Classification of the Mount Bambouto caldera in the CCDB of [10].
\r\n\tEqually, the interlinkages that the adrenal gland has in the human body create the premises both for the description of the intimate mechanisms that induce adrenal diseases on other tissues and organs and also for strategic considerations when it comes to treatment.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book, which is aimed at both endocrinologists and practitioners in other medical fields, therefore offers an insight into the mysteries of adrenal disease and a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge of this gland, providing an easy-to-follow format that focuses on the most important developments in the field of etiopathogenesis, clinical and paraclinical diagnosis, and treatment of these conditions.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-687-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-686-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-688-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"86c26879d83ac24206ed5476b6cde7fd",bookSignature:"Dr. Diana Loreta Paun",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11853.jpg",keywords:"Cushing Syndrome, Etiopathogenesis, Diagnosis, Treatment, Minimally Invasive Technique, Adrenalectomy, Adrenal Diseases, Perioperative Management, Adrenal Cancer, Genetics, Adrenal Mass, Imaging",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Practitioner endocrinologist, associate professor, researcher, and manager of the National Institute of Endocrinology in Romania, coordinator of investment research and training projects, funded by European funds. Dr. Paun is a member of The Romanian Association of Clinical Endocrinology, member and president(2011-2012, 2017-2019) of The Romanian Chapter of the AACE (American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists). Dr. Păun was appointed State Advise (2015) and was appointed Presidental Advisor (2019).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190860",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana Loreta",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"diana-loreta-paun",fullName:"Diana Loreta Paun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190860/images/system/190860.jpg",biography:"PĂUN DIANA LORETA, MD, PhD, FACE\r\nBorn on: February 1st, 1968 on Bucharest\r\nEmployed to: “Carol Davila”, University of Medicine and Pharmacy\r\nPosition: endocrinologist, Ph.D, Associate Professor of Endocrinology\r\nFellow of the American College of Endocrinology\r\nExperience: General Manager of “CI Parhon” Institute of Endocrinology, Bucharest, 2006-2015.\r\nMaster in Public Health\r\nQualifications in: Diabetology, Osteoporosis, Endocrine Ultrasonography, Public Health. Training in molecular biology laboratory techniques – Max-Planck-Institut für Psychiatrie, Dept. of Chemie u. Endokrinologie, München, 2002\r\nOccupational field: Clinical, Educational and Research activities, Management, Healthcare services.\r\nPostgraduate courses in: Informatics, Clinical Endocrinology, Infertility, Sexology, Public Health etc.\r\nProfessional career:\r\nChemistry-Biology High School graduated on 1986, Faculty of Medicine graduated on 1992, Th.Burghele Hospital doctor on probation during 1993–1994\r\nendocrinology resident to CI Parhon Institute of Endocrinology 1994-1998\r\nendocrinologist since 1998\r\nAssistant Professor, Lecturer, Associated Professor of Endocrinology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucuresti, Romania\r\nPublications: papers presented on national and international meetings, articles publishised in well-known journals, author and coauthor in monographs and clinical guides book.\r\nParticipation on research projects and clinical trials: Director and member of the team in research projects and in clinical trials.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The purpose of the present chapter is to focus on beta-cell function under physiological conditions and to review the potential beta-cell failure mechanisms, the place in natural history of T2DM and implication for treatment of beta-cell dysfunction.
The main role of beta-cell is to synthesize and secrete insulin in order to maintain circulating glucose levels within physiological range. Although there exist several triggers of insulin secretion like nutrients (amino acids such as leucine, glutamine in combination with leucine, nonesterified fatty acid), hormones, neurotransmitters and drugs (sulfonylurea, glinides), glucose represents the main physiological insulin secretagogue [1].
According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, insulin secretion is a multistep process initiated with glucose transport into beta-cell through specific transporters (GLUT1 and GLUT2 in particular) and phosphorylation by glucokinase, which directs metabolic flux through glycolysis, producing pyruvate as the terminal product of the pathway [2]. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria and is decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA, which enters the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle proper begins with a condensation of acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate, to form citrate, a reaction catalysed by citrate synthase. Aconitase catalyses the convertion of citrate to isocitrate. NAD-linked isocitrate dehydrogenase then oxidatively decarboxylates isocitrate to form α-ketoglutarate. The α-ketoglutarate is oxidised to succinyl-CoA in a reaction catalysed by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. Succinyl-CoA synthase then catalyses the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate, with the concomitant phosphorylation of GDP to GTP. Succinate dehydrogenase catalyses the oxidation of succinate to fumarate. Fumarase catalyses the conversion of fumarate to malate and after that malate dehydrogenase catalyses the final step of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidising malate to oxaloacetate and producing NADH.
Three pathways enable the recycling of the tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates into and out of mitochondrion, allowing a continuous production of intracellular messengers [3-5]. These three cycles share, as a common terminal step, the conversion of malate to pyruvate concomitant with the production of cytosolic NADPH.
Pyruvate/malate shuttle,
The oxaloacetate produced by pyruvate carboxylase is converted to malate by mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase. Malate exits the mitochondria to the cytoplasm where it is subsequently oxidised to pyruvate concomitant with the production of NADPH by cytosolic malic enzyme. Pyruvate then re-enters mitochondria for the next round of carboxylation by pyruvate carboxylase [3-5].
Pyruvate/citrate shuttle,
The oxaloacetate condenses with acetyl-CoA to form citrate, mediated by citrate synthase. Citrate then exits the mitochondrion to the cytoplasm where it is converted back to oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA by ATP-citrate lyase. Oxaloacetate is converted by cytosolic malate dehydrogenase to malate before being converted to pyruvate by malic enzyme. Acetyl-CoA is subsequently carboxylated by acetyl-CoA carboxylase to form malonyl-CoA for conversion to long-chain acyl-CoA by fatty acid synthase. Malonyl-CoA inhibits carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1, which transports fatty acyl-CoA into mitochondria where it is oxidised, leading to increase in long-chain acyl-CoAs in the cytosol [3-5].
Pyruvate/isocitrate shuttle
The oxaloacetate condenses with acetyl-CoA to form citrate, mediated by citrate synthase before being converted to isocitrate. Isocitrate then exits the mitochondrion to the cytoplasm via the citrate/isocitrate transporter and is converted to α-ketoglutarate by the cytosolic NADPdependent isocitrate dehydrogenase. α-Ketoglutarate is further converted to oxaloacetate via the malate/aspartate shuttle as mentioned earlier in the NADH shuttle system [3-5].
The sequences of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and of shuttle pathways are followed by synthesis of reducing equivalents (NADH, NADPH, FADH2) in the mitochondria and transfer them to the electron transport chain [6]. The NADPH oxidase complex in the plasma membrane is also activated through protein kinase C, which is activated by fatty acid derived signalling molecules.
These events result in an enhanced ratio of ATP to ADP in the cytoplasm, which determines the closure of the ATP-sensitive K+ channels, depolarization of the plasma membrane, influx of extracellular Ca2+ and activation of exocytosis which takes place in several stages including recruitment, docking, priming, and fusion of insulin granules to the beta-cell plasma membrane [1,6,7].
Two independent studies, using diazoxide for maintaining the ATP-sensitive K+ channels in the open state or mice in which the ATP-sensitive K+ channels were disrupted, indicated that glucose –stimulated insulin secretion can also occur independently of ATP-sensitive K+ channels activity [8].
Under physiological conditions, there is a hyperbolic relation between insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity. Classically, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion is characterized by a first phase, which ends within a few minutes, and prevents or decreases glucose concentration and a more prolonged second phase in which insulin is released proportionally to the plasma glucose [9].
In addition, it has been demonstrated that the release of insulin is oscillatory, with relatively stable rapid pulses occurring at every 8-10 minutes which are superimposed on low-frequency oscillations [10]. In humans the amplitude of insulin oscillations is 100-fold higher in the portal vein than in the systemic circulation implying preferential hepatic extraction of insulin pulses.
Research to further understand the roles of these pathways may provide strategies for future therapies of T2DM.
T2DM is a progressive condition caused by genetic and environmental factors that induce tissue insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction.
Based on the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) and on the Belfast Diabetes Study, it is estimated that at diagnosis of T2DM, beta-cell function is already reduced by 50-60% and that this reduction of beta-cell function seems to start with 10-12 years before the appearance of hyperglycemia [11,12].
Several lines of evidence indicated that there is no hyperglycemia without beta-cell dysfunction [13,14].
In most subjects with obesity-induced insulin resistance developing increased insulin secretion, insulin gene expression and beta-cell mass, these compensatory mechanisms can succeed to maintain glucose homeostasis and avoidance of diabetes mellitus [13-15]. Progression from beta-cell compensation to failure in the face of obesity-induced insulin resistance occurs in a subset of genetically predisposed individuals who fail to adequately compensate for the increased insulin demand, leading to glucolipotoxicity.
In this phase insulin secretion (in relation to the degree of insulin resistance), insulin gene expression and beta-cell mass are reduced, causing increased levels of glucose and free fatty acids [13,14].
In T2DM, the typical beta-cell functional alterations are represented by:
change of threshold for insulin secretion triggering with relatively selective loss of responsivity to glucose compared to other insulin secretagogues like arginin or glibenclamide
alteration of insulin secretion oscillatory patterns with impairment of both high frequency and ultradian oscillations
reduced or absent first phase insulin secretion initially to intravenous glucose and then to mixed meal ingestion
prolongation of second phase of insulin secretion
gradual, time-dependent irreversible damage to cellular components of insulin production [9,13-18].
Longitudinal studies in humans have clearly demonstrated that beta-cell function deteriorates during the years. In the phase which precedes overt diabetes the decline of beta-cell function is slow but constant (2% per year) [19]. After the development of overt hyperglycemia there appears a significant acceleration (18% per year) in beta-cell failure, and the beta-cell function deteriorates regardless of the therapeutic regimen [11,19,20]. The accelerated beta-cell dysfunction is the consequence of glucolipotoxicity. Consequent deterioration in metabolic equilibrium with increasing levels of glucose and free fatty acids, enhance and accelerate beta-cell dysfunction, lead to beta-cell apoptosis that does not seems to be adequately compensated by regenerative process and subsequent decrease of beta-cell mass.
The main focus of the present chapter is on potential beta-cell failure mechanisms in T2DM.
The initial alterations in beta-cell function are likely to reflect intrinsic defects, whereas the accelerated beta-cell dysfunction which mainly occurs after the development of overt hyperglycemia is the consequence of glucolipotoxicity [21]. This reflects a genetic predisposition for beta-cell defect, whereas the subsequent beta-cell failure may be a consequence of concomitant environmental conditions.
Schematic representation of the role of cellular dysfunction in the natural history of T2DM is included in Figure 1.
Place of beta-cell dysfunction in natural history of type 2 diabetes
Several genes associated with increased risk of developing T2DM have been identified in genome-wide association studies [22]. There were detected several genetic variants of genes that confer risk of diabetes by interfering with next three mechanisms:
The most important so far type 2 diabetes risk gene,
The
A number of SNPs, and particularly the rs10830963 C
The molecular mechanisms by which loci or SNPs in the other genes affect glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, proinsulin to insulin conversion and incretin-induced insulin secretion are currently poorly understood.
These observations suggest that a genetic predisposition is associated with an initially beta-cell intrinsic defect which, in case of increased demand as it is in obesity and insulin resistance, leads to beta-cell failure.
Growing evidence indicated that long-term elevated plasma levels of glucose and fatty acids contribute to beta-cell function decline, a phenomenon known as glucolipotoxicity. Glucolipotoxicity differs from beta-cell exhaustion, which is a reversible phenomenon characterized by depletion of insulin granules due to prolonged exposure to secretagogues. Unlike glucolipotoxicity, beta-cell exhaustion is associated with normal production of insulin [51].
A multitude of clinical and preclinical studies have shown deleterious effects of beta-cells chronic exposure to elevated glucose levels.
Given the existence of insulin resistance and a predisposing genetic background, there occurs the elevation of glucose levels, which lead to progressively decreases of insulin secretion, insulin gene expression and insulin promoter activity (PDX-1 and MAFA) [52,53].
Chronic exposure of beta-cells to hyperglycemia can also induce beta-cells apoptosis by increasing proapoptotic genes expression (Bad, Bid, Bik) while antiapoptotic gene expression Bcl-2 remains unaffected [54].
There is a strong relationship between glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. Thus, hyperglycemia increases malonyl-CoA levels, leading to the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1 and subsequently to decreased oxidation of fatty acids and lipotoxicity [52].
Increased fatty acids in the pancreas leads to intrapancreatic accumulation of triglycerides [55]. Lim E et al showed that the intrapancreatic fat is associated with beta-cell dysfunction and that sustained negative energy balance induces restoration of beta-cellular function [56].
Elevated levels of glucose and saturated fatty acids in beta cells, stimulates AMP-activated protein kinase, which contributes to increased expression of sterolregulatory-element-binding-protein-1c (SREBP1c), leading to increased lipogenesis [57]. Glucose also increases the expression of liver X receptor which then contributes to enhancing SREBP1c expression [58].
Several studies provide evidence that prolonged exposure of beta cells to elevated levels of free fatty acids can have many deleterious effects, such as:
Recent studies suggest that deleterious effect of free fatty acids are expressed mostly in the presence of hyperglycemia which inhibits fatty acid oxidation and lead to accumulation of cytosolic long-chain acyl-CoA esters, generation of ceramide and lipid partitioning.
Increased intracellular cholesterol content may also lead to glucolipotoxicity. ATP-binding cassette transporter subfamily A member 1 (ABCA1) appears to mediate intracellular cholesterol accumulation and impaired insulin secretion, probably at the level of insulin exocytosis [78].
Several mechanisms have been proposed for glucolipotoxicity induced beta-cell dysfunction and death, such as: endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species production, islet inflammation and islet amyloid polypeptide increasing.
There is a significant relationship between the mechanisms triggered by glucolipotoxicy, creating thus a vicious cycle that eventually leads to beta-cell failure (Figure 2.).
Potential mechanism of beta-cell failure
The endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for the protein synthesis, being involved in protein translation, folding and assessing quality before protein secretion. Chronic hyperglycemia, elevated levels of saturated free fatty acid in beta-cell lead to sustained increased demand for insulin biosynthesis via increasing both insulin transcription and translation, and to increased proinsulin biosynthesis, which generates a heavy load of unfolded/misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum lumen. Accumulation of unfolded and misfolded protein in the endoplasmic reticulum lumen may impose endoplasmic reticulum stress [79,80]. Inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IFN-γ, can also cause endoplasmic reticulum stress [72].
Endoplasmic reticulum stress induced beta-cell activation of an adaptive system named unfolded protein response by which it attenuates protein translation, increases protein folding and promotes misfolded protein degradation [81,82].
The unfolded protein response is mediated by activation of three transmembrane endoplasmic reticulum proteins:
protein-kinase-RNA-(PKR-) like ER kinase/ eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (PERK/eIF2α)
inositol-requiring 1/X-box- bindingprotein-1 (IRE1/XBP-1)
The unfolded protein response alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress by inducing a number of downstream responses:
decrease new proteins arrival into the endoplasmic reticulum by attenuation of further translation of mRNAs via PERK/eIF2α activation. Thus, it prevents additional protein misfolding and further accumulation of unfolded protein;
increase the folding capacity of the endoplasmic reticulum to deal with misfolded proteins via the induction of endoplasmic reticulum chaperones. This response is mediated by IRE1/XBP-1 and ATF6;
increase in the extrusion of misfolded proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and subsequently endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD);
triggering apoptosis by the activation of CCAAT/enhancendoplasmic reticulum-binding homologous protein (CHOP) [81-85].
Among the three different signaling pathways of the endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ATF6, IRE1/XBP-1, and PERK/eIF2α), only ATF6 down-regulated PDX-1 and MafA insulin gene promote activity [86].
Extensive studies have indicated that IRE1/XBP-1 activation leads to increases of proinsulin biosynthesis under transient high glucose conditions like postprandial hyperglycemia and, by contrast, causes suppression of insulin mRNA expression and increases insulin mRNA degradation under chronic high glucose exposure [87,88].
Given these data it can be asserted that the appearance of endoplasmic reticulum stress, due to glucolipotoxicity and inflammatory cytokines, can lead to beta-cell dysfunction and death.
Beta cell mitochondria play a key role in the insulin secretion process, not only by providing energy in the form of ATP to support insulin secretion, but also by synthesising metabolites that can act as factors that couple glucose sensing to insulin granule exocytosis [3].
Mitochondrial dysfunction and abnormal morphology occur before the onset of hyperglycemia and play an important role in beta-cell failure [89]. In diabetic state, the proteins from the mitochondrial inner membrane are decreased, and also may exist transcriptional changes of the mitochondrial proteins [89].
Mitochondrial dysfunction, induced by glucolipotoxicity, plays a pivotal role in beta-cell failure and leads to increased ROS production as a result of metabolic stress.
Under conditions of normoglycemia production of ROS - superoxide anion (O2 • -) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) - is performed during mitochondrial electron transport or through several oxidoreductases and metal-catalyzed oxidation of metabolites [90].
In the presence of hyperglycemia, hexosamine, sorbitol, PCK activations and Shiff reaction pathways, may represent sources of oxidative stress along with oxidative phosphorylation and auto-oxidation of glucose in mitochondria [91].
ROS effects can be reduced by activation of antioxidant enzymes including: superoxide dismutase, which converts O2 • - to H2O2 and also catalase, glutathione peroxide and peroxiredoxin that convert H2O2 into oxygen and water. Levels of antioxidant enzymes in beta cells are very low (catalase and glutathione peroxide levels were much lower than those of superoxide dismutase), making beta cells be vulnerable to oxidative stress [92].
Low concentrations of ROS contribute to increased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, but only in the presence of glucose-induced elevations in ATP [93].
Li N. et al indicated that transient oxidative stress can cause impaired glucose-induced ATP generation, decreased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, down-regulation of the respiratory chain and increased mitochondrial ROS production [94]. All these effects are reversible in time after transient increase ROS.
Chronic and significant elevation of ROS, resulted from an imbalance between ROS production and scavenging by endogenous antioxidants, may lead to beta-cell failure [95,96].
Persistent oxidative stress mediates beta-cell failure through several different mechanisms, including:
The antioxidant effect varies depending on the type of exposure of beta cells to ROS. Thus, under beta-cells exposure to low concentrations of ROS, antioxidants lower the insulin secretion [109,110]. Instead, under the glucolipotoxicity, antioxidants increase the insulin secretion and reduce beta cell apoptosis [108].
Several studies indicated that prolonged exposure of pancreatic islet to chronic hyperglycemia, increased levels of saturated fatty acids and increased ROS may trigger the production of inflammatory cytokines such as nuclear transcription factor kB (NF-κB), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and γ-interferon (IFN-γ), TNF-α, leading to beta-cells dysfunction and apoptosis [71]. Additionally, beta-cells dysfunction and apoptosis may also be triggered by pro-inflammatory signals from other organs, such as adipose tissue [111,112].
Transient activation of
There is good evidence that NF-kB mediates direct or through Il-1β, the activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in pancreatic beta-cells which, in turn, induces the expression of proinflammatory genes, interferes with electron transfer and inhibits ATP synthesis in mitochondria, leading to decreased insulin secretion and beta-cell dysfunction [114].
Chronic exposure of beta-cell to inflammatory cytokines, like
Another cytokine involved in beta-cells dysfunction is the PANcreatic DERived factor (PANDER). PANDER is a novel cytokine that is highly expressed in pancreatic islets [116]. Because PANDER protein is cosecreted with insulin from pancreatic beta-cells [117] it is reasonable to speculate that PANDER may regulate the insulin secretion process [117,118].
The adipocytokines released by adipocytes, including adiponectin, leptin, resistin, visfatin, TNF-α and IL-6, may also modulate the beta-cell function and survival.
In beta-cells, adiponectin may induce phosphorylation of acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase, leading to inhibition of fatty acids synthesis and preventing of lipid accumulation in beta-cells [112]. There have not been revealed significant effects of adiponectin on basal or glucose-stimulated insulin secretion [112].
Studies performed on human islets indicated that chronic exposure to leptin stimulates the release of IL-1β and inhibits UCP2 expression, leading to beta-cell dysfunction and apoptosis [111].
Other adipocytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, resistin, visfatin may also modulate beta-cell function and survival, although it is unclear whether the amount released into the circulation is sufficient to affect beta-cells [111].
Human islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin) is expressed almost exclusively in beta-cells and is costored and coreleased with insulin in response to beta-cells secretagogues. Glucolipotoxicity causes increased insulin requirement and those lead to increased production of both insulin and amylin. High concentrations of amyloid are toxic to beta-cells and have been implicated in beta-cell dysfunction and apoptosis [121,122].
The effect of Islet amyloid polypeptide on beta-cell function is not fully elucidated.
Studies
In vitro studies, however, have yielded contradictory results. Several studies have indicated an inhibitory effect of islet amyloid polypeptide physiological concentration on insulin secretion [123], but other studies have reported no inhibitory effect of islet amyloid polypeptide on insulin release [77].
One possible explanation for these inconsistent results may be that there was not taken into consideration the islet amyloid polypeptide increased tendency to aggregate in amyloid-like fibrils and thus the effects of early islet amyloid polypeptide preparations may be questioned [77].
Studies performed on islet amyloid polypeptide knock-out or transgenic mice, using pure and fully active islet amyloid polypeptide, suggest that islet amyloid polypeptide limits glucose-induced insulin secretion [124].
Understanding the causes for beta-cell failure is of capital importance to develop new and more effective therapeutic strategies.
Taking into consideration the existence of early beta-cell dysfunction and the significant reduction of beta-cell mass in the natural history of T2DM as well as the progressive character of these pathophysiological modifications,
Li Y. et al indicated that short term intensive insulin therapy of newly diagnosed T2DM may improve cell function, by restoring the first-phase insulin secretion and by decreased proinsulin/insulin ratio [125].
Increasing insulin levels by exogenous insulin administration for the control of hyperglycemia may appear initially contraindicated in patients with evidence of insulin resistance, so it is imperative to simultaneously address insulin resistance with metformin.
Several lines of evidence indicated that
It has been shown that metformin, and also the
Other therapeutic options for beta-cell protection, such as
Thus, acute exposure of cells to the incretins, determine stimulation of glucose-dependent insulin secretion, the subacute exposure leads to increased insulin biosynthesis and insulin gene transcription, whereas the chronic exposure induces beta-cell mass increase by stimulation of cell proliferation, neogenesis and inhibition of cell apoptosis [21].
Future advances in the area of beta-cell failure mechanism and modulators may lead to the identification of possible novel therapeutic strategies.
Internal geodynamics is manifested on the Earth’s surface by volcanic phenomena. Most of these phenomena are controlled by volcanoes located in the tectonically and structurally weak areas of the globe, notably accretion zones, convergence zones, and intra-plate zones. Some of these volcanoes are characterized by a simple crater, while others have one or more complex craters (distinguished by the collapse events). These complex craters are defined by one or more calderas [1, 2, 3, 4]. The term caldera derives from the depression called Taburiente (Canary Islands) and has been firstly used by [5]. The Caldera de Taburiente in fact, is the frequently quoted example of erosion caldera. Erosion calderas are volcanic depression erosionally formed on the summit or on the flanks of the volcano, which may be several kilometers in diameter [6, 7, 8]. However, geologically, calderas are volcanic depressions resulting from the collapse of the roof of the magma chamber due to the rapid retreat of the magma during an eruption [9, 10]. They can be elliptical, sub-circular or circular in map view. These shapes are induced by the shape of the underlying magma reservoir [11, 12]. In Refs. [9, 13], five types of collapse such as
Nevertheless, insufficient work on the dynamics of caldera emplacement limits the understanding of the functioning and evolution of volcanic massifs worldwide. Some calderas deserve to be characterized according to the models of [9] and [13] in order to classify them according to the Collapse Caldera DataBase established by [14]. The Collapse Caldera DataBase makes it possible to better study the caldera formation processes and to classify them. The study of calderas for decades has been of paramount importance for the development of science; it allows us to understand the functioning of volcanic apparatus around the world and the environmental impact that can result from them. Since calderas constitute a natural heritage for the economic development of several countries and a laboratory for education and research [15, 16, 17], their classification will heighten their promotion and valorization.
Mount Bambouto, which was once a very active volcano, was truncated at their summit by a caldera like some volcanoes along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (Figure 1). It caldera was chosen for the present study because Mount Bambouto have been the subject of numerous studies focusing mainly on petrography, geochemistry, geochronology, geo-heritage, hazards and associated risks [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. With the exception of [20, 21, 29], the studies on the caldera of Mount Bambouto are generally carried out in the specific areas [22, 30, 31]. Mount Bambouto is the third largest volcano (in volume) in the Cameroon Volcanic Line after Mount Cameroon and Mount Manengouba. It is located in the NE extension of Mount Manengouba from which it is separated by the Mbô plain. It is almost continuously contiguous to the NE with Mount Bamenda and covers an area of about 800 km2. It is located between longitudes 09°55′ and 10°15′E and latitudes 05°25′ and 05°50′N. They straddle the Departments of Bamboutos in the East, Menoua in the South, Lebialem in the West and Mezam in the NW and, culminate at 2744 m at Meletan Mountain where they dominate the West Cameroon Highlands. Mount Bambouto is a huge shield volcano with a general SW-NE orientation [18]. This massif is characterized by the asymmetry of its slopes [32]. Its summit caldera is located between longitudes 09°57′ and 10°07′E and latitudes 05°37′ and 05°44′N. The Caldera of the Mount Bambouto has an elliptical map view (16 × 8 km) that opens in a horseshoe shape toward the west (Figure 2). Throughout the caldera, rocks (basalts, hawaiites, mugearites, phonolites, trachytes, and ignimbrites) are found in different forms: flows, domes, peaks, teeth and needles that characterize the interior, the external slopes and the floor of the caldera. Thus, the inside of the caldera is marked by a sinuous “s” line punctuated by trachytic and phonolitic peaks, necks, and domes [18, 20, 29]. Moreover, the crystalline basement made up of granite, is observed on the western side of the volcano [21, 22, 29]. The floor of the caldera has a structure of stairs decreasing from the east to the west of the massif. The caldera rims are sub-vertical to vertical. In addition, several steep valleys (in “v” shape) accidentally affect the topography of the whole caldera (about 78% of the slopes are susceptible to mass movements) [29].
The Cameroon volcanic line.
Satellite image of the Mount Bambouto caldera.
Despite these previous studies, the dynamics of the establishment of the caldera of the Mount Bambouto remains poorly understood. Moreover, that caldera is not yet classified in the Caldera DataBase established by [10]. However, some data do exist on this caldera. These data need to be completed and this will allow us to characterize that caldera according to the model of [9]. This characterization will make it possible to obtain and organize the data in order to classify the caldera of the Mount Bambouto in the Caldera Database of [14]. This work is essential for understanding the functioning and evolution of the Mount Bambouto and, consequently, the dynamics of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, which remains a subject of discussion by many researchers nowadays.
Several field trips were made. They made it possible to describe rock outcrops, take rock samples and take the coordinates of the various samples. These samples were then described and labeled. In the laboratory, the coordinates of the various rock sampling points were plotted on the topographic map of the study area. Through these different points and the macroscopic description of the samples, a geological map is produced [33]. In order to complete the macroscopic study of the rocks, thin sections of samples were taken at the University of Orleans and the University of Paris-Sud (Orsay Campus) in France. These thin sections were studied with the polarizing microscope of the Laboratory of Environmental Geology of the University of Dschang and at the Laboratory of Life and Earth Sciences of the University of Maroua. Some samples were analyzed with microprobe also at the University of Orleans and the University Paris-Sud (Orsay Campus) and in Nancy for the nomenclature of rock minerals and the determination of the nature of rocks. These microscopic and chemical studies have made it possible to refine the geological map of the caldera of the Mount Bambouto [33]. In addition, some complementary geochemical analyses were made to determine the chemical nature of different lavas.
For the volcanological evolution of the caldera of the Mount Bambouto we have:
carried out a cartographic study through the analysis of satellite images, about 70 aerial photos, digital elevation models, and topographic maps. This study allowed us to determine the exact boundaries and structure of the caldera.
The geochronological data available in the literature made it possible to produce through DTM, the different stages of caldera formation according to the model of [9].
For the classification of the Caldera of the Mount Bambouto, we used the Caldera DataBase from [14]. To do so, we used the data obtained through volcanological studies and those existing in the literature.
In the Caldera of the Mount Bambouto the flows, mostly trachytic, have extensions ranging from 150 to 250 m; with an average height of between 10 and 30 m. They are generally roughly and irregularly priced and are observable at the level of the caldera ramparts, on certain escarpments, road embankments and riverbeds. On the other hand, mafic lava flows are poorly represented in the caldera and have extensions of just a few meters. The domes are generally circular to sub-circular in shape with a base slightly above the top. They are dominated by coarse prisms and sometimes numerous diaclases which favor the sporadic detachment of polygonal blocks generally observable at their base. Felsic and mafic flows are also observable in polygonal blocks accumulated near caldera ramparts and on stream beds (Figure 3). The lava texture is mostly microlitic porphyritic except for ignimbrites, which have a vitroclastic texture.
Some geological features of the Mount Bambouto caldera: (A–C)—post-caldera protrusions. (D)—erratic boulders; (E–G)—caldera’s floor structure; and (H)—caldera rim.
Basalts, hawaiites and trachytes all have a grayish alteration patina and are less than 3 mm thick. However, this patina has, in some places, crystals of automorphic alkaline feldspar of 4 mm or less in size. Ignimbrites have a strong patina of less than 3 mm thick and are gray to brown.
Drawings of some thin sections of rocks in the Mount Bambouto caldera: (A)—basalts; (B)—phonolites; (C)—kaersutite-mugearite; and (D)—ignimbrites.
Photographs of thin sections of rocks in the Mount Bambouto caldera: (A, D, and H)—hawaiites; (B)—phonolites; (C, F, and G)—Basalts; (E)—trachytes.
Generally speaking, the
In the caldera of the Mount Bambouto, olivine is present in the basalts with an average size of 0.5 × 3 mm. It is automorphic to subautomorphic. Their section is traversed by numerous cracks along which one notes the beginning of iddingsitization and serpentinization. Some sections have a core and borders corroded by mesostase. The olivine in the caldera of the Mount Bambouto is globally magnesian with forsterite contents between Fo57 and Fo75 (Figure 6).
Evolution of the forsterite content in lavas in the Mount Bambouto caldera.
The lava oxides in the study area are represented by titanomagnetite and ilmenite (Figure 7). These two minerals coexist in some lava, notably dolerite mugaearites. They are sometimes automorphic with various shapes (square, rectangular and rod-shaped), with sizes ranging from 0.2 to 1 mm. They occur as phenocrystals and microcrystals either embedded in minerals such as olivine, clinopyroxene and feldspars; or embedded in mesostase. Furthermore, titanomagnetite appears as the most abundant oxide in basalts, mugaearites and trachyes.
Position of oxides of lavas of the Mount Bambouto caldera in the FeO-TiO2-Fe2O3 diagram.
Apatite is observed in almost all the lavas of the caldera of the Mount Bambouto. It occurs as elongated crystals, xenomorphic to sub-automorphic and sometimes with transverse breaks in the intermediate lavas. Their size is between 0.2 and 0.8 mm and is observable as inclusions in olivine, oxides, and alkaline feldspars.
In the caldera of Mount Bambouto, clinopyroxenes in lavas are found in most sub-automorphic to automorphic crystal rocks with an average size of 0.5 × 1 mm. They show two directions of cleavage in some sections. They show gulfs of corrosion in some sections. They are cracked in the trachytes and show a macle h1 in the basalts. The classification of [34] has made it possible to identify three types of clinopyroxene in the lavas of the caldera of Mount Bambouto (Figure 8); diopside, augite and hedenbergite.
Classification of clinopyroxènes of lavas of the mount Bambouto caldera in the en-Wo-Fs diagram.
Feldspars are the minerals most represented in the lava of the caldera of the Mount Bambouto. Their edges are corroded in certain sections of the phonolites. However, they are sub-automorphic to automorphic, cracked and elongated depending on the flow. They are found in microlites and phenocrystals with sizes ranging from 0.1 × 0.3 to 0.5 × 0.8 mm for plagioclases and from 0.1 × 0.4 to 1 × 2 mm for alkaline feldspars. The latter have a Carlsbad twin, unlike plagioclases with a polysynthetic twin. The most frequent plagioclases (An30-60) in lava are andesine and labrador. In phonolites, the alkaline feldspars are anorthose (Or17 and Or37) and sanidine (Or37 and Or44) (Figure 9). However, anorthoses are in the majority. In ignimbrites, the composition of alkali feldspars is between Or33 and Or37 and are therefore exclusively anorthoses.
Evolution of the anorthite content in lavas of the Mount Bambouto caldera.
The lavas in the caldera of Mount Bambouto are alkaline in nature as shown in the following diagrams in Figure 10. The data used to make these diagrams have been supplemented by the data in [20, 22].
Chemical nature of lavas in the Mount Bambouto caldera.
Mount Bambouto is a Hawaiian shield volcano [18]. Its history has been ruled by volcanic and tectonic events that led to the formation of a huge caldera on the Pan-African granitoid basement [35, 36, 37]. The Mount Bambouto Caldera formation (Figure 11) included three main stages [38] as follow:
The
The
The
Sketch highlighting the stages of the formation of the Mount Bambouto caldera.
To assign the code of a given caldera, one must use the numbering system developed in the Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World. In fact, the world is divided in 19 main regions that are subdivided, in turn, in several subregions. Hence, the study area is located in the African Region with the corresponding database code 2. In addition, these calderas are located in the Central African Sub-Region with the corresponding database code 203.
In the caldera ramparts are almost vertical at some levels (Figure 3); but on the whole these ramparts seem to merge with the floor.
At the level of the Mount Bambouto, the floor of the caldera is very dissected and presents in places a stepped structure (Figure 3), which indicates a piecemeal collapse.
Several petrographic types are observed in the study area. These petrographic types are dominated by basalts, intermediate rocks, trachytes, phonolites and ignimbrites. Thus, the caldera of the Mount Bambouto is assigned the code B, I, T, P and Ig.
The study area is characterized by an alkaline magmatic series as they are dominated by mafic, intermediate, and felsic terms. They are assigned the codes ALKAf (Alkaline felsic), ALKAi (Alkaline intermediate) and ALKAm (Alkaline mafic).
Mount Bambouto rests on a granito-gneissic bedrock with a thickness (hc) of about 35.5 km [39]. According to the Database [14], these crustal thicknesses in the study areas are greater than the 30–35 km interval; hence the code is C.
From the internal geodynamic point of view, the Mount Bambouto Caldera is located in the Cameroon Volcanic Line which originates, according to some authors [40, 41, 42, 43], from a Continental Rift; Its code is be RC. This nascent rift [44, 45], at the origin of the Cameroon Volcanic Line in general and of Mount Bambouto and its respective caldera system in particular, is of the extensional type and their code is EXT.
A Pre-caldera regional dome occurred through a tumescence that created numerous concentric faults. These fissures favored a pre-caldera magmatic activity that further contributed to the building of the Bambouto stratovolcano. Its code is therefore STR.
The collapse of the Caldera of Mount Bambouto occurred at the beginning of the sequence of eruptions that contributed to their formation. Their code is A.
In the Mount Bambouto, this volcanic activity is dominated by the presence of several eruptive vents, notably on the ramparts, the eastern floor of the caldera and the NE slope of the volcano. Thus, the Mount Bambouto is classified as Type-S and Type-MS.
On the other hand, the ramparts of the Mount Bambouto Caldera are threatened by growing urbanization and agro-pastoral activity, particularly to the south and east of the caldera. Its boundaries are therefore slightly destroyed. Its code is PD.
The overall results have been used to fill the CCDB table (Table 1).
Latitude | 05°37′–05°44′N | |
Longitude | 09°57′–10°07′E | |
Region | 2 | |
Subregion | 203 | |
Age (Ma) | 15 | |
Maximum Caldera diameter | Not Applicable | |
Minimum Caldera diameter | Not Applicable | |
Surface (km2) | 155.1 | |
Subsidence | — | |
Caldera volume (km3) | — | |
Type of collapse | Piecemeal | |
Name linked to the deposits | Ignimbritic | |
Thickness of deposits | — | |
Volume of deposits (km3) | — | |
Total volume of lavas (km3) | — | |
Petrographic types | B, I, T, P | |
Magmatic series | ALKAm, ALKAi, ALKAf | |
Magmatic chamber depth (km) | 35.5 | |
Ratio depth/width of magmatic chamber | — | |
Plate tectonic setting (PTS) | RC | |
Crustal type (CT) | C | |
Type of tectonic faulting (TF) | Ext | |
Periods of pre-caldera doming (PCD) | Over 19 Ma | |
Type of pre-caldera volcanism (PCV) | STR | |
Timing of caldera onset (TCO) | A | |
Post-caldera volcanic activity (PCVA) | S, MS | |
Post-caldera resurgence (PCR) | Absence | |
Caldera preservation (CPR) | PD |
Classification of the Mount Bambouto caldera in the CCDB of [10].
Through the mode of outcropping of different rocks in the caldera of Mount Bambouto, all types of dynamism (extrusive, effusive, explosive) exist in the caldera. These are therefore polygenic volcanoes marked by long periods of activity and varied dynamisms, resting and erosion phases during different tectonic episodes [46]. In addition, the diversity of rocks is indicative of the high degree of magma differentiation induced here by the fractional crystallization process [21, 47, 48]. The presence of the trachytes in ignimbrites of the study area is an indicator of a relative chronology of the rocks. Indeed, there was an ante-ignimbritic trachytic volcanic phase. This means that there has been in the course of the evolution of the Bambouto volcano, the eruption of trachytic rocks before that of ignimbritic materials [49, 50].
The caldera of Mount Bambouto was formed at a well-defined time. The stages of formation of these calderas correspond globally to the model of [9]: a regional tumescence, a volcanic eruption, a collapse of the caldera, volcanism on the annular fractures and sedimentation. The present structure of the caldera floor shows that the roof of the magma chamber collapsed piecemeal during its formation. The border faults generally observed on calderas in certain volcanic environments in Cameroon, which are evidence of the different phases of caldera collapse, are difficult to observe in the caldera of Mount Bambouto. These faults, when identifiable on certain ramparts, present a some stages of collapse (Figure 3). In this caldera, the ramparts are often confused with the floor. The latter constitutes the most dissected floor of all the caldera units studied along the Cameroon Volcanic Line and their arrangement in decreasing steps from west to east, would testify to the multiple collapses that marked its formation [51, 52]. On the other hand, in the Eboga and Lefo calderas, where the ramparts are clearly visible from the caldera floor, there are boundary faults marked by about 2–4 stages of collapse [29]. Post-caldera volcanism has manifested itself on the Mount Bambouto. This has been observed in other caldera environments on the Cameroon Volcanic Line, notably the Santa-Mbu and Lefo caldera in the Bamenda Mountains, the Eboga and Elengoum calderas in Mount Manengouba and the Bangou caldera in Mount Bangou. It is at the origin of numerous doleritic, phonolitic and trachytic protrusions and, cones and maars found on the floor and external slopes of these calderas [33, 51, 52, 53, 54]. These post-caldera geomorphological units give the caldera of Mount Bambouto the S and MS types according to [14]. Mount Bambouto constitutes a stratovolcano [20, 33]. The shape of this caldera is comparable to the elliptical shape of the calderas of Suswa, Kenya [55] and Chã das of Fogo Island in Cape Verde [56] and the calderas of the basaltic shields described by [9, 57]. This shape results from the geometry of the magma chamber which is the main factor controlling the final morphology of the calderas [58]. The presence of ignimbrites, tuffs, trachytes and rhyolites in the caldera of the Mount Bambouto qualifies it as an ignimbrite caldera. Ignimbrite calderas are usually over 10 km in diameter and over 1 km in depth, formed after the voluminous deposition of silicic ignimbrites [9, 11, 59]. We can list the example of Batur Caldera in Bali, New Zealand [60]. However, the term ignimbrite caldera is clearly used by (2015) [61] to qualify the calderas of the Southern Rocky Mountain Volcanic Field in Colorado (USA) notably Bonanza, Bachelor, Cochetopa Park, Creede, and Platoro calderas. Their presence in Mount Bambouto is explained by the fact that, considering the ages, this massif is sufficiently old compared to the other massifs, especially Mount Manengouba, because these acid magmas, according to [62], require a significant period of time for their formation to be elaborated.
Calderas are places where several natural hazards occur, including volcanic eruptions and mass movements [63, 64]. According to [65], calderas are destructive volcanic forms because they cause pre-existing reliefs to collapse, unlike post-caldera cones and domes, which are constructive because pre-existing reliefs are put in place. Moreover, the volcanic formations that cover them favor the formation of fertile soils and the development of a plant cover of various species conducive to an agropastoral activity [16]. These are environments where hydrothermal activities and mineralization processes generally occur [57, 66, 67]. In this respect, it is clear that calderas have a strong educational value as they allow us to understand the complexity of certain craters in volcanic environments around the world. As such, they allow us to understand the degree of fracturing of the ante-caldera substratum, the superposition of eruptive products and the slices of the flows at the ramparts and the post-eruptive geological processes. For this reason, calderas have been the subject of several studies in the field of geological heritage, notably the Mount Teide caldera in Spain, Aso caldera in Japan; Santorini caldera in Greece; Erta Alé and Fentale caldera in Ethiopia; Cha Das caldera in Cape Verde; Eboga, Santa Mbu, Lefo and Bambouto caldera in Cameroon [17, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. Thus, calderas are often the seat of later volcanic activities that leave exceptional geomorphological units with several values suitable for geotourism [33, 51, 52, 56, 73, 74, 75].
The Caldera of Mount Bambouto is a volcanic unit that formed at a period between 18.68 and 22 Ma. Its emplacement model is comparable to that of Cole et al. 2005. Its formation and evolution gave it a rather varied petography and a characteristic structure. Its classification according to the Caldeira DataBase of Geyer and Marti (2008) allows us to conclude that its type of collapse is piecemeal. Chemically, the caldera is alkaline with codes ALKAf, ALKAi, and ALKAm. Furthermore, this caldera was formed through a continental rifting of extensional type, and their postcaldera protrusions give them Type-S and Type-MS. Moreover, it is a well-preserved caldera because its ridge lines are well observable.
The classification of the caldera of Mount Bambouto made within the framework of this work makes it possible to understand the similarities of this caldera with other calderas around the world on the one hand and to understand part of the global dynamics of the functioning of the Cameroon Volcanic Line on the other hand. Furthermore, this study contributes to elucidate the origin of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, which is still a subject of discussion among Cameroonian and foreign researchers today. Moreover, through this work, the Mount Bambouto Caldera is promoted next to the world scientific community that is still ignoring his existence.
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He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4782/images/system/4782.jpg",biography:"Bishnu P. Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. 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Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10400",title:"The Application of Ant Colony Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4fdfd07ee1ab99fb7c740d6d0c144c6",slug:"the-application-of-ant-colony-optimization",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10915",title:"Leadership",subtitle:"New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d72e79892f2a020cee66a52d09de5a4",slug:"leadership-new-insights",bookSignature:"Mário Franco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mário",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mário Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10683",title:"Technological Innovations and Advances in Hydropower Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ce7ad8768bd2cad155470fe1fd883f4",slug:"technological-innovations-and-advances-in-hydropower-engineering",bookSignature:"Yizi Shang, Ling Shang and Xiaofei Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",slug:"pneumonia",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"856",title:"Risk Management",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health-risk-management",parent:{id:"129",title:"Environmental Health",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:26,numberOfWosCitations:111,numberOfCrossrefCitations:83,numberOfDimensionsCitations:190,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"856",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5184",title:"Environmental Health Risk",subtitle:"Hazardous Factors to Living Species",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa20266ad595ce73a9396f4ab0f8112e",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50482",doi:"10.5772/63094",title:"Pesticides, Environmental Pollution, and Health",slug:"pesticides-environmental-pollution-and-health",totalDownloads:6892,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:113,abstract:"In recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides. Pesticides have been an essential part of agriculture to protect crops and livestock from pest infestations and yield reduction for many decades. Despite their usefulness, pesticides could pose potential risks to food safety, the environment, and all living things. Concern about the environmental impact of repeated pesticide use has prompted research into the environmental fate of these agents, which can emigrate from treated fields to air, other land, and water bodies. The importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in accordance to a number of studies. In the last five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, with the increasing amounts of their usage, concern about their adverse effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also grown. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effects on health and the environment.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Arzu Özkara, Dilek Akyıl and Muhsin Konuk",authors:[{id:"5974",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhsin",middleName:null,surname:"Konuk",slug:"muhsin-konuk",fullName:"Muhsin Konuk"},{id:"179732",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",middleName:null,surname:"Akyıl",slug:"dilek-akyil",fullName:"Dilek Akyıl"},{id:"179733",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Özkara",slug:"arzu-ozkara",fullName:"Arzu Özkara"}]},{id:"49818",doi:"10.5772/62049",title:"Amoxicillin in the Aquatic Environment, Its Fate and Environmental Risk",slug:"amoxicillin-in-the-aquatic-environment-its-fate-and-environmental-risk",totalDownloads:3139,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Amoxicillin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic widely used for treating both human and animal diseases, and it belongs to a group that are excreted unchanged within urine and faeces; therefore, it is possible to find traces of this drug or its degradation products in environmental water bodies. In water, it is rapidly degraded by biotic and abiotic factors, yielding different intermediate products; these are suspected of being more resistant to degradation, and potentially more toxic, than the parent compound. In the water bodies, these compounds may produce toxic effects on the aquatic organisms from different trophic levels and produce an ecological imbalance. Amoxicillin may bioaccumulate in fish muscle tissues, with the possibility of the occurrence of these drugs in food, leading to a passive consumption of this antibiotic resulting in undesirable effects on consumer health such as immunoallergic responses. However, the main problem related with the presence of this antimicrobial compounds in fish tissues is the possibility of inducing bacterial resistance genes. At present, the available scientific knowledge is less than what is needed to fully assess the risks that amoxicillin pose to the environment, and it is still necessary to conduct large amount of research works before a thorough understanding of this severe environmental issue.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Armando Elizalde-Velázquez, Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván,\nMarcela Galar-Martínez, Hariz Islas-Flores, Octavio Dublán-García and Nely SanJuan-Reyes",authors:[{id:"179818",title:"Dr.",name:"Leobardo Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Oliván",slug:"leobardo-manuel-gomez-olivan",fullName:"Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván"}]},{id:"50234",doi:"10.5772/62455",title:"Environmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Special Focus on Phthalates and Bisphenol A",slug:"environmental-effects-of-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-a-special-focus-on-phthalates-and-bisphenol-",totalDownloads:2825,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Several environmental chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many of them have an impact on reproductive functions and sex hormones because of their estrogenic and/or antiandrogenic properties. Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are two well-known EDCs. They are abundant in the environment. Phthalates are usually classified as antiandrogens, whereas BPA is considered as estrogen-like EDC and xenoestrogen. Other than their endocrine-disrupting effects, these two chemicals are also known to have genotoxic and epigenetic effects. Besides, they are hepatotoxic and have substantial effects on other organs/systems (thyroid, kidney, neuroendocrine system, immune system, etc.). In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the toxic effects of different phthalate esters and BPA by discussing their availability in the environment, mechanism and mode of actions, their biotransformation and reproductive effects, and their effects on other systems (hepatic, renal, etc.). Besides, we discuss epidemiological studies that are conducted to reveal their effects on the reproductive and endocrine systems. This chapter provides the readers a compact piece of knowledge on these abundant substances and helps them to understand the action of these substances at the molecular and cellular levels.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"},{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel"}]},{id:"50341",doi:"10.5772/62456",title:"Soil Contamination Health Risks in Czech Proposal of Soil Protection Legislation",slug:"soil-contamination-health-risks-in-czech-proposal-of-soil-protection-legislation",totalDownloads:1493,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"A new system of soil contamination limit values proposed for Czech legislation is described. The system is based on the hierarchical limit values system with two levels. The first one—prevention limit—defined background values of risk elements (REs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Czech agricultural soils supported by the data from soil monitoring system. The second one—indication limit—is defined for human health protection by two principles, the protection of food chain and the protection of direct human health risks by inhalation, dermal and oral intake of RE and POPs in soil particles on the field. The practical application of limit values proposal was applied in the project focused on soil contamination influence on health and environmental risks in fluvial zones of Czech important river basins. The floodplain soils belong to the most contaminated soils in Europe generally and the project defined the potential fluvial areas with increased human health risks.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Radim Vácha, Milan Sáňka, Jan Skála, Jarmila Čechmánková and\nViera Horváthová",authors:[{id:"85483",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radim",middleName:null,surname:"Vacha",slug:"radim-vacha",fullName:"Radim Vacha"}]},{id:"50264",doi:"10.5772/62486",title:"Occupational Exposure to Coal, Genotoxicity, and Cancer Risk",slug:"occupational-exposure-to-coal-genotoxicity-and-cancer-risk",totalDownloads:1935,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coal is a heterogeneous mixture containing large quantities of organic and inorganic matter, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and organometallic forms. The presence of mineral matter in coal may result in a number of environmental and human health problems related to its mining, preparation, and combustion. During coal mining activities, large quantities of coal dust, ashes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals are released into the environment, forming a complex mixture. This mixture becomes one of the most important occupational risks for the health and safety of workers due to its synergistic, additive, and enhancing effects. Once inside the organism, this cocktail-like mixture can interact with cellular mechanisms related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and can cause damage in important macromolecules such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. In this review, human populations exposed to coal and coal burning were analyzed. Data from different studies were evaluated in relation to the effect of complex mixture exposure on DNA damage and mechanisms, and the background factors, such as gender, age, or smoking habit. The high temperatures that occur in combustion processes affect the characteristics of the resulting particles. The coal fly ash is released by combustion and its composition varies depending on the coal type and the method of collection used such as electrostatic precipitators. Compounds such as PAHs once activated by the organisms have been shown to have mutagenic and carcinogenic activity due to its ability to form adducts with purines. Moreover, metals that commonly are evaporated during the cooling process increase its toxicity. The particles when inhaled can pass from the alveoli into the bloodstream and affect extrapulmonary organs. Several studies have described the inflammatory cascade that triggers exposure to coal and coal fly ash particles; they have a complex composition capable of generating a persistent inflammatory process, resulting in diseases widely described as emphysema, bronchitis, pneumoconiosis, asthma, and cancer. Several human biomonitoring studies have been conducted evaluating the inflammatory process and the release of cytokines, polymorphisms involved in detoxification mechanisms, different biomarkers associated with occupational exposure, DNA damage, and the influence of oxidative stress in disease development. The relationship between chronic exposure to coal and coal ash particles and cancer is still widely debated. This review gave us a broad assessment about the associated mechanisms between cancer and exposure to coal and different findings around the world.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Grethel León-Mejía , Milton Quintana Sosa , Paula Rohr , Katia\nKvitko, João Antonio Pêgas Henriques and Juliana da Silva",authors:[{id:"170192",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Kvitko",slug:"katia-kvitko",fullName:"Katia Kvitko"},{id:"170193",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"juliana-da-silva",fullName:"Juliana Da Silva"},{id:"180743",title:"MSc.",name:"Grethel",middleName:null,surname:"Leon-Mejia",slug:"grethel-leon-mejia",fullName:"Grethel Leon-Mejia"},{id:"180880",title:"Dr.",name:"Milton",middleName:null,surname:"Quintana",slug:"milton-quintana",fullName:"Milton Quintana"},{id:"181198",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Rohr",slug:"paula-rohr",fullName:"Paula Rohr"},{id:"181199",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pegas Henriques",slug:"jose-antonio-pegas-henriques",fullName:"Jose Antonio Pegas Henriques"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50482",title:"Pesticides, Environmental Pollution, and Health",slug:"pesticides-environmental-pollution-and-health",totalDownloads:6903,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:114,abstract:"In recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides. Pesticides have been an essential part of agriculture to protect crops and livestock from pest infestations and yield reduction for many decades. Despite their usefulness, pesticides could pose potential risks to food safety, the environment, and all living things. Concern about the environmental impact of repeated pesticide use has prompted research into the environmental fate of these agents, which can emigrate from treated fields to air, other land, and water bodies. The importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in accordance to a number of studies. In the last five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, with the increasing amounts of their usage, concern about their adverse effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also grown. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effects on health and the environment.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Arzu Özkara, Dilek Akyıl and Muhsin Konuk",authors:[{id:"5974",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhsin",middleName:null,surname:"Konuk",slug:"muhsin-konuk",fullName:"Muhsin Konuk"},{id:"179732",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",middleName:null,surname:"Akyıl",slug:"dilek-akyil",fullName:"Dilek Akyıl"},{id:"179733",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Özkara",slug:"arzu-ozkara",fullName:"Arzu Özkara"}]},{id:"50298",title:"Environmental Factors in Causation of Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"environmental-factors-in-causation-of-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:2355,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Environmental factors play a role in etiopathogenesis of diabetes. Environmental factors include polluted water, soil, unhealthy diet, stress, lack of physical activity, vitamin D deficiency, exposure to enteroviruses, and damage to immune cells.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"P.G. Raman",authors:[{id:"179146",title:"Dr.",name:"Poondy Gopalratnam",middleName:null,surname:"Raman",slug:"poondy-gopalratnam-raman",fullName:"Poondy Gopalratnam Raman"}]},{id:"50234",title:"Environmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Special Focus on Phthalates and Bisphenol A",slug:"environmental-effects-of-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-a-special-focus-on-phthalates-and-bisphenol-",totalDownloads:2827,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Several environmental chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many of them have an impact on reproductive functions and sex hormones because of their estrogenic and/or antiandrogenic properties. Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are two well-known EDCs. They are abundant in the environment. Phthalates are usually classified as antiandrogens, whereas BPA is considered as estrogen-like EDC and xenoestrogen. Other than their endocrine-disrupting effects, these two chemicals are also known to have genotoxic and epigenetic effects. Besides, they are hepatotoxic and have substantial effects on other organs/systems (thyroid, kidney, neuroendocrine system, immune system, etc.). In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the toxic effects of different phthalate esters and BPA by discussing their availability in the environment, mechanism and mode of actions, their biotransformation and reproductive effects, and their effects on other systems (hepatic, renal, etc.). Besides, we discuss epidemiological studies that are conducted to reveal their effects on the reproductive and endocrine systems. This chapter provides the readers a compact piece of knowledge on these abundant substances and helps them to understand the action of these substances at the molecular and cellular levels.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"},{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel"}]},{id:"50193",title:"Risks of Environmental Genotoxicants",slug:"risks-of-environmental-genotoxicants",totalDownloads:1686,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humans have throughout their development been exposed to various environmental genotoxicants through food, air, water, and soil. Environmental exposure to genotoxic compounds may induce damage to human health and thereby increase risks of human cancers and other diseases. Environmental genotoxic chemicals have the ability to induce mutations. Such mutations can give rise to cancer in somatic cells. However, when germ cells are affected, the damage can also have an effect on the next and successive generations. Because of the potential health hazard represented by exposure to genotoxic chemicals, it is important that all chemicals for which there is possible human exposure be screened for genotoxic activity. If genotoxic hazard is detected, then the risks of exposure can be assessed and the use of the chemical controlled and when appropriate eliminated from the market and the environment. In this chapter, a general overview of the genotoxicity and the genotoxicity of some environmental genotoxicants are discussed. This is followed by a description of the genotoxic properties of some environmental genotoxicants such as bisphenols and mycotoxins, which are prominent environmental contaminates, and is believed to be genotoxic agents that contribute to the high incidence of carcinogenicity among populations.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Sabry M. Attia and Gamaleldin I. Harisa",authors:[{id:"178995",title:"Prof.",name:"Sabry",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",slug:"sabry-attia",fullName:"Sabry Attia"},{id:"180300",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamaleldin",middleName:null,surname:"Harisa",slug:"gamaleldin-harisa",fullName:"Gamaleldin Harisa"},{id:"190926",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Abd Allah",middleName:null,surname:"Gamil",slug:"m.-abd-allah-gamil",fullName:"M. Abd Allah Gamil"}]},{id:"50769",title:"Assessment of DNA Damage by Comet Assay in Buccal Epithelial Cells: Problems, Achievement, Perspectives",slug:"assessment-of-dna-damage-by-comet-assay-in-buccal-epithelial-cells-problems-achievement-perspectives",totalDownloads:1905,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"DNA damage risk assessment in comet assay by the use of buccal mucosa cells has great advantages in comparison with other cell type sample due to more safely, easier, cheaper, and non-invasive method for in vivo studies. According to the OECD Guidelines, the in vivo mammalian alkaline comet assay is well-established and validated method for measuring DNA strand breaks in single eukaryotic cells. Considering exposure to xenobiotics and endogenous damage inductors, buccal mucosa cells are the first to be in direct contact after exposure and this makes them an ideal biomatrices in evaluation of the level of individual genotoxicity to several compounds already mentioned. Their clinical diagnostic applicability confers a potential use in patients across time. However, the number of publications referring to the human buccal comet assay is low in the last two decades. This low growing interest may be explained by several factors, including its relative technical problems. Different procedures have been used in collecting and processing the samples. In order to have widespread acceptance and credibility in human population studies, the comet assay in buccal cells requires standardization of the protocol, of parameters analyzed, and a better knowledge of critical features affecting the assay outcomes, including the definition of the values of spontaneous DNA damage. There is a need for further collaborative work as in the HUMN (micronucleus assay on lymphocytes) and HUMNxL (micronucleus assay on buccal cells) collaborative projects. The creation of a network of laboratories will allow more focused validation studies, including the design of a classic, historic, prospective cohort study in order to explore the link between measures of genetic instability in the buccal mucosa and the risk of cancer and other chronic-degenerative diseases. One such network connection will start in 2016 as a COST project under the name “hCOMET—The comet assay as a human biomonitoring tool” launched by Prof. Andrew Collins.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"J. Sánchez-Alarcón, M. Milić, S. Gómez-Arroyo, J. M. R. Montiel-González and R. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - 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A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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