of case-control studies in a range of cancers where substantial evidence, as reported in this chapter, links polymorphism of cytokine gene susceptibility with numerous cancers. Cytokine gene polymorphism is vital to be significant bimolecular genetic determinants of susceptibility and prognosis of cancer. A strong need is felt for more case-control association studies in cytokine candidate genes involved in specific pathways for particular cancer in bigger powered sample sizes involving additional variables to disclose their factual risk for cancer.",signatures:"Arshad A. Pandith, Ina Bhat, Sheikh Mansoor, Aabid Koul, Usma Manzoor, Iqra Anwar, Fozia Mohammad, Qurat Ul Aein, Shahid M. Baba and Carmen Vladulescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79804",authors:[{id:"355682",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad A",surname:"Pandith",slug:"arshad-a-pandith",fullName:"Arshad A Pandith"},{id:"357295",title:"Mr.",name:"Aabid",surname:"Koul",slug:"aabid-koul",fullName:"Aabid Koul"},{id:"357296",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheikh",surname:"Mansoor",slug:"sheikh-mansoor",fullName:"Sheikh Mansoor"},{id:"357297",title:"Ms.",name:"Usma",surname:"Manzoor",slug:"usma-manzoor",fullName:"Usma Manzoor"},{id:"357298",title:"Ms.",name:"Ina",surname:"Bhat",slug:"ina-bhat",fullName:"Ina Bhat"},{id:"357299",title:"Ms.",name:"Fozia",surname:"Mohammad",slug:"fozia-mohammad",fullName:"Fozia Mohammad"},{id:"357301",title:"Ms.",name:"Iqra",surname:"Anwar",slug:"iqra-anwar",fullName:"Iqra Anwar"},{id:"420302",title:"Ms.",name:"Qurat",surname:"Ul Aein",slug:"qurat-ul-aein",fullName:"Qurat Ul Aein"},{id:"438275",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Vladulescu",slug:"carmen-vladulescu",fullName:"Carmen Vladulescu"},{id:"469095",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahid M.",surname:"Baba",slug:"shahid-m.-baba",fullName:"Shahid M. Baba"}],corrections:null},{id:"78095",title:"Genetic Polymorphism and Prostate Cancer: An Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99483",slug:"genetic-polymorphism-and-prostate-cancer-an-update",totalDownloads:102,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Genetic polymorphism and prostate cancer (PC) are the most pernicious and recurrently malignancy worldwide. It is the most dominating cause of cancer related casualty among men in the US. Asian countries are inflicted with PC at an alarming rate though still the prevalence of PC is lower than European and American men. Some of the genetic and environmental factors that might play a role in PC risk include: age genetic predilection, family history, race/ethnicity, lifestyle, and dietary habits and non-dietary environmental risk factors such as smoking. Socio-economic factors including economic, scholastic and intellectual factors do not, intrinsically seem to straight away influence the risk of acquiring PC. Other genetic changes that may support an increased risk of developing PC include HPC1, HPC2, HPCX, CAPB, ATM,s HOXB13 and mismatch repair genes. PC occurrence rates are highly variable. Almost all PC mortalities are due to metastatic disease, generally through tumors the progress to be hormone refractory or castrate resistant. PC, developing research has acknowledged a number of candidate genes and biological pathways associated with PC. Indirect pathways such as P13K/AKT signaling pathway is one of most well known alternate pathway in PC Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is widely known to be potent stimulator of angiogenesis. The over expression of EGFR in a very large majority of cases is accompanied by the succession of PC, implying that this may play a mechanistic role. Numerous occupational factors have been proposed to cause PC. Some of the risk factors include; farmers/agricultural workers, pesticides, shift work and flight personnel. PC treatment can be done through surgery, radical prostatectomy is the main type of surgery. Risks of injury are many – reactions to anesthesia, loss of blood, blood clumps in the legs/lungs, injury to surrounding organs, infection at the site of surgery and many more. The other treatments are hormone therapy, chemotherapy and radio therapy chemotherapy. Chemotherapeutic drugs are typically used one at a time for PC such as transurethral resection of prostate (TURP). Some of the chemotherapeutic drugs are Docetaxel, Cabazitaxel, Mitoxantrone and Estramustine. Among the score of biomarkers being studied, numerous markers and techniques deserve awareness and acceptability for both patients and urologists in clinical practice.",signatures:"Surayya Siddiqui, Sridevi I. Puranik, Aimen Akbar and Shridhar C. Ghagane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78095",authors:[{id:"227286",title:"Dr.",name:"Shridhar C.",surname:"Ghagane",slug:"shridhar-c.-ghagane",fullName:"Shridhar C. Ghagane"},{id:"328244",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridevi I.",surname:"Puranik",slug:"sridevi-i.-puranik",fullName:"Sridevi I. Puranik"},{id:"419378",title:"Ms.",name:"Aimen",surname:"Akbar",slug:"aimen-akbar",fullName:"Aimen Akbar"},{id:"419396",title:"Ms.",name:"Surayya",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"surayya-siddiqui",fullName:"Surayya Siddiqui"}],corrections:null},{id:"78188",title:"HER2Ile655Val Polymorphism and Risk of Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99482",slug:"her2-em-sup-ile655val-sup-em-polymorphism-and-risk-of-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"HER2 plays a vital role in the development and progression of several types of human cancer, so the HER2 becomes one of major targets for HER2-positive breast cancer treatment. Several reports have shown that the HER2 oncogene expression relates to clinicopathological factors in cancer patients. HER2Ile655Val single nucleotide polymorphism associates with malignant tumors, including prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, osteosarcoma, gastric cancer, uterine cervical carcinoma, fibroadenoma, and breast cancer. To understand the precise association, this chapter was described to estimate the association between HER2Ile655Val single nucleotide polymorphism and susceptibility to breast cancer. Our findings suggest that the Val allele in HER2 codon 655 single nucleotide polymorphism is strongly associated with the risk of breast cancer. HER2Ile655Val single nucleotide polymorphism might also be a susceptibility factor that favors early-onset breast cancer.",signatures:"Tung Nguyen-Thanh, Thong Ba Nguyen and Thuan Dang-Cong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78188",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78188",authors:[{id:"340643",title:"Dr.",name:"Thuan",surname:"Dang-Cong",slug:"thuan-dang-cong",fullName:"Thuan Dang-Cong"},{id:"348281",title:"Dr.",name:"Tung",surname:"Nguyen-Thanh",slug:"tung-nguyen-thanh",fullName:"Tung Nguyen-Thanh"},{id:"426404",title:"Dr.",name:"Thong",surname:"Ba-Nguyen",slug:"thong-ba-nguyen",fullName:"Thong Ba-Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"78433",title:"Human Genetic Polymorphisms Associated with Susceptibility to COVID-19 Infection and Response to Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99877",slug:"human-genetic-polymorphisms-associated-with-susceptibility-to-covid-19-infection-and-response-to-tre",totalDownloads:84,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Clinicians and researchers observing the natural history of endemic and epidemic infections have always been fascinated by the vagaries of these diseases, in terms of both the changing nature of the disease severity and phenotype over time and the variable susceptibility of hosts within exposed populations. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 and is believed to originate from bats, quickly transformed into a global pandemic. The pandemic of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been posing great threats to the global health in many aspects. Currently, there are no proven effective vaccines or therapeutic agents against the virus. Comprehensive understanding of the biology of SARS-CoV-2 and its interaction with hosts is fundamentally important in the fight against SARS-CoV-2. Advanced age, male sex, and comorbidities such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease as well as diabetes and obesity have been identified as risk factors for more severe COVID-19. However, which and to what extent specific genetic factors may account for the predisposition of individuals to develop severe disease or to contract the infection remains elusive. The increasing availability of data from COVID-19 patient populations is allowing for potential associations to be established between specific gene loci and disease severity, susceptibility to infection, and response to current/future drugs.",signatures:"Necla Benlier, Nevhiz Gundogdu and Mehtap Ozkur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78433",authors:[{id:"355315",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Necla",surname:"Benlier",slug:"necla-benlier",fullName:"Necla Benlier"},{id:"355871",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehtap",surname:"Ozkur",slug:"mehtap-ozkur",fullName:"Mehtap Ozkur"},{id:"355872",title:"Dr.",name:"Nevhiz",surname:"Gundogdu",slug:"nevhiz-gundogdu",fullName:"Nevhiz Gundogdu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77721",title:"Characterization, Comparative, and Phylogenetic Analyses of Retrotransposons in Diverse Plant Genomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99074",slug:"characterization-comparative-and-phylogenetic-analyses-of-retrotransposons-in-diverse-plant-genomes",totalDownloads:124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Retrotransposons are transposable elements that use reverse transcriptase as an intermediate to copy and paste themselves into a genome via transcription. The presence of retrotransposons is ubiquitous in the genomes of eukaryotic organisms. This study analyzed the structures and determined the comparative distributions and relatedness of retrotransposons across diverse orders (34) and families (58) of kingdom Plantae. In silico analyses were conducted on 134 plant retrotransposon sequences using ClustalW, EMBOSS Transeq, Motif Finder, and MEGA X. So far, the analysis of these plant retrotransposons showed a significant genomic relationship among bryophytes and angiosperms (216), bryophytes and gymnosperms (75), pteridophytes and angiosperms (35), pteridophytes and gymnosperms (28), and gymnosperms and angiosperms (70). There were 13 homologous plant retrotransposons, 30 conserved domains, motifs (reverse transcriptase, integrase, and gag domains), and nine significant phylogenetic lineages identified. This study provided comprehensive information on the structures, motifs, domains, and phylogenetic relationships of retrotransposons across diverse orders and families of kingdom Plantae. The ubiquitousness of retrotransposons across diverse taxa makes it an excellent molecular marker to better understand the complexity and dynamics of plant genomes.",signatures:"Aloysius Brown, Orlex B. Yllano, Leilani D. Arce, Ephraim A. Evangelista, Ferdinand A. Esplana, Lester Harris R. Catolico and Merbeth Christine L. Pedro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77721",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77721",authors:[{id:"414099",title:"Prof.",name:"Orlex B.",surname:"Yllano",slug:"orlex-b.-yllano",fullName:"Orlex B. Yllano"},{id:"418530",title:"Mr.",name:"Aloysius",surname:"Brown",slug:"aloysius-brown",fullName:"Aloysius Brown"},{id:"421987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Leilani D.",surname:"Arce",slug:"leilani-d.-arce",fullName:"Leilani D. Arce"},{id:"421989",title:"Mr.",name:"Epharaim A.",surname:"Evangelista",slug:"epharaim-a.-evangelista",fullName:"Epharaim A. Evangelista"},{id:"421990",title:"Mr.",name:"Ferdinand A.",surname:"Esplana",slug:"ferdinand-a.-esplana",fullName:"Ferdinand A. Esplana"},{id:"421991",title:"Mr.",name:"Lester",surname:"Harris R. Catolico",slug:"lester-harris-r.-catolico",fullName:"Lester Harris R. Catolico"},{id:"421992",title:"Ms.",name:"Merbeth",surname:"Christine L. Pedro",slug:"merbeth-christine-l.-pedro",fullName:"Merbeth Christine L. Pedro"}],corrections:null},{id:"81165",title:"Sex Determination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98537",slug:"sex-determination",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A wide array of sex determination mechanisms, encompassing genetic and non-genetic pathways (i.e., hormonal, environmental, and epigenetic factors), have been found among different organisms. The presence of two complementary sexes, male and female, is an ancient feature in biology. Triggering the differentiation of male and female reproductive organs is a conserved ontogenic process, and sex determination is an inherently fascinating process. Sex determination is dependent on molecular signaling whether the male and the female differentiating pathway is activated, and different triggering elements such as genetic, non-genetic, and epigenetic factors control the whole process. This chapter describes various aspects of sex determination, such as historical development, the evolution of sex chromosomes, and different sex determination systems in other organisms.",signatures:"Rakesh Choudhary, Subhash Chand, Tejveer Singh, Rajesh K. Singhal, Vinay K. Chourasiya and Indu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81165",authors:[{id:"223552",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",surname:"Choudhary",slug:"rakesh-choudhary",fullName:"Rakesh Choudhary"},{id:"421177",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",surname:"Chand",slug:"subhash-chand",fullName:"Subhash Chand"},{id:"421178",title:"Dr.",name:"Tejveer",surname:"Singh",slug:"tejveer-singh",fullName:"Tejveer Singh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2252",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2540f35e6516d6946f6953469c61ff3",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalişkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2252.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2253",title:"Genetic Diversity in Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"209e2075adb4614d4061ea69f1cb3c99",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-microorganisms",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2253.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2251",title:"The Molecular Basis of Plant Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f095bc4b74c32e0e266755bb77f00171",slug:"the-molecular-basis-of-plant-genetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1610",title:"Analysis of Genetic Variation in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2dbc70699ec1ca38dc2175c6aeebe710",slug:"analysis-of-genetic-variation-in-animals",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5508",title:"Carbohydrate",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e594b777fe1d4981c5b1adbe5a40f19c",slug:"carbohydrate",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, I. 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\r\n\tIn recent years, there has been considerable interest in rheology because of its multifunctional applicability in totally diverse fields that range from food and cosmetics to enhanced oil recovery from deep seas. Advanced electronics and signal processing has made it possible to detect very small changes in the microstructure systems subject to stress and strain and at different temperatures. Combining rheological findings with simultaneous microscopic imaging provides deep insights into the molecular interactions between various components in the mixture. Such information is of crucial importance while designing a product, may it be an engine lubricant or yogurt.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book attempts to provide to its readers, both the expert and the beginner, whether from academia or industry, a comprehensive and compact overview of rheology and its applications across different disciplines like foods and pharmaceuticals, lubricants, and paints. It is for this purpose that we will cover the fundamental aspects of rheology before going to advanced topics and applications in subsequent chapters, and we will specifically avoid mathematical derivations so that readers from non-mathematical backgrounds may seamlessly follow through the content.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"095d5991269fb83f32687922efdc9fa9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11829.jpg",keywords:"Viscosity, Stress-Strain Relationship, Polymer Melts, Polyelectrolytes, Emulsions, Pickering Emulsions, Gels, Sensorial-Rheology Correlation, Mouth Feel –Rheology Correlation, Edible Polymers and Surfactants, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Lubricants",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Dutta presently works as the vice president (R&D) of India Glycols Limited, one of the largest surfactant manufacturers in South East Asia. Earlier, he had worked with Unilever as a senior researcher and product development manager and with United Phosphorus Limited and Indofil as their R&D global head of formulations. He has authored/co-authored 36 articles in international journals and is the holder of 21 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277477/images/system/277477.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ashim Kumar Dutta presently works as the vice president (R&D) with India Glycols Limited, one of the largest manufacturers of Green Surfactants in South East Asia. Earlier, he had worked with Unilever as a senior researcher and product development manager in their Home and Personal Care Category, with United Phosphorus Limited and Indofil as their global head for agrochemical formulations. He has authored/co-authored 36 articles in international journals and 19 patents. He received his Ph.D in physical chemistry from Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) – a premiere research institute in India in 1993. Dr. Dutta has worked on various international post-doctoral fellowships in Japan, Canada and USA. His research interests include supramolecular assemblies, ultrathin nanostructured films, nanoparticles, novel surfactants, surfactant-polymer interactions, bio-membranes and spectroscopy of Langmuir-Blodgett films, tribology and rheology of complex systems.",institutionString:"India Glycols Limited",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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The increasing internationalization of the social sciences makes it difficult for a
One of the most diverse and often unthinkingly used concepts of sociology in literature is that of society. The quasi self-evident equation of the state with the concept of society is found in many theoretical approaches and empirical studies of this scientific discipline. A sociological theory that accepts without reflection the assumptions of the surrounding social reality does not get beyond the description and interpretation of this environment. Another perspective becomes visible, if the reciprocal interdependence of the
Sociological theories that incorporate the
Sociology has gradually improved and deepened its theoretical basis in the course of history. At the same time, it has had to react to developments and thereby consider new theoretical statements. It makes a difference, if only national or even global perspectives have to be considered and are to be processed [4].
\nAn outdated sociology, as discussed by Ulrich Beck [5] with the polemical accusations of the
Rudolf Stichweh [8] points to an interesting science-systematic indicator that in his view suggests that a regionalization of the concept of society cannot be thought of as consistent. Thus, there is for the discipline of political science the subject ‘international politics’ as opposed to ‘political science’ and for the discipline of economics the subject ‘world economics’ as opposed to ‘national economy’; meanwhile, there has never been a comparable dichotomy in the history of sociology as a discipline. He [9] therefore argues that what is still missing in the sociological writings on science in the system of world society is an approach which enables an explanation of the dynamics of the process of globalization of science. The lack of bisection in the discipline of sociology may be a reason that there is still a long way to go for sociology in the direction of becoming a globally oriented scientific discipline, and the path towards a
In this chapter, social responsibility is understood as a worldwide endeavour. Therefore social responsibility here means
The formative idea of social science production in the nineteenth century was the discovery of ‘society’. The twenty-first century is faced with the task of saying
The term of globality implicated three elementary fractions with the thinking styles of classical sociology as a new—and for all social relations relevant—
The scientific issue of whether and on which structural formations a world or global society is recognizable, is one that has to be answered by sociologists in the twenty-first century. While it is for Martin Albrow [13] a ‘society beyond boundaries’, other approaches in their theoretical programme, for example, aim for the concept of movement and state a ‘sociology beyond societies’ Urry [14]. John Urry dares to suggest the most demanding attempt to design a new agenda for sociology, whose main concept — that of human society — has been lost. He inserts in that empty space, which the concept of sotciety leaves behind, conceptual terms such as
At this point it is worth noting that the world had already been selected by some sociologists as the primary frame of reference for analysis decades earlier, that what now due to global processes is formulated as a contemporary requirement for the sociological discipline is, strictly speaking, a reformulation of approaches that already exist. In fact, 50 years ago a few sociologists chose the world as a benchmark for their analyses. Decades before 1989, explicitly in the 1970s, four theoretical approaches were already relatively independently formulated in sociology, which focused on the topic of world society. Among these approaches are the stratificatory approach to world society by Peter Heintz, the sociological systems theory by Niklas Luhmann, the world-polity approach by John Meyer, and the world system analyses by Immanuel Wallerstein.
\nIn the
The
Society forms here as a comprehensive and inclusive communication connection in the context of all parts and functional systems—which indeed fulfil social functions, but have no place in the conceptual framework of the term of society. Neither is there a functional primacy of a subsystem, nor do spatial boundaries exist. The limits of communication are also the limits of society, and world society is to be understood in terms of the functions, requirements and results of functional differentiation [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
\nThe
The main focus at this point is the concept of world polity that is to be understood as a broad cultural regulatory framework of occidental origin which caused processes of global homogenization.
\nThe world-polity approach boils down to conceptualizing the world as a unified system that provides the context for the description of
The
Immanuel Wallerstein [29] rejects the concept of society and opposes equating the concept with that of the state by arguing that if we also alter the limits of society by changing state borders, how can we justify that the legitimacy of a government determined by a society is different from the rule of legitimacy as provided by a state? In his view the concept of society should give us something solid on which we can build. He then subsequently equates the singular concept of society with that of the capitalist world economy by stating that only our society, the capitalist world economy (and even that is only a partial contract-defined entity), created our diverse meaningful communities [30].
\nThe focus of the world-system approach is the perception of capitalism as a geographically extensive and historically distinctive system. In this sense, the global space is not conceptualized through a state-centrist list of words such as society or culture, but is seen as a
The specific logic of the capitalist world system is firstly the result of a spatial mismatch of economic structures and secondly due to political and cultural arrangements. The modern world-system is divided in terms of supranational zones of centre, semi-periphery and periphery; on the other hand, states are those geographic base units from which these zones are constructed. There are territorial states which undergo positional battles for their locus in the centre-periphery structure [32]. A major criticism of the world-system approach is that of economic reductionism; the approach stands for the carelessness towards other sub- or transnational phenomena [33].
\nThis analysis of the world-system was intended to be a critique of nineteenth century social science; it remained, however, according to Immanuel Wallerstein [34] an
The four approaches of sociology that have developed since 1970 which turned their thematic focus on world society have, in spite of their different theoretical conceptualizations, one common denominator: they establish elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology.
\nIn sociology, as in other social science disciplines as well, there are numerous recognizable phenomena of de-nationalization. So, for example, an increase of transnational co-authorships and citations is detectable. There is a continuous rise of transnational and transregional interactive contacts between scientists as well as an increase of transnational co-authorships and citations detectable. Furthermore there has existed for several decades sociological associations beyond a national framework such as the International Sociological Association and regional sociological associations. That is, the academic discipline in the fields of literature and at professional associations moves away from a national context towards a regional and global policy framework.
\nDue to global processes that affect every part of the world, sociology is not only forced to embrace global issues, but as a discipline it must also ask itself self-critically again and again the question of which research agendas will be relevant in the future, in order to be able to design innovative and contemporary scientific discourses within the discipline. Required here is a formulation of future trends, which will be indispensable for sociology.
\nIn the following the extent to which conceptualizations of world society can make relevant and constructive contributions in terms of development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century is discussed. Based on the assumptions of Dirk Kaesler [37] four developmental tendencies of international sociology can be recognized in and for the twenty-first century. According to Kaesler, the following developments will occur:
\nThe
The
The
The
Given these formulated development trends, the approaches of world society can be regarded as pioneer work, since they make significant contributions to a sociology of the twenty-first century in all four mentioned points. This is justified as follows:
\nWorld Society approaches require the
World society approaches also make essential contributions to the
The
Issues of social, political, economic and cultural developments in the world are directly related and de facto cannot be dealt with by one discipline alone. At this point, inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation is an indispensable requirement for taking on the global challenges of the present in a scientifically constructive way. There is no profound scientific progress without pointing out the political formation of world society, without its economic interdependence, its cultural hybrid formations and without its historical bondage. It needs the constructive cooperation of all social science disciplines in order to meet global realities.
\nAt the same time, apart from this required inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation, individual scientific disciplines must also devote themselves to their genuinely specific topics. For sociology, this means turning to the conceptual apparatus again—especially to its central terminus of society—to relate the analysis of the social in a theoretical perspective on the world context and to advance the development of empirical methods to study global interdependencies.
\nThe
The discipline of sociology is confronted with complex tasks in the face of global reality. In order to keep pace with rapidly occurring social transformations, indispensable conceptual innovations are necessary within the discipline.
\nGlobal trends call for groundbreaking visions for social action and for the social order. There is sufficient evidence that it is not easy for sociologists around the world to cope with the complexity and urgency of these tasks. Research and teaching in the field of sociological theory have become a self-referential undertaking, which is much more inspired by the classics of the discipline than by the social problems that surround us [43]. One result of this is certainly that there has been an increase in heterogeneous and strongly divergent orientations in the formation of sociological theory, as well as a lack of intellectual and institutional coherence within sociology itself. On the other hand, a homogenizing effect of globalization can also be observed in the formation of sociological theory. These internal turbulences and the products of intellectual processes are the essential motor for present day sociological self-reflection within the discipline [44].
\nThe development of sociological knowledge must face global challenges in the third millennium. Genuine innovation and the discussion of continuity and discontinuity in sociological theory and concept formation, as well as the development of methods for detecting global social change, are contemporary requirements of sociology in the face of global reality. Schisms, variations and repetitions are characteristic of the history of sociological ideas. In this respect, sociology can not only be described as a scientific discipline characterized by many paradigms, but there are also often dominating styles in contrast to constructive innovations. What is interesting at this point is the question of whether there has actually been progress in the development of sociological knowledge in the last half-century, or whether it is just a change in certain ways of thinking which is characteristic for the very heterogeneous knowledge landscape of sociology.
\nWhen discussing the future of sociology, the year 1989 is often cited as a major turning point in the history of humankind over the last century. Dirk Kaesler [45] states that sociology as
From this perspective a consolidation effect is attributed to globalization, and the anthology ‘Globalization. Knowledge and Society’ by Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King [47]—distributed to the participants as part of the XII.
Globalization is considered here to be a new and far-reaching thematic orientation of the sociological discipline. While the decades before the two world wars were not able to provide
World society approaches of sociology, as is the case with sociological system theory, world system analyses, and the world-polity approach, were already formulated at the time of the bipolar world order. That is to say, long before the epochal era of a ‘globalization boom’ [50] began in social sciences.
\nDuring the second half of the twentieth century, no scientific revolutions took place in sociology according to Nikolai Genov [51]. He argues that scientific paradigms were ousted and temporarily replaced—but not overturned. Moreover, despite the enormous social and cognitive challenges the discipline faces, one can only be surprised by the self-satisfaction and narcissism in some parts of the sociological community.
\nThe development of sociological ideas in the second half of the last century concretely and clearly revealed the strong embedding of sociological knowledge in a specific social context. This embedding has in turn had an effect on the selection of problems of social reality as well as on the interpretation of these problems by sociologists. In the scientific disciplines, a reality is investigated that is characterized by continuous change as well as by the emergence of new configurations, social actors and processes. Therefore a balance of historically rooted and universal analytical concepts must be considered as an essential task of sociology.
\nThis equilibrium of historically rooted and universal analytical concepts can be found in the global shift of sociology. While at the beginning of its institutionalization as a scientific discipline there was an
The term
The global, like society, is referred to by Martin Albrow [55] as a ‘grand idea’. In a historical retrospective, the global represented a field of comprehensive communication between people in the period from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, thereby this was more related to territorial expansion; that is, more the conquest of space and the means of communication than the relationships of people. During this time the idea of the global was still separate from ideas of peace and international law. There is no reason why scientists should not be able to note the places and occasions on which there was a focus on the global, by analogy, as one might do for a nation-state [56].
\nThe global serves as a
The various social science disciplines adopted this new terminology at a different pace. The disciplines of political science, business administration and cultural studies were the first; sociology came quite late. It is the plurality and the
Sociological research can, when it develops parallel to theoretical renovation, lead to the introduction of innovations and can therefore provide groundbreaking impulses. New trends can emerge through the acquisition of imported ideas from other scientific disciplines. The reorientation of the thinking on the global and its impact on public affairs and thus on political strategy in recent years has penetrated all disciplines and is the main driving force behind the global paradigm shift. An endogenous source of modification in science is the technology of electronic data processing, which accomplishes progressions in knowledge that w
In the last five decades, it has been modernization as rationalization, and not the global, which has dominated the public agenda. In general, this has also had an impact on social sciences. This process was accompanied by the dominance of a paradigm in which the nation-state was equated with society. The reorientation to the global changed all this and much of today’s theoretical renewal of sociology flows from the challenges globality poses to modernity [62].
\nDue to the extent of the challenge, society is now again in the new focus of theoretical renovation. The global has pushed society as a central and controversial concept back into the contemporary debate. In Western European countries, the discussion was limited to the fact that society was interpreted as an organized citizenship. Society in political, economic and cultural terms served the
Due to globalization processes, areas such as culture, politics and economics were considered relatively separate from the state and ultimately detached from society. This deconstruction of the nation-state recognizes the ever-present potential to reform social relationships and to transgress boundaries addressed to the future and also in a comparative perspective. Subsequently, it was the change of orientation to the global which gave reason to look at the large number of transnational relations and to imagine what form of social order would be appropriate for a world in which national demarcations cannot provide answers to global problems. In this context, Martin Albrow [64] poses the question of whether a global society exists in the form of a world society: A world society is neither the society of the nation-state nor the sum of international relations. We can now ask whether a global society exists in the form of a world society.
\nFor example, global civil society, visible due to the formation of transnational non-governmental organizations, is dependent on the contribution of world citizens committed to global issues. The identification takes place here with the whole of humankind and not with any nationality. It is the globality that intensifies this new identity policy [65]. Society beyond borders, networking and identity politics draw our attention to social relationships more than to autonomous social units.
\nHolistic natures are seen as conditioned by their relationship to other entities in a global environment, which in turn raises a number of questions about the dissolution and transformation. Exceeding the boundaries of society, we are forced to rethink social relations in general. For Asian and African traditions of social thinking, it will be possible to have a much more effective impact on global society than was possible in the Western thinking framework, which is focused on the relationship between the individual and society [66]. From this perspective, relevant contributions are expected from those regions of the world in which social relations have always been regarded as a medium in which collectivities connect. The construction of these collectivities in a global arena will be a setting of trends for the sociological discipline.
\nIn an earlier period, sociology was preceded by social equality and the purpose of the nation-state. Today, it is the complexity of global interdependencies. In that regard Martin Albrow [67] argues that the sociology of the twenty-first century must make a vital contribution to our species and the planet we inhabit. Accordingly, we expect no less than a synoptic vision and productive theoretical work at a level as was achieved by Georg Simmel, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim in their days, but aligned with our present challenges. The task is extremely difficult, but it can be accomplished. Sociologists have the skills and technical capabilities beyond their visions to work together. There is no choice but to honour the achievements of the old masters, even if current scientists strive to make them obsolete.
\nAt this point the reformulation and reorientation of the sociological discipline due to the demands of global reality is clearly addressed. It will be indispensable for the future to consider
There are new realities that require a modified approach. The world, and therefore also the social role of knowledge in general, as well as the related scientific discourse in sociology in particular, has as a field of the science of sociology undergone massive changes over the period of the last 100 years. It is only when a scientific work can change its appearance that it can be transformed; it grows a little further—especially when it breaks the boundaries of its immediate context, that is, its national and historical context—and becomes part of a global interpretation [68].
\nIn view of how the social refers to the world, sociology in its historical form cannot meet a perspective on the world as a whole. It is its basic conceptual inventory which is indiscernible to world-social developments and global processes, and for this reason must be fundamentally renewed and changed. An essential part of this basic conceptual inventory is the term
The classic, and still highly influential, sociological theory designs contributed to the generalization of a very specific concept, resting on the principle of territoriality and the nation-state form of space. The question of the spatial organization of social relations found as such a clear answer. A historical specific formation—the territorial nation-state—was dehistoricized and was, as it were, a natural container in which all life takes place, institutionalized as an organizing principle of the theory of social science, without, on the other hand, becoming the object of theoretical reflection [71]. In this regard, also Immanuel Wallerstein [72] summarizes on the social science paradigms of nineteenth and twentieth century that we could not even explain why we implicitly assumed that each state has a society and every society has a state. A branch of knowledge that cannot explain such a central phenomena will inevitably be in big trouble. It is the view of sociology as
Conceptualizations of world society stimulate a critique of such a territorializing thinking style. In contrast to
Present sociological diagnoses have to take global reality into account, and world society approaches provide a pioneering work in this direction. These conceptualizations break with the model of
The bottom line of the article is structured along three main conclusions. The extent to which world society approaches represent elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles is the focus of the first conclusion. The second refers to development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century and the nation–state related paradigm of this scientific discipline. The conclusions close with the theming of the global shift of sociology and thereby refer to the pioneering work of world society theorists.
\nIt can be stated as a
It is one of the greatest intellectual challenges of the present for all social science disciplines to deal with the world as a framework of culture, economics, law, politics and social reality and to use them constructively for scientific analysis. It certainly needs the courage to say what is not yet explorable since, for example, the empirical methods have not yet been developed; and that since one sits on a theory building in which the
In the sociological field of world society research, nation-state myths have been disenchanted, the local is identified as global and vice versa, and the central concept of sociology—that of society, which has always been manifold and controversial within the discipline—becomes relevant again.
\nThe
In the face of world society research, sociology is confronted with an often unreflected nation-state paradigm and a state-centric vocabulary, which opposes the perception of the global as a perspective. Sociological knowledge about transnational social spaces or post territorial communions or the perception of the
The rise of sociology began with the emergence of the nation-state and nationalism. Therefore, society as the central object of the investigation of sociology was equated with the nation. This form of sociology, which reached its peak in structural functionalism and modernization theory, is increasingly being critically viewed and questioned in the present due to globalization processes: A new, global sociology is taking shape which is no longer oriented towards ‘society’, but rather towards social networks, border areas, border crossings and world society. The sociology of a nationally restricted society deviates from a post/inter/national sociology of hybrid forms, times, and spaces [77].
\nThe subject of world society requires of many sociological issues—such as class and social structure analyses, poverty and inequality research as well as research fields of cultural sociology or political sociology—an emergence from the analytical unit of a ‘nationally organized society’, which is often assumed to be self-evident. On the basis of sociology, questions about social change, inequality, culture, power and domination have not become obsolete, but they have been moved into a different perspective. In particular, their importance ratio changes at the moment when these questions are referred to at the global reference level.
\nIn this sense, ‘the globe as a big idea’ has transformed not only sociological theories, but also the form of sociology as a whole. Sociology, which entered the historical stage as a science of ‘modern society’, is on its way to constituting itself as the science of one ‘social world’ [78]. World society approaches to this end had already been preparing sociological discourses on the way that the discipline can enter the contemporary stage of a
The discourse on world society can be viewed as a seismograph of the state of current social science discourses in the face of processes of globalization and transnationalism. This seismograph shows how long inter- and transnationalism in the analysis of
In addition to the demonstration of theoretical and empirical challenges, the analysis of world society, themes of globalization and transnationalism, the issue of transnational social spaces and classes, the range of global inequality and questions about transnational citizenship and the extensive field of global justice are new and modern approaches of sociological research. The future will show to what extent, with this thematic selection of research approaches, the nation-state as a reference frame of analysis is abandoned and how a tension between questions of continuity and the discontinuity of sociological concepts to the analysis of globalization and transnationalization as well as world society approaches can be drawn in a convincing way.
\nSociology has, due to world society approaches, some social responsibility to put forward constructive plans in relation to the
Rumen inhabits several microbial populations, that is, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, bacteriophages, yeasts, and methanogens symbiotically, which are very dynamic, plastic, and redundant in function with the changes in diets though core microbiota persists, which has probably evolved by host-microbiota interaction in the evolutionary pressure over thousands of years [1]. A symbiotic relationship exists between rumen microbes and host animals in which both provide desirable substrates to each other mainly through these ways—1) physical breakdown of feed particles by mastication and rumination expands their surface area for microbial attachment and degradation, and consequently, microbes secrete various enzymes for dietary substrate degradation, 2) ruminal movements bring microbes in contact with the dietary substrate by mixing of digesta and consequently produce fermentation products (e.g., H2, CO2, ammonia, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and 3) utilization (absorption and consumption) of the fermentation products for keeping optimal ruminal conditions (e.g., pH) to maintain microbial growth and microbial protein synthesis [2]. Therefore, due to the interactive ecosystem of the rumen, any modification to one component of this system has several effects on other components. The fermentation end products of any diet are incorporated into the final animal products (meat or milk). Thus, manipulation of the ruminal fermentation pathways is the most effective approach to improve ruminant health and production efficiency without exaggerated increases in nutrient supply. This in particular should help the small livestock holders in developing countries for continued production.
The literature explored various manipulation strategies including enhancing or inhibiting the growth or the metabolic activity of specific rumen microbiota (e.g., archaea for methanogenesis) and/or altering the ruminal fermentation toward specific pathways (e.g, decreasing H2 production and increasing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production [3, 4]. Extensive literature supports the supplementations of various rumen modifiers; however, efforts are still underway to find appropriate methods to simultaneously improve livestock production while reducing greenhouse effects on the environment. Through the following aspects, the most common methodologies for modifying the ruminal microbiome and fermentation characteristics are discussed in this chapter.
Lignocellulose (complex polymers of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin) makes up the majority of the ruminant diet. Generally, forages, including crop residues, provide the main source of nutrition to ruminants that contribute to the food security and primary source of income of smallholder farmers in the developing countries [5, 6, 7]. This is also true where grazing animals are common in the developed countries. Hence, forage is virtually the only source of nutrition in the main beef-producing northern Australia, North and South America [8].
Although ruminants can digest fibrous feedstuffs, dietary cell wall polysaccharides are rarely completely degraded in the rumen. Less than 50% of the plant cell wall of most forage grasses are digested and utilized. This is attributed to the combination of the biochemical and physical barriers present in the ingested fibrous feedstuffs and retention time limitations of the ingested dietary substances in the rumen [9], resulting in excessive nutrient excretion, low nutrient intake, and a significant loss of dietary energy in the form of CH4 emission [10]. Therefore, enhancing the rumen microbiota to degrade plant cell walls usually leads to improve animal productivity.
Ruminants cannot degrade lignocellulose themselves. An involved community of fibrolytic microorganisms catalyzes the degradation of the plant cell walls in the rumen. The major classical fibrolytic bacteria involved in fiber degradation are
There are various well-established procedures that can be used to improve forage utilization including modifying ruminal microbial fermentation toward more fiber degradation. These include mechanical and chemical processing of forages and genetically engineering of plants for cell wall composition. However, we will focus on ruminal fibrolytic microorganisms and their products in the following sections of the chapter.
The manipulation of genes in genetically engineered organisms can produce a product with novel specific characteristics that may have significant value. This concept was exploited in developing genetically modified fiber-degrading bacteria to optimize their activity by producing the correct mixture of fibrolytic enzymes to maximize plant cell wall degradation.
As early as 1995, Miyagi et al. [14] suggested that inoculation of genetically marked
The concept of direct-fed microbials is different from the term probiotics. Probiotics were identified by any live microbial feed additive that may beneficially influence the host animals upon ingestion by improving microbial balance in the intestine [18]. Viable microbial communities, enzyme preparations, culture extracts, or combinations of those products were included in the concept of probiotic supplements [19]. The DFM has a narrower definition than probiotics as it is defined as a source of life, naturally occurring microorganisms alive, naturally occurring microorganisms that improve the digestive function of livestock. The DFM includes three main categories; bacterial, fungal, and a combination of both [20]. DFM must be alive to impact ruminal fermentation; thus, the viability and number of organisms fed must be ensured at the time of feeding. Lactic acid-producing and utilizing bacterial species of
DFM can grow under ruminal conditions and manipulate the microbial ecosystem. Various factors may affect the activity of DFM including microbial strains, time of feeding, feeding system, treatment period, physiological conditions, and dosages [20, 22]. The microbial strains seem to be the main influencer—DFM containing mainly lactic acid-producing and utilizing bacteria can manipulate the growth of microorganisms adapted to lactic acid in the rumen while preventing the drastic pH drops, for example,
Direct-fed microbials, based on fungal cultures, mainly contain
Products of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes (EFE) that contain primarily cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities can manipulate the ruminal fiber degradation, and improve feed conversion efficiency and thus lead to enhanced productive efficiency of ruminants [9]. Published literature suggests that the mode of actions of EFE products are likely different than that of DFM products. The activities introduced to the rumen by EFE are not novel to the ruminal ecosystem as they would act upon the same sites of the feed substrate particles as endogenous fibrolytic enzymes [25]. The release of reducing sugars by EFE is probably an essential mechanism by which EFE operates [26]. The degree of sugar release is dependent on the substrate types as well as the type of enzymes. The released sugars can attract secondary ruminal microbial colonization, or remove barriers to the microbial attachment to substrate feed particles by cleaving the linkage between phenolic compounds and polysaccharides [9]. As a result, the most significant effects of EFE probably occur in the interval between the arrival of the feed particles into the rumen and its colonization by ruminal microorganisms, as only the rate, not the extent, of cell wall degradation, has been improved [25]. EFE can also manipulate the rumen fibrolytic microorganisms by enhancing their endogenous fibrolytic activities.
Genes from ruminal fungi encoding cellulases, xylanases, mannanases, and endoglucanases have been successfully isolated. Protein bioengineering has been employed to improve the catalytic activity and substrate diversity of fibrolytic enzymes from ruminants. This has resulted in fibrolytic enzymes with up to 10 times higher specific activity, pH and temperature optima, and enhanced fiber-substrate binding activity than the original enzymes [27]. This, together with the low manufacturing cost, has led to more recent developments in the enzyme production industry, and as a result, a wide range of commercial EFE products is now available. Frequently the manufactures’ recommended doses of most commercial EFE products have been measured under wide ranges of pH (4.2–6.5) and temperatures (40–57°C), which are not always close to typical ruminal conditions. Moreover, most of the commercial EFE products for ruminants are often referred to as xylanases or cellulases. However, none of these products comprise single enzymes; secondary enzyme activities are invariably present, namely, proteases, amylases, or pectinases [9]. A wide variety of feed substrates can be targeted by a single EFE product. Thus, the random addition of these products to ruminant diets without consideration for specific rumen conditions (pH 6.0–6.5 and 39°C) and the not yet tested efficiency for specific substrate will result in unpredictable effects and thus discouraging the adoption of the EFE technology [28, 29].
In general, enhancing the rumen microbiota to degrade the dietary fibers through the above-discussed strategies may lead to accelerating the energy production in the forms of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and/or microbial protein synthesis. At the same time, it may also produce high amounts of CO2 and CH4.
The ruminal fermentation is the primary source of CH4 emission from livestock; it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases featured by short atmospheric mean lifetime. Furthermore, a significant proportion of the ingested feed energy is also lost as CH4 [40]. Methane is produced by methanogens mainly by reduction of CO2 through the hydrogenotrophic pathway. Formic acid and methylamines produced by other ruminal bacteria are also reduced to CH4 by some methanogens. Therefore, methanogens interact with other ruminal microorganisms (e.g., protozoa, bacteria, and fungi) through interspecies H2 transfer [4]. Thus, maximizing metabolic H2 flow away from CH4 toward SCFAs production could improve production efficiency in ruminants and decrease environmental impact. There are various direct and indirect strategies to manipulate rumen methanogenesis; among these options, inhibiting the growth or the metabolic activity of methanogens seems to be the most effective approach. The efficiency of these strategies mainly depends on where methanogens reside. It can be seen from the smaller number of archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences (461 vs. 8162) recovered from protozoa than from ruminal content or fluid [4]. Free methanogens are mainly integrated into the biofilm on the surfaces of feed particles where H2-producing bacteria actively produce H2. These methanogens protected by the biofilm may not be inhibited to an extent similar to the free-living peers by anti-methanogenic inhibitors [4]. Also, methanogens can be inhibited indirectly through inhibiting rumen ciliate protozoa. Based on fluorescence
Methane formation pathways comprise of three main steps; transfer of methyl group to coenzyme M (CoM-SH), reduction of methyl-coenzyme M with coenzyme B (CoB-SH), and reusing heterodisulfide CoM-S-S-CoB [4, 31]. Thus, obstruction of any of these steps may manipulate CH4 production. A wealth of literature on rumen CH4 manipulation strategies in ruminants have been published recently, but relatively very few have emphasized the suitable mitigation strategies at the farm level [32]. Each method has some potential advantages and limitations. The principal interest for animal producers is income, as they usually do not take CH4 mitigation strategies or climate changes into account. Thus, any strategy to mitigate greenhouse gasses emission would only be of practical interest if achievements on the efficiency of animal production can be obtained. This can be obtained through rumen CH4 modifiers that enhance the production of SCFAs and/or reduce proteases. The following part addresses some of these microbial modifiers.
Ionophores are polyether antibiotics that act as inhibitors to hydrogen-producing bacteria. They are widely used as successful growth promoters in the livestock industry due to their ability to modulate rumen fermentation toward propionate production, thereby decreasing CH4 production. Since propionate and CH4 are terminal acceptors for metabolic H2, any increase in propionate production may accompany reduced CH4. In addition, ionophores positively affect ruminal fermentation through inhibition of deamination compared to proteolysis, inhibition of hydrolysis of triglycerides, and biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids, while enhancing the trans-octadecenoic isomers (cited from [33]).
From the literature, monensin and lasalocid are the most well-known ionophore-type antimicrobials used as rumen modifiers. Mainly, they inhibit Gram-positive bacteria; however, they can also inhibit some Gram-negative bacteria. Ionophores decrease CH4 production by inhibiting H2 producing bacteria by penetrating the bacterial cell wall membrane. They act as H+/Na+ and H+/K+ antiporters, dissipating ion gradients required for the synthesis of ATP, transport of nutrients, and other essential cellular activities in bacteria, resulting in retardation of cell growth and cell death [4, 34]. Monensin can decrease total methanogens number in cattle, and also alter the community composition of methanogen species, for example, monensin decreased the population of
Unfortunately, ionophores present a temporary impact on ruminal manipulation effects due to the adaptation of the microorganisms of these inhibitors. Ionophores are now restricted due to the possible resistance of pathogenic microorganisms to antibiotics [33]. Recently, the global scenario has shifted the interest toward plant natural feed additives with potential abilities to modulate CH4 emission [35, 36]. Moreover, the type of the dietary feeds affects the efficiency of ionophores with the better effect of ionophores observed in high starch diets [33]. Thus, this approach seems to be less effective for the small livestock holders in most developing countries since the forages are the main ingredient in the diets.
Numerous plant secondary compounds (PSC), including tannins, flavonoids, saponins, essential oils (EOs), organosulfur compounds, have been recognized as having the potential to modulate ruminal microbial fermentation [37, 38, 39]. Plant secondary compounds are natural phytochemicals with the potential ability to manipulate rumen fermentation without causing microbial resistance or residual noxious effects on animal products [3]. Unlike ionophores, the different active components found in plant extracts may manipulate ruminal microbiota through more potent mechanisms of action (e.g., antimicrobial and antioxidant), which may avoid the risk of losing activity over time [40].
Tannins are polyphenolic compounds with different molecular weights ranging from 500 to 5000 Da [41]. Tannins are classified into two major groups, that is, condensed (CT) and hydrolyzable tannins (HT). CT are proanthocyanidins consisting of oligomers or polymers of flavan-3-ol subunits. They act through binding with dietary proteins and carbohydrates by making strong complexes at ruminal pH [41, 42, 43]. Therefore, they are the most plant secondary metabolites studied in terms of rumen modulation pathways.
The literature reported quite various effects of CT supplementations regarding CH4 mitigation [38]. Some studies suggest a direct effect of CT on methanogens by binding with the proteinaceous adhesin or parts of the cell envelope, which impairs the establishment of methanogens-protozoa complex and decreases interspecies H2 transfer, and inhibits growth [44]. Other studies suggest an indirect effect of CT through the anti-protozoal effect. However, the effects of CT on rumen protozoal activity are varied in the literature, probably because some of the CTs have a direct effect on rumen methanogenic archaea, which are not associated with the protozoa. Tannins also can indirectly inhibit CH4 per unit of the animal product through tannin–protein or organic matter complexes under ruminal conditions, while protein from these complexes is released post ruminally, making it available for gastric digestion at abomasum and small intestine conditions, leading to enhancing the animal productivity [43]. Another theory is that tannins can act as H2 sink reducing the availability of H2 for CO2 reduction to CH4, implying that 1.2 mol CH4 is produced per mol of catechin [44].
Tree foliages are good feed resources for the small ruminants, which are rich in protein and perform catalytic functions in improving ruminal fermentation, especially in low-quality forage-based diets in developing countries [45]. The nutritionists have paid great attention to the tanniferous legumes and tree foliages as alternative cheap feed resources (especially in drought conditions and arid and semi-arid regions) and to achieve CH4 mitigation goals in the developing countries [46]. Many plants were investigated in the literature; however, the results are highly variable among studies. Soltan et al. [43] studied various tanniniferous browsers and found that some plants (i.e.,
Saponins are a group of plant secondary metabolites with high molecular weight glycosides in which a sugar is linked to a hydrophobic aglycone. It can be generally classified as steroidal and triterpenoid [48, 49]. The effects of saponins on rumen fermentation modulation have been reviewed extensively [49]. The main biological effect of saponins is on the cell membranes of bacteria and protozoa. Saponins are highly toxic to protozoa compared with bacteria because saponins can form complexes with sterols present in the protozoal membrane surface, disrupting the membrane function [49]. Thus, it can indirectly affect the methanogenic archaea through their symbiotic relationship with rumen protozoa [38]. However, some literature assumed that the effects of saponins on rumen protozoa could be transient due to the ability of ruminal bacteria to degrade saponins into sapogenins. The sapogenin compound cannot affect protozoa [50].
Essential oils (EO) are volatile aromatic complexes obtained from different plant volatile fractions by steam distillation. They can be obtained from various plant parts including leaf, stem, fruit, root, seed, flower, bark, and petal. EO contains numerous bioactive substances; the most important ones are terpenoids (monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids) and phenylpropanoids. Due to the lipophilic properties of these components, EO act against various rumen bacteria through interacting with the cell membrane [3].
Several EO compounds, either in pure form or in mixtures, had antioxidant and anti-bacterial properties; therefore, they can modulate the ruminal fermentation pathways [51]. The EO, unlike ionophores, does not alter the ruminal microbial activities through a specific mode of action. Therefore, EO may have more potent mechanisms of action that may not likely lose their effectiveness over time. Soltan et al. [40] suggested two mechanisms in explaining how combination of phenylpropanes and terpene hydrocarbons components in EO mixtures work together to enhance additive antimicrobial activity—1) phenolic compounds may increase cell membrane permeability through the action of hydroxyl group, thus facilitating the transport of terpene hydrocarbons into the microbial cells, which then combine with proteins and enzymes inside the cells; 2) phenolic compounds could increase the size, number or duration of the existence of the pores created by the binding of terpene hydrocarbons with proteins in cell membranes.
The effects of EO on rumen fermentation are variable depending on concentrations, types, diet and adaptation period, but most EO are found to have anti-methanogenic properties [35, 52]. Patra and Yu [52] studied various EO with different chemical structures (clove, eucalyptus, origanum, peppermint, and garlic oil)
Propolis is a mixture of resinous substances collected from buds of deciduous trees and crevices in the bark of coniferous and deciduous trees and secretions by honeybees [53, 54]. The bees use propolis to fill cracks, cover hive walls and embalm invading intruder insects or small animals [55, 56]. The literature reported that the chemical composition of propolis is highly variable by bee collection site since geographical location plays an important role [54]. The most bioactive components are belonging to groups of isoflavones, flavonoids, and fatty acids that have been reported to be biologically active [53]. Recently, bee propolis has been recognized as a natural alternative feed additive to antibiotics in ruminant diets [54]. Compared to ionophores (e.g., monensin), different propolis sources can reduce CH4 production while improving the organic matter digestibility and total SCFAs
Fats are usually used as energy sources for dairy cattle. The addition of fats is a promising approach for modulating rumen microbial communities and the fermentation process. Fats are known to inhibit microbial activity; however, supplementing fats up to 6% of dry matter has shown no adverse effects on total nutrient digestibility and total SCFAs [59]. A meta-analysis study suggests that methane emissions can be declined by 0.66 g/kg DM intake with each percentage increase in dietary fats, within dietary fat concentrations of 1.24–11.4% [59]. Fats containing high levels of C12:0, C18:3, and polyunsaturated fatty acids up to 6% of the dietary diet may be considered for CH4 mitigation without compromising the productivity in dairy cattle [59].
Plant oil supplements can modulate CH4 directly by inhibiting rumen protozoa and methanogens while enhancing biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to act as ruminal hydrogen sink for hydrogen produced by rumen microorganisms and reducing fiber degradation with less H2 production in the rumen [60]. The literature showed variable effects of plant oils on CH4 emission and rumen fermentation; this might be related to the oil type (free oil or whole seed), diet composition (forage to-concentrate ratio), and fatty acid type (short-chain or PUFA) present in diets [59]. Generally, consideration of vegetable oils supplementation to lower CH4 emission may depend upon the cost and expected outcome effect on animal productivity.
Chitosan is a natural polycationic polymer, nontoxic, biocompatible, biodegradable; thus, it is safe for human as well as animal consumption [61]. It is a linear polysaccharide composed of two repeated units—D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine linked by β-(1–4)-linkages [61]. It can be found in the structural exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans, mollusks, cell walls of fungi, and certain algae, but it is mainly obtained from marine crustaceans [62]. It is characterized by anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidative, anticholesterolemic, hemostatic, and analgesic effects. Moreover, it has a high antimicrobial affinity against a wide range of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa; therefore, it has been recently tested as a rumen fermentation modulator and considered as a promising natural agent with CH4 mitigating effects [61]. The antimicrobial mechanism of chitosan can include interactions at the cell surface and outer membranes through electrostatic forces, the replacement of Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions, the destabilization of the cell membrane, and leakage of intracellular substances, and cell death. The antimicrobial properties of chitosan can also include chelating capacity for various metal ions and the inhibition of mRNA and protein synthesis [61].
It seems chitosan activity depends on the diet type as well as the ruminal pH. The literature reports suggest that the maximum effect of chitosan is noted when grain (starch) is incorporated in the ration at low pH values, shifting the fermentation pattern to a more propionate production pathway, which could be explained by the higher sensitivity of Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria against chitosan [61, 63]. This type of change in ruminal fermentation by chitosan results in reductions in CH4 production. Moreover, supplementation of chitosan alters the rumen bacterial communities related to fatty acids biohydrogenation, that is,
Numerous chemical additives were used to modulate the rumen microbial activity for optimizing animal productivity, namely, defaunating agents, and anti-methanogenic agents to reduce CH4 emission. Patra et al. [4] reported the most promising anti-methanogenic agents that effectively lower CH4 without adverse effects on rumen degradability or producing SCFAs and each of which works through different modes of action when added together to additively decrease CH4 production. These include halogenated sulfonated compounds (e.g., 2-bromoethanesulfonate, 2-chloroethanesulfonate, and 3-bromopropanesulfonate), 3-nitrooxypropanol (3NOP), nitrate, and ethyl-3NOP are used to inhibit methyl-CoM reductase activity, the final limiting step to complete the methanogenesis pathways. Halogenated aliphatic compounds with 1 or 2 carbons can impair the corrinoid enzymes function and inhibit cobamide-dependent methyl group transfer in methanogenesis or may serve as terminal electron (e−) acceptors. Some agents, namely, lovastatin and mevastatin were found to inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme, which is essential in the mevalonate pathway to form isoprenoid alcohols of methanogen cell membranes [4]. The addition of nitrate has two benefits—it can inhibit methanogenesis and acts as a nonprotein nitrogen source, which could be useful in low-quality base diets [65].
Diets containing high amounts of rapidly fermenting soluble carbohydrate result in pH drop due to excessive production of lactate or VFA or a combination of both, which may be of subacute ruminal acidosis (pH between 5.0 to 5.5) or acute acidosis (<5.0) type with acute or chronic in duration [66]. The consequences of acidosis range widely along with death and more importantly lower productivity, especially in subacute ruminal acidosis [66, 67]. Decreasing the ruminal pH leads to inhibition of rumen cellulolytic bacteria. Therefore, maintaining ruminal pH at the average level (5.8–7.2) is an essential factor to balance the rumen microorganisms between acid producers and consumers. In this context, buffering reagents and alkalizer (e.g., sodium bicarbonate, magnesium oxide, and calcium magnesium carbonate), direct-fed microbials, and malate supplementation may increase pH in the rumen and production when ruminants are fed with high-grain based diets [66, 68]. Malate supplementation can stimulate Selenomonas ruminantium that converts lactate to VFA [69]. Marden et al. [70] reported that the inclusion of 150 g of sodium bicarbonate increased total ruminal VFA concentration by 11.7% compared to the control diet fed to lactating cows. The addition of sodium bicarbonate, magnesium oxide, and calcium magnesium carbonate reduced the duration of time ruminal pH persisted below 5.8 in lactating dairy cows fed a high-starch (342 g/kg DM) containing diet and increased milk and fat yield, and milk fat concentration, but reduced milk
Microbial protein in the rumen (RMP) accounts for between 50 and 90% of the protein entering into the duodenum and supplies the majority of the amino acids required for growth and milk protein synthesis [72]. Therefore, increasing RMP synthesis is important for improving animal productivity. Moreover, increasing the RMPS is an effective strategy to decrease protein (i.e., nitrogen) excretion in livestock since the dietary protein unless utilized properly by ruminal microorganisms is degraded to ammonia in the rumen, and ammonia is absorbed from the rumen, metabolized to urea in the liver, and excreted in urine causing environmental nitrogen pollution [10, 73].
There are many factors affecting RMP synthesis including dry matter intake, type of the ration fed (forage to concentrate ratio), the flow rate of digesta in the rumen, the sources, and synchronization of nitrogen and energy sources [74]. Among these, the amount of energy supplied to rumen microbes was found to be the main factor affecting the amount of nitrogen incorporated into RMP. Phosphorylation at the substrate level and electron transport level are two significant mechanisms of energy generation within microbial cells [75]. Based on 10 reconstructed pathways associated with the energy metabolism in the ruminal microbiome, Lu et al. [75] found that the energy-rich diet increased the total abundance of substrate-level phosphorylation enzymes in the glucose fermentation and F-type ATPase of the electron transporter chain more than the protein-rich diet. Therefore, they concluded that energy intake induces higher RMP yield more than protein intake. In this context, any factor affecting the available amount of soluble carbohydrates to rumen microbes will affect the efficiencies of RMP synthesis. Therefore, most of the previously mentioned rumen modifiers (e.g., plant secondary metabolites, dietary oil) may affect the RMP synthesis; however, most of the studies have ignored the determination of RMP.
Maximizing RMP synthesis seems to be the most effective approach for the small livestock holders in most developing countries since microbial protein sometimes becomes the only protein source for the animals fed on poor quality forage diets with low or without concentrate supplementations. Balancing the diets of these animals by supplementing of leaves of legumes, urea-molasses multinutrient blocks, urea in the form of slow ammonia release, and other nonprotein nitrogen resources found to be favorable for RMP synthesis [8, 10, 29, 73]. It has been recognized that feeding high true proteins (the most expensive ingredients in the ruminant diet) can be utilized by ruminal bacteria in about the same way as the ammonia from nonprotein nitrogen (e.g., urea). The optimum concentrations of ammonia in the rumen for maximal RMP synthesis are about 50–60 mg/L and 27–133 mg/L from the
Reduction in CH4 production can enhance the RMP synthesis. Soltan et al. [10, 29] observed that inclusion of
From an economic view, dietary protein concentrates increase production costs, especially for developing countries. Furthermore, the microbial population in the rumen has a high proteolytic capacity to degrade the dietary protein. Therefore, nutritionists are interested in formulating diets with ruminal undegradable protein sources. The protein degradation in rumen depends mainly on three processes—proteolysis, peptidolysis, and deamination. Many protein-degrading bacteria are naturally found under ruminal conditions, that is,
Several inhibitors of ruminal microbial protein degradation and ammonia production were reported in the literature. Condensed tannins, slow-release urea products, encapsulated nitrate, clays (e.g., bentonite and zeolite that acts through cation exchange capacity), and biochar were found to reduce the rapid increase in ammonia production and maintained the ruminal pH. Urea pool in the rumen is contributed from urea in the diet and recycling of urea through saliva and ruminal wall. The urease enzyme produced by the ruminal microbiota rapidly degrades urea to ammonia causing ammonia toxicity and inefficient urea utilization when used in excessive amounts [73]. Inhibitors of urease may reduce the risk of ammonia toxicity and efficient utilization of urea and other nonprotein nitrogen compounds [77].
Ruminant-derived foods (milk and meat) contain a high amount of saturated fatty acids, which are associated with human health concerns. Therefore, improving the functional value of ruminants’ products by increasing the content of beneficial fatty acids (FAs) and decreasing detrimental ones, specifically, decreasing the content of saturated FAs and increasing n-3 FAs and conjugated linoleic acids (e.g., cis-9, trans-11 C18:2, also called rumenic acid) have been great interests among the researchers [78]. Manipulating ruminal biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been the target to increase meat and milk content of rumenic acid and vaccenic acid, as both compounds are major intermediates in the biohydrogenation. To elevate rumenic acid content in products, inhibiting the last step of biohydrogenation needs to be attempted without affecting lipolysis and isomerization and reduction of linoleic acid and linolenic acid to rumenic acid and vaccenic acid. Alternatively, to elevate PUFAs in meat and milk, in particular n-3FAs, inhibition of early steps of biohydogenation should be targeted. Secondary compounds such as tannins, saponins, or essential oils rich in terpenes present in plants and forages or supplementation of vegetable oil can improve some aspects of meat and milk quality including n-3 FAs, conjugated linoleic acids, antioxidant properties [73, 79, 80, 81].
The ruminal fermentation end products are typically the outputs of several interactive reactions among the rumen microbial populations. Manipulations of rumen microbial fermentation toward enhancing fiber digestibility, SCFAs production, and outflow of microbial biomass, while reducing ammonia and CH4 emission are the most probable ways to improve animal productivity. Numerous rumen fermentation modifiers have been studied during the last few decades; however, their positive effects are sometimes associated with undesirable effects or highly significant costs (e.g., ionophore antibiotics, anti-methanogenic chemical feed additives, or essential oils). Moreover, most of these modifiers exhibited inconsistent efficacy in the literature mainly because of the variability in animal age, breed, diet formulation, physiological status, rumen microbial resistance, and adaptation. Despite the long history of studies on the rumen modifiers, most of the measurements are determined through the treatment period but knowledge is still limited on animal responses in later life or impacts on human health and growth. However, there is unanimous agreement that an ample array of drought-tolerant plants containing effective bioactive compounds, DFM, fibrolytic enzymes, and nonprotein nitrogen sources would cost-effectively modify the ruminal fermentation. Therefore, a combination of two or more of these rumen modifiers with complementary modes of action may be a promising approach to optimize the productivity of ruminants in developing countries.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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