Polyphenols reported in chickpea (
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5890",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nitrogen in Agriculture - Updates",title:"Nitrogen in Agriculture",subtitle:"Updates",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nitrogen is the most yield-restraining nutrient in crop production globally. Efficient nitrogen management is one of the most important factor for improving nitrogen use efficiency, field crops productivity and profitability. Efficient use of nitrogen for crop production is therefore very important for increasing grain yield, maximizing economic return and minimizing nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from the fields and nitrate (NO3) leaching to ground water. Integrated nitrogen management is a good strategy to improve plant growth, increase yield and yield components, grain quality and reduce environmental problems. Integrated nitrogen management (combined use of chemical + organic + bio-fertilizers) in field crop production is more resilient to climate change.",isbn:"978-953-51-3769-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3768-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3990-4",doi:"10.5772/65846",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nitrogen-in-agriculture-updates",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"91f15c6737d0e3dc37b1631f2631f52a",bookSignature:"Amanullah and Shah Fahad",publishedDate:"February 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5890.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21089,numberOfWosCitations:62,numberOfCrossrefCitations:53,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:105,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:220,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 19th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",middleName:null,surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178825/images/system/178825.jfif",biography:"Dr. Amanullah is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Production Sciences,\nUniversity of Agriculture Peshawar, Pakistan. Dr. Amanullah\nobtained a PhD in Agronomy from the University of Agriculture\nPeshawar in 2004 and a post doctorate from Dryland Agriculture Institute, WTAMU, Canyon Texas, USA, in 2010. He has\npublished more than twenty books and more than 200 research\npapers in peer-reviewed journals, including 100 papers in impact factor journals.\nHe has edited three books: Rice–Technology and Production (2017), Nitrogen in\nAgriculture-Updates (2018), and Corn: Production and Human Health in Changing\nClimate (2018). Dr. Amanullah has been awarded three Research Productivity\nAwards by the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology (PCST), Islamabad.\nHe represented Pakistan in the FAO Intergovernmental technical panel on soil of\nthe Global Soil Partnership (2015–2018). Dr. Amanullah also won first prize in the\ninnovative research proposal competition arranged by DICE at the University of\nGujarat in 2013–2014.",institutionString:"University of Agriculture",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194771/images/system/194771.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shah Fahad is an assistant professor in the Department of Agronomy, University of Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agronomy from Huazhong Agriculture University, China, in 2015. After completing his postdoctoral research in Agronomy at Huazhong Agriculture University (2015–2017), he accepted the position of assistant professor at the University of Haripur. He has published more than 290 peer-reviewed papers (impact factor = 910.45) with more than 260 research and 30 review articles on important aspects of climate change, plant physiology and breeding, plant nutrition, plant stress responses, and tolerance mechanisms, and exogenous chemical priming-induced abiotic stress tolerance. He has also contributed fifty book chapters to various volumes published by well-renowned publishing houses. He has also edited fifteen book volumes, including this one. Dr. Fahad received the Young Rice International Scientist award and distinguished scholar award in 2014 and 2015, respectively. He won fifteen projects from international and national donor agencies. Dr. Fahad was named among the top 2 percent of scientists in a global list compiled by Stanford University, California. His areas of interest include climate change, greenhouse emission gasses, abiotic stresses tolerance, roles of phytohormones and their interactions in abiotic stress responses, heavy metals, and regulation of nutrient transport processes.",institutionString:"University of Haripur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Haripur",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"355",title:"Biodiversity",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-biodiversity"}],chapters:[{id:"56252",title:"Inter‐ and Intra‐Annual Variability of Nitrogen Concentrations in the Headwaters of the Mero River",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69996",slug:"inter-and-intra-annual-variability-of-nitrogen-concentrations-in-the-headwaters-of-the-mero-river",totalDownloads:1226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study examines the inter‐ and intra‐annual variability of different forms of N [total nitrogen (TN), nitrate‐nitrogen (N‐NO3) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)] in stream waters of a rural headwater catchment in Galicia (NW Spain) during a 5‐year period, covering 2004–2009 water years (October–September). Daily time series were used to verify the temporal variability and to characterize the nitrogen pollution. The TN concentrations were low, although the values constantly exceeded the critical range (0.5–1.0 mg L−1) over which potential risk of eutrophication of water systems exists. Nitrate was the predominant form of nitrogen in the river throughout the study period, accounting for 82–85% of the TN. Significant differences were found for different forms of N between water years and seasons, indicative of wide inter‐ and intra‐annual variability of nitrogen concentrations, mainly related to rainfall and flow oscillations. The seasonal pattern in the concentrations of TN, N‐NO3 and TKN in stream water was similar to many humid and temperate catchments, with higher concentrations in winter, when variability was also the highest in the period, and lower values in summer.",signatures:"M. Luz Rodríguez‐Blanco, M. Mercedes Taboada‐Castro, Ricardo\nArias and M. Teresa Taboada‐Castro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56252",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56252",authors:[{id:"183458",title:"Dr.",name:"María-Luz",surname:"Rodríguez-Blanco",slug:"maria-luz-rodriguez-blanco",fullName:"María-Luz Rodríguez-Blanco"},{id:"201043",title:"Dr.",name:"M.M.",surname:"Taboada-Castro",slug:"m.m.-taboada-castro",fullName:"M.M. Taboada-Castro"},{id:"201047",title:"Prof.",name:"M.T.",surname:"Taboada-Castro",slug:"m.t.-taboada-castro",fullName:"M.T. Taboada-Castro"}],corrections:null},{id:"58174",title:"Nitrogen Transformations Associated with N2O Emissions in Agricultural Soils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71922",slug:"nitrogen-transformations-associated-with-n2o-emissions-in-agricultural-soils",totalDownloads:1535,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nitrogen (N) is one of the most important plant nutrient, and its availability and transformations are vital for net primary production. Soil N transformations include mineralization, nitrification and denitrification processes. Nitrogen mineralization transforms organic N into inorganic N, providing available N for crops. Both nitrification and denitrification are microbe-driven processes associated with nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. N2O emissions from agricultural soils decrease N fertilization efficiency and potentially induce global warming. The mitigation of soil N2O emissions in agricultural practice is essential for sustainable development of agriculture considering the environmental effect of N2O. Various strategies have been proposed for the mitigation of N2O emissions. Nitrification inhibitors have been demonstrated to be useful in decreasing soil N2O emissions, including the application of nitrification inhibitors, such as dicyandiamide (DCD) and 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP). Recently, biological nitrification inhibitors have also attracted researchers’ attention, which may be more environment-friendly. In addition, biochar commonly used as soil ameliorant to improve soil quality and C sequestration could also mitigate soil N2O emissions. Once all effective strategies would be widely implemented, more environment-friendly agriculture could be expected.",signatures:"Ling Zhang and Xiaojun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58174",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58174",authors:[{id:"219350",title:"Dr.",name:"Ling",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ling-zhang",fullName:"Ling Zhang"},{id:"221753",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojun",surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58762",title:"Controlled-Release Fertilizers as a Means to Reduce Nitrogen Leaching and Runoff in Container-Grown Plant Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73055",slug:"controlled-release-fertilizers-as-a-means-to-reduce-nitrogen-leaching-and-runoff-in-container-grown-",totalDownloads:1862,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Container-grown plants refer to plants produced in confined volume filled with substrates. The substrates endogenously have limited nutrients and low water-holding capacity. Plants grown in the containers must be fertilized and watered frequently varying from daily to weekly. Frequent fertilization and irrigation can result in nutrient leaching and/or runoff. Since nitrogen (N) is a key component of the majority of fertilizers, container plant production has been viewed as a source of N leaching and/or runoff. The leaching and runoff, if in large quantities on a year-round basis, could affect surface and ground water quality. Application of controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) has been reported to have less N leaching than plants fertilized with water-soluble fertilizers (WSFs). However, there are different types of CRFs with different compositions and longevities on the market. Container plants also differ greatly in their growth and development and in N requirement. Thus, production of high-quality container plants with minimum N leaching using CRFs still remains challenging. This article is intended to discuss characteristics of container plant production and N leaching and runoff during production, and to document that CRF application can reduce N leaching and/or runoff. Certain requirements for future development of CRFs are also discussed.",signatures:"Jianjun Chen and Xiangying Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58762",authors:[{id:"213220",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianjun",surname:"Chen",slug:"jianjun-chen",fullName:"Jianjun Chen"},{id:"220819",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiangying",surname:"Wei",slug:"xiangying-wei",fullName:"Xiangying Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"54640",title:"An Overview of the Effects of Heat Treatments on the Quality of Organic Wastes as a Nitrogen Fertilizer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68163",slug:"an-overview-of-the-effects-of-heat-treatments-on-the-quality-of-organic-wastes-as-a-nitrogen-fertili",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sewage sludge is often heat-dried to eliminate water and pathogens. However, heat-drying can also change the form of nitrogen (N). To improve our understanding of this phenomenon, we examined the heat-induced changes in the rate of N mineralization from soils and organic wastes. Published results revealed that the response to the heating temperature differed between soils and organic wastes. As the heating temperature increased to 200°C, the rate of N mineralization increased in soils but decreased in organic wastes. In organic wastes such as sewage sludge, the content of mineralized N tended to decrease sharply when heating temperatures increased to 150–200°C. Furthermore, our results obtained from heat-drying of sewage sludge at 180°C indicated that the rate of carbon (C) mineralization decreased with increasing heating period after the sludge temperature reached 180°C. The C in sewage sludge heated at 180°C for 120 hours after complete drying contained more humin and aromatic C than that in sludge that was heat-dried at 180°C without the additional heating period. These results suggest that the heat-drying treatment can be divided into the drying and denaturing periods and that the temperature of the sludge, not that of the reactor, affects the quality of the end-product.",signatures:"Naoki Moritsuka and Kaori Matsuoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54640",authors:[{id:"179714",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoki",surname:"Moritsuka",slug:"naoki-moritsuka",fullName:"Naoki Moritsuka"},{id:"200861",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaori",surname:"Matsuoka",slug:"kaori-matsuoka",fullName:"Kaori Matsuoka"}],corrections:null},{id:"58024",title:"Nitrogen-Fixation by Endophytic Bacteria in Agricultural Crops: Recent Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71988",slug:"nitrogen-fixation-by-endophytic-bacteria-in-agricultural-crops-recent-advances",totalDownloads:2638,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Endophytic bacteria represents a unique class of bacteria that can colonize interior tissues of plant and provide a range of benefits to the plant similar to those provided by the rhizospheric bacteria. Certain endophytic bacteria can provide nitrogen to the plants through biological nitrogen fixation, which is an important source of nitrogen input in agriculture and represents a promising substitute for chemical fertilizers, and are known as endophytic diazotrophic bacteria. Besides fixing nitrogen, endophytic bacteria can produce plant growth hormones like auxin and gibberellin, help in nutrient uptake, and increase the plant’s tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Various direct and indirect methods have been used to quantify the amount of nitrogen fixed by these bacteria, including the acetylene reduction assay, which is a quick but indirect method, and the 15N isotopic dilution assay, which is a robust and accurate method. Research on endophytic diazotrophic bacteria has come a long way, and in this chapter, we have briefly discussed the mechanisms of biological nitrogen fixation and methods to quantify the fixed nitrogen along with reviewing recent studies focused on evaluating the role of endophytic diazotrophic bacteria in promoting plant growth in both native and nonnative crop hosts.",signatures:"Akshit Puri, Kiran Preet Padda and Chris P. Chanway",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58024",authors:[{id:"170155",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Chanway",slug:"chris-chanway",fullName:"Chris Chanway"},{id:"220162",title:"Mr.",name:"Akshit",surname:"Puri",slug:"akshit-puri",fullName:"Akshit Puri"},{id:"220163",title:"Ms.",name:"Kiran Preet",surname:"Padda",slug:"kiran-preet-padda",fullName:"Kiran Preet Padda"}],corrections:null},{id:"58146",title:"Nitrogen Fixation and Transfer in Agricultural Production Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71766",slug:"nitrogen-fixation-and-transfer-in-agricultural-production-systems",totalDownloads:2358,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is a consensus within the scientific community that nitrogenous fertilizers are almost indispensable in today’s agriculture. However, the geometric increase in nitrogenous fertilizer applications and the associated environmental concerns call for focus on more sustainable alternatives. Biological dinitrogen (N2) fixation (BNF) is one of the most sustainable approaches to meeting crop nitrogen (N) demands. The BNF is, especially, important in low value crops (e.g., forages) and in developing economies. However, just like synthetic N fertilizers, BNF has issues of its own. Among the issues of great importance is the low and highly variable proportion of fixed N2 transferred to non-N2-fixing plants. The proportion of transfer ranges from as low as 0% to as high as 70%, depending on a myriad of factors. Most of the factors (e.g., N fertilizer application, species, and cultivar selection) are management related and can, therefore, be controlled for improved N2 fixation and transfer. In this chapter, we discuss current trends in BNF in selected legume crops, the global economics of BNF, and recent reports on N2 transfer in agricultural production systems. Additionally, factors affecting N2 transfer and management considerations for improving N2 fixation and transfer are discussed.",signatures:"M. Anowarul Islam and Albert Tetteh Adjesiwor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58146",authors:[{id:"220180",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Anowarul",surname:"Islam",slug:"m.-anowarul-islam",fullName:"M. Anowarul Islam"},{id:"220181",title:"Mr.",name:"Albert T.",surname:"Adjesiwor",slug:"albert-t.-adjesiwor",fullName:"Albert T. Adjesiwor"}],corrections:null},{id:"55441",title:"Field Scale Simulation of Nitrogen Dynamics Using LEACHN and OVERSEER® Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69100",slug:"field-scale-simulation-of-nitrogen-dynamics-using-leachn-and-overseer-models",totalDownloads:1171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Computer models have been used extensively to study the dynamics of nitrogen (N) at effluent‐irrigated land treatment systems (LTS). Nitrogen version of leaching estimation and chemistry (LEACHN) model and OVERSEER® are two such models that have the ability to simulate N movement through the soil‐water‐plant system. This chapter covers brief description of two models, that is, LEACHN and OVERSEER® that were used in this study. This is the third phase of previously conducted studies, and the focus of this third phase was (i) to use the LEACHN model (as optimised based on best N transformation rate constants in a previous study) to simulate N dynamics (under different irrigation scenarios, that is, natural rainfall only, rainfall and irrigation with no N, and rainfall with irrigation containing N) for the medium effluent irrigation treatment plot at an existing land disposal site and (ii) to use another model (i.e., OVERSEER®) to simulate N movement at the same land disposal site and compare its prediction with LEACHN model’s predictions (for the low effluent irrigation treatment at the site). This study showed that the LEACHN model has the ability to simulate the fate and transport of N (under different irrigation scenarios) at field scale level. Also, OVERSEER® model could be used to simulate N dynamics at an effluent‐irrigated land disposal site. The amount of N leached as predicted by OVERSEER® was reasonably close to LEACHN model predictions.",signatures:"Babar Mahmood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55441",authors:[{id:"199249",title:"Dr.",name:"Babar",surname:"Mahmood",slug:"babar-mahmood",fullName:"Babar Mahmood"}],corrections:null},{id:"56772",title:"Optimization of Nitrogen in Durum Wheat in the Mediterranean Climate: The Agronomical Aspect and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70195",slug:"optimization-of-nitrogen-in-durum-wheat-in-the-mediterranean-climate-the-agronomical-aspect-and-gree",totalDownloads:1459,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum) is the most cultivated cereal crop in the Mediterranean basin, traditionally grown under rainfed conditions using conventional tillage. Agronomical practices, soil type and climate variables are known to influence crop productivity. Their interaction effect is very complex and the time in which they occur strongly affects yield and quality. The nitrogen supply, in combination with climatic conditions, is the main constraint determining the physiological performance, grain yield and quality response of wheat. In addition, the N formulation, fertilizer management, crop sequence, seasonal trends, and the supply of residual and mineralized N influence the response of wheat to N fertilizer. N fertilizer management must be optimized to prevent N deficiency in the critical crop growth period, to avoid yield and quality losses and also prevent the excessive application of N fertilizer, thus reducing the environmental impact. The split application of N fertilizer is a promising strategy that satisfies plant needs and reduces N losses through improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Such a strategy can result in a remarkable reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the carbon footprint of Italian durum wheat, considering that the highest proportion of the total emissions deriving from N fertilizer production and its application.",signatures:"Luigi Tedone, Salem Alhajj Ali and Giuseppe De Mastro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56772",authors:[{id:"201152",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Tedone",slug:"luigi-tedone",fullName:"Luigi Tedone"},{id:"215074",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"De Mastro",slug:"giuseppe-de-mastro",fullName:"Giuseppe De Mastro"},{id:"215075",title:"Dr.",name:"Salem",surname:"Alhajj Ali",slug:"salem-alhajj-ali",fullName:"Salem Alhajj Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"55471",title:"The Effect of N Fertilization on Wheat under Inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68904",slug:"the-effect-of-n-fertilization-on-wheat-under-inoculation-with-azospirillum-brasilense",totalDownloads:1493,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) process in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) occurs by diazotrophic bacteria, particularly Azospirillum brasilense. However, researches are lacking on BNF efficiency to define how much mineral nitrogen (N) can be applied to achieve more sustainable high yields, and if urea with the urease enzyme inhibitor is less harmful, benefiting BNF in grasses (cereals). Therefore, the objective was to evaluate the effect of N sources (urea and Super N, urea with urease enzyme inhibitor N‐(n‐butyl thiophosphoric triamide) (NBPT) and N rates (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha−1) applied in topdressing associated with inoculation with A. brasilense, regarding the leaf N concentration, leaf chlorophyll index (LCI), accumulation of N in the straw and grains, the nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUE), recovery of the applied nitrogen (RAN), physiological efficiency (FE), agronomic efficiency (AE), and wheat grain yield in the Brazilian Cerrado (tropical savanna) region. The N sources provide similar N accumulations in straw and grains, and wheat grain yield. Inoculation with A. brasilense afforded higher N grain concentration (increase in protein content more sustainably) by applying less N fertilizer in topdressing. Inoculation with A. brasilense increased the AE, RAN, and NUE.",signatures:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Fernando Shintate\nGalindo, Salatiér Buzetti and Eduardo Henrique Marcandalli Boleta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55471",authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",surname:"Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho"},{id:"193950",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernando Shintate",surname:"Galindo",slug:"fernando-shintate-galindo",fullName:"Fernando Shintate Galindo"},{id:"193951",title:"Dr.",name:"Salatiér",surname:"Buzetti",slug:"salatier-buzetti",fullName:"Salatiér Buzetti"},{id:"200309",title:"Mr.",name:"Eduardo Henrique Marcandalli",surname:"Boleta",slug:"eduardo-henrique-marcandalli-boleta",fullName:"Eduardo Henrique Marcandalli Boleta"}],corrections:null},{id:"55392",title:"Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Rice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69052",slug:"nitrogen-use-efficiency-in-rice",totalDownloads:2692,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food security is a major global issue because of the growing population and decreasing land area. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important staple cereal crop in the world. Application of nitrogen (N) fertilizer has improved crop yield in the world during the past five decades but with considerable negative impacts on the environment. New solutions are therefore urgently needed to simultaneously increase yields while maintaining or preferably decreasing applied N to maximize the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops. Plant NUE is inherently complex with each step (including N uptake, translocation, assimilation, and remobilization) governed by multiple interacting genetic and environmental factors. Based on the current knowledge, we propose some possible approaches enhancing NUE, by molecular manipulation selecting candidate genes and agricultural integrated management practices for NUE improvement. Developing an integrated research program combining approaches, mainly based on whole-plant physiology, quantitative genetics, forward and reverse genetics, and agronomy approaches to improve NUE, is a major objective in the future.",signatures:"Shuangjie Huang, Chunfang Zhao, Yali Zhang and Cailin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55392",authors:[{id:"201144",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuangjie",surname:"Huang",slug:"shuangjie-huang",fullName:"Shuangjie Huang"},{id:"201148",title:"Dr.",name:"Cailin",surname:"Wang",slug:"cailin-wang",fullName:"Cailin Wang"},{id:"208512",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"chunfang-zhao",fullName:"Chunfang Zhao"},{id:"208513",title:"Prof.",name:"Yali",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yali-zhang",fullName:"Yali Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54828",title:"Prospects of N Fertilization in Medicinal Plants Cultivation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68165",slug:"prospects-of-n-fertilization-in-medicinal-plants-cultivation",totalDownloads:1537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High global demand for plant-derived medicines is threatening the existence of many wild indigenous plant species. However, the high demand of medicinal plants has also created huge business opportunities in commercial farming of medicinal plants. Large-scale production of secondary metabolites by plants and medicinal materials will be crucial in the medicinal plant industry. As commercial cultivation of medicinal plants gains traction among farmers, N fertilizers will be increasingly used to enhance plant growth and yield. Therefore, the implementation of better nitrogen use efficiency is critically important. Excessive use of N can lead to many problems; it is costly, it can cause environmental pollution and its high levels in plant tissues can be toxic to plants, herbivores and humans. This chapter discusses the potential risks, opportunities and setbacks associated with the use of N in cultivation of medicinal plants.",signatures:"Felix Nchu, Yonela Matanzima and Charles P. Laubscher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54828",authors:[{id:"200292",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Nchu",slug:"felix-nchu",fullName:"Felix Nchu"},{id:"200818",title:"Ms.",name:"Yonela",surname:"Matanzima",slug:"yonela-matanzima",fullName:"Yonela Matanzima"},{id:"200819",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",surname:"Petrus Laubscher",slug:"charles-petrus-laubscher",fullName:"Charles Petrus Laubscher"}],corrections:null},{id:"56359",title:"The Potential of Tree and Shrub Legumes in Agroforestry Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69995",slug:"the-potential-of-tree-and-shrub-legumes-in-agroforestry-systems",totalDownloads:1801,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate variability and changes are utmost important primary drivers of biological processes. They are intimately associated with a wide array of abiotic stresses, highlighting the vulnerability of ecosystems and endangering biodiversity. Nitrogen‐fixing trees and shrubs (NFTSs) constitute a unique group of plants for their wide range of applications at the environmental, social and economic levels. In this chapter, we review and analyse the potential of this group of legumes in agroforestry towards sustainable agriculture in Africa. In the first part, the intertwined pillar of sustainable agriculture is brought forward under the context of growing population and climate changes. The second part addresses general aspects of legumes, including botany and the symbiosis with rhizobia. The third part includes the application of NFTS as N‐fertilizers in agroforestry, highlighting the importance of an accurate choice of the crop(s)/NFTS combination(s) and cropping type (intercropping, multistrata or fallows). The implementation of agroforestry systems with NFTS should be supported by fundamental research strategies such as stable isotopes and systems biology and preceded by experimental assays, in order to identify the factors promoting N‐losses and to design appropriate management strategies that synchronize legume‐N availability with the crop demand.",signatures:"Ana I. Ribeiro‐Barros, Maria J. Silva, Isabel Moura, José C. Ramalho,\nCristina Máguas‐Hanson and Natasha S. Ribeiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56359",authors:[{id:"171036",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana I.",surname:"Ribeiro-Barros",slug:"ana-i.-ribeiro-barros",fullName:"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros"},{id:"173100",title:"Dr.",name:"Natasha Sofia",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"natasha-sofia-ribeiro",fullName:"Natasha Sofia Ribeiro"},{id:"210454",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria J",surname:"Silva",slug:"maria-j-silva",fullName:"Maria J Silva"},{id:"210455",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel R",surname:"Moura",slug:"isabel-r-moura",fullName:"Isabel R Moura"},{id:"210456",title:"Dr.",name:"José C",surname:"Ramalho",slug:"jose-c-ramalho",fullName:"José C Ramalho"},{id:"210457",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Máguas-Hanson",slug:"cristina-maguas-hanson",fullName:"Cristina Máguas-Hanson"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7206",title:"Corn",subtitle:"Production and Human Health in Changing Climate",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0140cb7a425a230a388fcece870e62b2",slug:"corn-production-and-human-health-in-changing-climate",bookSignature:"Amanullah and Shah Fahad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5688",title:"Rice",subtitle:"Technology and Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d595f7b12ce6b947505477073a29b16",slug:"rice-technology-and-production",bookSignature:"Amanullah and Shah Fahad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5688.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8153",title:"Agronomy",subtitle:"Climate Change & Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c01368bbeacbbedeb3681ea0c037dbe",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",bookSignature:"Amanullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8153.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4483",title:"Biodiversity in Ecosystems",subtitle:"Linking Structure and Function",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d488928dfd93614e6a94950be7131fa0",slug:"biodiversity-in-ecosystems-linking-structure-and-function",bookSignature:"Yueh-Hsin Lo, Juan A. 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24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72647",slug:"soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-china",signatures:"Ning Ai, Qingke Zhu, Guangquan Liu and Tianxing Wei",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7643",leadTitle:null,title:"Heavy Metal Ions Removal",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSince the issue related to an overload of heavy metals in the environment is one of the crucial aspects of sustainable development, the aim of this book will be to describe state of the art techniques used for efficient removal of heavy metals from the environment. Special attention will be paid to methods of waters treatment (industrial and natural) and soil remediation to improve its state.
\r\n\tThe description of possible chemical or physical techniques available nowadays will be enriched by biological methods. Methods with a high potential for commercialization are of particular importance, that is why some of the material presented in this book will relate to this aspect.
The efficiencies of heat-engine operation employing various numbers (≥ 2) of heat reservoirs are investigated. In Section 2, we discuss heat-engine operation with the work output of the heat engines sequestered. In Section 3, we discuss heat-engine operation with the work output of the heat engines being totally frictionally dissipated. We consider mainly heat engines whose efficiencies depend on ratios of a higher and lower temperature or on simple functions of such ratios. Examples include heat engines operating not only via the Carnot cycle [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] but also via the Ericsson, Stirling, air-standard Otto, and air-standard Brayton cycles [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], and endoreversible heat engines operating at maximum power output assuming Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [10, 11, 12] (see also Ref. [4], Section 4-9). But we also provide brief comments concerning more general cases. Endoreversible heat-engine operation assumes irreversible heat flows directly proportional to temperature differences but otherwise reversible operation [10, 11, 12]. Although we do not employ them in this chapter, we note that generalizations of the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency, and also various related efficiencies, have also been investigated [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. In particular, we note that alternative results [21] to the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [10, 11, 12] (see also Ref. [4], Section 4-9) have been derived [21]. But for definiteness and for simplicity, in this chapter, we employ the standard Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [10, 11, 12] (see also Ref. [4], Section 4-9) for cyclic heat engines operating at maximum power output.
We show that, if a hot reservoir supplies a heat engine whose waste heat is discharged
We fill in details and correct a few mistakes in an earlier, briefer, consideration of the efficiencies of heat-engine operation employing various numbers (≥ 3) of heat reservoirs [22]. We note that heat-engine operation employing various numbers (≥ 3) of heat reservoirs [22] should not be confused with recycling heat engines’ frictionally dissipated work outputs into the hottest available reservoir [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37], which is a
We consider only cyclic heat engines. Noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines are not limited by the Carnot bound and can in principle operate at unit (100%) efficiency. A simple example is the one-time expansion of a gas pushing a piston. Other examples include rockets: the piston (payload) is launched into space by a one-time power stroke (but typically most of the work output accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload) and firearms: the piston (bullet) is accelerated by a one-time power stroke and then discarded (but some, typically less than with rockets, of the work output accelerates the exhaust gases resulting from combustion of the propellant). Even if the work output of a noncyclic engine could be frictionally dissipated and the resulting heat returned to the system, there would be, at best, restoration of temperature to its initial value but not restoration of the piston to its initial position. Hence the method investigated in this chapter is useless with respect to noncyclic heat engines.
General remarks, especially concerning entropy, are provided in Section 4. Concluding remarks are provided in Section 5.
We designate the temperatures of the heat reservoirs via subscripts, with
Let a heat engine operate between two reservoirs, extracting heat
It rejects waste heat
by employing the reservoir at temperature
By contrast, if the heat engine operates in a single step at efficiency
Anticipating that we will eventually deal with
where
We note that
For more complex efficiencies than those of Eq. (5), for example, those of the Diesel and dual cycles, which are functions of more than two temperatures, and also for some more complex efficiencies that are functions of two temperatures, the equality of Eq. (7) may not always obtain [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. But whether or not the equality of Eq. (7) obtains, the Second Law of Thermodynamics requires that, whichever reservoirs are employed, the efficiency with all work outputs sequestered, whether
Let a heat engine operate between two reservoirs, extracting heat
It rejects waste heat
If both the waste heat
by employing the reservoir at temperature
If
We now maximize
Thus, the optimum value
Note that
This obtains if
It is easily shown that
Thus
Now consider heat-engine operation employing four heat reservoirs, with all work totally frictionally dissipated (except possibly at the last step; thus,
If
We wish to maximize
and
Applying Eqs. (20) and (21), we obtain
and
Applying Eqs. (20)–(23), we obtain
Applying Eqs. (22)–(24), we obtain
Applying Eqs. (19) and (25), we obtain
We now slightly modify Eqs. (14)–(17) to apply for our four-reservoir system. We obtain
This obtains if
It is easily shown that
Thus
Comparing Eqs. (13)–(17) with Eqs. (26)–(30), note the larger values in Eqs. (26), (28), and (30) than in Eqs. (13), (15), and (17), respectively, and the easier fulfillment of the inequality in Eq. (27) than in Eq. (14) (concerning the latter point:
Generalizing Eqs. (20)–(30) for an
where
where
and
Applying Eqs. (33) and (34), and recognizing that Eqs. (33) and (34) obtain for
The first two lines of Eq. (35) obtain for all values of
If, as per Eq. (5),
and
It is easily shown that
Thus
Note that the values in Eqs. (36), (38), and (40) increase monotonically with increasing
By contrast, even granting Carnot efficiency (
Note the
But we note that the temperature of the cosmic background radiation is only
It is important to emphasize that the super-unity cyclic-heat-engine efficiencies
In this Section 4 we do not restrict heat-engine efficiencies to the form given by Equation (5), nor necessarily assume efficiencies of the same form at each step
The extra work that is made available via frictional dissipation into cooler reservoirs is paid for by an extra increase in entropy. Consider the work available via heat-engine operation between reservoir
by employing the reservoir at temperature
by employing the reservoir at temperature
With total frictional dissipation of
But now we let the work output
All told it can do work:
The extra work
is paid for by the extra increase in entropy owing to frictional dissipation into extra heat
into reservoir
[In the last four steps of Eq. (50), we applied Eqs. (42), (45), (48), and (49).] Thus
In no case do we assume an efficiency with all work sequestered, or at any one given step
We note that, while frictional dissipation of work into intermediate reservoirs can yield extra work
We investigated the increased heat-engine efficiencies obtained via operation employing increasing numbers (≥ 3) of heat reservoirs and with work output totally frictionally dissipated into all reservoirs except the first, hottest, one at temperature
We do, however, challenge an
While in this chapter we do not challenge the First or Second Laws of Thermodynamics, we should note that there have been many challenges to the Second Law, especially in recent years [41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. By contrast, the First Law has been questioned only in cosmological contexts [47, 48, 49] and with respect to fleeting violations thereof associated with the energy-time uncertainty principle [50, 51]. But there are contrasting viewpoints [50, 51] concerning the latter issue.
I am very grateful to Dr. Donald H. Kobe, Dr. Paolo Grigolini, Dr. Daniel P. Sheehan, Dr. Bruce N. Miller, and Dr. Marlan O. Scully and for many very helpful and thoughtful insights, as well as for very perceptive and valuable discussions and communications, which greatly helped my understanding of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Also, I am indebted to them, as well as to Dr. Bright Lowry, Dr. John Banewicz, Dr. Bruno J. Zwolinski, Dr. Roland E. Allen, Dr. Abraham Clearfield, Dr. Russell Larsen, Dr. James H. Cooke, Dr. Wolfgang Rindler, Dr. Richard McFee, Dr. Nolan Massey, and Dr. Stan Czamanski for lectures, discussions, and/or communications from which I learned very much concerning thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. I thank Dr. Stan Czamanski and Dr. S. Mort Zimmerman for the very interesting general scientific discussions over many years. I also thank Dan Zimmerman, Dr. Kurt W. Hess, and Robert H. Shelton for the very interesting general scientific discussions at times. Additionally, I thank Robert H. Shelton for very helpful advice concerning diction.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Eating habits are an important factor in the structure, formation, function, and modulation of the gut microbiota, which plays a crucial role in health; environmental factors, antibiotics, and lifestyle also contribute to the dysbiosis of the gut microbiota responsible for gastrointestinal diseases, like colon cancer. Several studies have shown that the gut has a greater impact than food processing and nutrient absorption. Gut health is a function of the gut barrier and gut microbiota essential elements for better health [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Plants contribute diverse bioactive compounds to the diet [7, 8], including phenolic compounds. Legumes are part of the basic foods with great nutritional relevance due to their content of diverse phenolic compounds that promote health [5, 9]. These compounds are distributed in the whole seed and are mainly responsible for the seed coat color that depends on the composition and concentration [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The potential health benefits of phenolic compounds in the diet depend on their absorption and metabolism, which in turn are determined by their structure, including their conjugation with other phenols, degree of glycosylation/acylation, molecular size, and solubility [9, 15, 16, 17]. During seed processing, phenolic compounds can undergo various changes, altering their antioxidant activity [18, 19].
However, the presence of phenolic compounds and their mechanisms of action in preventing colon cancer or inflammation are probably mediated by the functional composition of the gut microbiota [20, 21, 22]. Epidemiological studies have confirmed that regular consumption of legumes has been associated with lower risk due to immunomodulatory effects and prevention of chronic and metabolic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and obesity, in addition to improving gut health [11, 16, 20, 23, 24].
During the absorption of phenolic compounds, like hydroxycinnamic acids (p-coumaric, caffeic, and ferulic) in free and conjugated forms, they are metabolized by the gut microbiota (e.g., genera
Chickpea, pea, and bean seeds are among the most widely consumed food legumes worldwide. The genus
Phenolic compounds constitute an important group of secondary plant metabolites and influence the diversity and quantity of gut microbial species, allotting prebiotic effects to phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids involved in modulating the taxonomic composition of the gut microbiota, increasing the relative abundance of beneficial species, and inhibiting the proliferation of bacterial species associated with negative implications [7, 24].
Legumes are an excellent source of phytochemicals, including phenolic acids, flavonols, flavones, flavanols, flavanones, isoflavones, anthocyanins, tannins, and other phenolics [14, 16, 28, 29]. The structure of polyphenols and their composition and interaction in a food matrix are important determinants of their bioavailability and bioactivity [12, 15, 30]. Figure 1 shows the structures of phenolic compounds present in chickpea, pea, and bean. Differences in the phenolic profile of various legumes influence the specific health benefits. The presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids in legumes such as chickpea, pea, and beans have been reported in different units of concentration and are presented in Table 1.
Main phenolic compounds in legumes [
Compound | Concentration (DW) | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Chickpea | Pea | Bean | ||
10.5b/0.08–1.63c | 588.94a | 0.30-16.30b | [20, 31, 32, 33, 34] | |
Protocatechuic acid | 358.9b/0.51c | 426.15a/0.89-2.25d | 0.42-37.36b/170-177c | [20, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37] |
Syringic acid | 222.1b/0.63–1.95c | nd | 10.60-11.40c | [20, 31, 34, 38] |
Vanillic acid | 80.8b/0.34c | 536.67a | 618.44b | [20, 31, 33, 36, 39] |
Gallic acid | 40.2b/4.66c | 218.45a/9.08-29.95d | 0.15–21.30c | [20, 31, 33, 34, 35, 40] |
Ellagic acid | 0.43c | 433.87a/899.19c | 4.3-18.08b | [20, 33, 41, 42, 43] |
Caffeic acid | 0.11c | 146.11a/0.20–0.92d | 3.08-11.70b | [20, 33, 35, 36, 42] |
Chlorogenic acid | nd | 742.28a/0.57–1.27d | 3.03-33.38b/6.63-46.1c | [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44] |
0.11c | 462.93a/7.78c/9.0-16.2d | 0.40-1.90b/0.74c | [20, 33, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46] | |
Ferulic acid | 0.90b/0.22c | 788.29a/1.38-3.44d | 0.91-11.00b | [20, 31, 33, 35, 36, 44, 46] |
Sinapic acid | 7.81b/0.12d | nd | 2.9-86.27b | [20, 31, 32, 39, 46] |
Quercetin | nd | 56.90c/0.12-1.51d | 0.8-30.88b/0.30-1.31c | [33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 44, 46] |
Quercetrin | nd | 256.26c | 1.07c | [33, 40] |
Myricetin | nd | nd | 1.99–5.98b | [43, 44, 46] |
Kaempferol | 0.09b | 19.79c | 2.51b/0.13c | [33, 40, 44, 46, 47] |
Rutin | 0.101c | 83.01c/0.26-1.31d | 0.20-119.70c | [33, 34, 35, 37, 40] |
Naringenin | nd | 24.59c | nd | [33] |
Naringin | nd | 201.41c | 2.35c | [33, 40] |
Hesperidin | nd | 605.94c | 8.10c | [33, 40] |
Hespirtin | nd | 158.29c | 0.56c | [33, 40] |
Catechin | nd | 93-2303d | 10.05-78.34b | [32, 39, 43, 44, 45] |
Epicatechin | nd | 1.03–13.02d | 10.90-34.48b | [35, 42, 43] |
Luteolin | 1.56b | 3.24-8.57d | 2.41c | [31, 35, 40] |
Apigenin | nd | 14.31c | nd | [33] |
Genistein | 0.06e | nd | 3.64-4.74c | [37, 48] |
Daidzein | 0.12e | nd | nd | [48] |
Formononetin | 0.02b/0.10e | nd | 35.94-163.34b | [43, 47, 48] |
Biochanin A | 0.78b | nd | nd | [47] |
Biochanin glucoside | 0.08e | nd | nd | [48] |
Biochanin A derivative | 3.31–5.25b | nd | nd | [47] |
Polyphenols reported in chickpea (
ppm.
μg/g.
mg/100 g.
mg/kg.
mg/g.
DW: Dry weight, nd: not detected.
Phenolic compounds are present in soluble and insoluble forms. Therefore, it is very important to optimize the polyphenols extraction process [9, 10]. Most of the phenolic compounds associated with whole seed are in insoluble bound forms, mainly phenolic acids, linked covalently to cell wall structural components like cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin [14, 20, 30, 45].
Chickpea contains several phenolic compounds, including lignans (secoisolariciresinol, pinoresinol, and lariciresinol), isoflavones, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins [20, 49]. Besides, it has significant amounts of flavonoids, especially isoflavones, the main ones being biochanin A and formononetin, to a lesser extent genistein and daidzein [5, 9, 12, 47].
The main compounds in peas are glycosylated flavonols, condensed tannins, as well as hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids, such as quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, apigenin, flavan-3-ols, apigenin-7-glucoside, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, flavonols, flavones, and stilbenes; the main compounds identified in the whole seed are hesperidin and catechin [26, 47]. In beans, phenolic acids and flavonoids represent 50% of the total content of phenolic compounds like vanillic, ferulic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, sinapic acids; quercetin, myricetin, and catechin are the major phenolic acids contained in bean seeds and determine the seed color [10, 14, 28].
The phenolic composition of legumes has been particularly interesting for metabolic health because of their protection against oxidative damage [45]. Phenolic compounds constitute an important group of secondary plant metabolites, important for health by preventing multiple degenerative conditions in the body [16]. These compounds are biologically active and have been associated with antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, antihypertensive, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticholesterolemic, cardioprotective, immunostimulant, and anti-angiogenic properties [11, 14, 16, 20, 21, 29, 35, 41, 49, 50].
Processing of legumes may result in an increase or decrease in the content of phenolic compounds. During processing, phenolic compounds may undergo various changes, altering the antioxidant activity of the products. Changes in phenolic content depend on the species, variety, and processing conditions [12, 18, 22]. Processes such as soaking, cooking, extrusion, germination, fermentation, and roasting improve the release of bound phenolic compounds, which influences the sensory properties of the seeds [51, 52, 53, 54].
During processing, a reduction in the content of condensed tannins has been reported. In legumes, soaking has been found to decrease tannic acid content by approximately 20%, and germination reduces tannin content by 50%. The decrease of phenolic compounds during soaking and cooking may be due to several factors during the heat treatment, such as 1) polyphenol-protein interactions that decrease the extraction capacity, 2) the formation of tannin complexes with other water-soluble components, and 3) the lixiviation and thermal degradation of phenolic compounds [12, 14, 30]. However, unlike traditional processing or pressure cooking, the extrusion process is carried out in the absence of effluents, so the impact on phenolic content is less [52, 55, 56]. Arribas et al. [55] observed that extrusion does not affect the phenolic groups to the same extent; they reported that the anthocyanin content in extruded pea decreased from 4 to 50% as opposed to the flavonol content, which increased approximately three times.
On the other hand, the germination process increases bioactive compounds, like phenolic compounds, improving the seeds functionality. The increase is attributed to biosynthesis through the Shikimate pathway and the release of phenolic compounds. During germination, enzymatic reactions are activated, such as the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia lyase, which promote the phenolic compounds’ biosynthesis. The endogenous esterases action allows the liberation of hydroxycinnamic acids linked to arabinoxylans and lignin in the cell wall [20, 57, 58]. Nevertheless, changes in isoflavones during this process may be related to genetic regulation. They may be induced by the metabolic pathways of naringenin chalcone and isoliquiritigenin, the precursors of isoflavonoids, present in legumes. Therefore, germination is an efficient alternative to increase antioxidant activity and has been used in legumes such as chickpeas, peas, and beans [9, 12, 48, 50]. Domínguez-Arispuro et al. [20] observed that the germination process in chickpeas induced an increase of 97 and 111% of the total phenolic and flavonoid content, respectively, as compared to the raw seed. Moreover, formononetin and biochanin contents of 0.10 and 0.18 mg/g, respectively, have been reported in raw chickpea; during a 10-day germination process, they increased to 1.42 and 2.10 mg/g respectively [48].
The fermentation process has been reported to cause an increase in free radical scavenging capacity. Changes in phenolic composition are associated with sensory, nutritional, and biochemical properties and depend on fermentation conditions such as optimal time and temperature to avoid a further reduction, mainly in tannin content [53, 59, 60]. Bulbula & Urga [53] reported the effect of different traditional processing methods on tannins in chickpea, noting that during boiling, toasting, and fermentation at 0 h, there are no differences from raw seed beans. However, during fermentation for 24, 48, 72 h and chickpea germination, tannin content decreased by 3.1, 14.4, 18.5, and 43.4%, respectively. The reduction of tannins during germination is generally attributed to enzymatic hydrolysis by polyphenolase.
The gut microbiota plays an important role in food digestion, immunity, and other metabolic functions; its composition is influenced by endogenous and environmental factors such as age, diet, lifestyle, antibiotic intake, and xenobiotics. Optimal gut health depends on the microbial community structure, a balanced composition of gut microbiota, an epithelial barrier, and an intact host mucosa; therefore, a disorder of these components can lead to the development of intestinal diseases such as obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, and colon cancer [1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 21, 22, 24, 49, 61].
Legumes are composed of bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds, capable of modifying the physiological basal function within the intestinal microenvironment affecting the microbiota and epithelial barrier, improving metabolic and gastrointestinal health, enhancing resistance to colonization by pathogens, and exerting an impact on the gut microbiota. These actions lead to decrease the severity of diseases associated with the intestine due to their chemopreventive effects. However, not all polyphenols support gastrointestinal integrity equally, and their benefits depend on chemical structure and phenolic concentration [12, 21, 31, 49, 62]. Isoflavones, such as biochanin A, have been reported to improve gut health by exerting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects [12, 20, 21]. On the other hand, the effect of formononetin in an acute colitis model in mice induced by dextran sulfate sodium has been evaluated, observing an attenuation of colitis. This effect may be due to the inhibition of the NLRP3 immamasome pathway by the action of formononetin [9].
Bian et al. [2] suggest that kaempferol has a protective effect on the secretion of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and the barrier dysfunction of the Caco-2 monolayer in the lipopolysaccharide-induced epithelial-endothelial co-culture model. This effect is due to the inhibition of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, which allows the reduction of inflammatory bowel disease. Also, caffeic acid reduces the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-𝛼), and IFN𝛾, and colonic infiltration of CD3+ T cells, CD177+ neutrophils, and F4/80+ macrophages by inhibiting the activation of the NF-𝜅B signaling pathway [63]. Naringin is a flavonoid that has a beneficial effect on intestinal disorders. Liu et al. [64] showed that naringin (50 μM) protects the integrity of rat intestinal microvascular endothelial cell monolayer barriers against TNF-
Recent animal studies have shown that chickpeas consumption improves gut health by inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells, attenuating inflammation, modulating the composition and activity of the microbiome, promoting epithelial barrier integrity, mucus production, and antimicrobial defenses [49, 65]. In addition, the quantitative structure–activity relationship on the cytotoxic effect of phenolic compounds have been studied. The
The potential prebiotic effect of anthocyanins on gut microbiota and obesity. SCFA: Short-chain fatty acids; FIAF: Fasting-induced adipose factor; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; ZO-1: Zonula occludens-1; IR: Insulin resistance. Anthocyanins and metabolites formed in the intestine change the composition of the gut microbiota. This is associated with restored tight-junction protein (ZO-1 and occludin) distribution, and localization. Hence, the gut permeability is decreased, and plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels (metabolic endotoxemia) are lowered, improving low-grade inflammation and obesity-related comorbidities. Anthocyanins decrease transcription factor NF-kB activity in the cell nucleus by decreasing gene expression of inflammatory cytokines, exerting their anti-inflammatory action. Anthocyanins have the ability to promote the growth of
Bioaccessibility is defined from a nutritional point of view as the fraction of compounds liberated from the food matrix within the human gastrointestinal tract and available for intestinal absorption. The gastrointestinal tract is prone to oxidative stress due to its function as a primary digestive system and exposure to various stimuli [15, 29, 67]. The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of several phenolic compounds have been studied, noting that the aglycones in isoflavones are more bioavailable than their conjugated counterparts [9]. The absorption and bioavailability of phenolic compounds are commonly affected by low solubility, low permeability, and low stability in the gastrointestinal tract [29]. Some researchers have suggested that 5–20% of the total polyphenol content in legumes can be absorbed. The preventive action provided by these compounds depends on bioaccessibility. However, in the case of chronic diseases, such as stomach and colorectal cancer, they do not depend on the polyphenols bioaccessibility; still, gut microbiota can increase the bioavailability of the phenolic content of foods and quadruple their antioxidant activity [9, 12, 15, 29, 67].
During oral digestion, the food matrix is broken down, allowing phenolic compounds and other nutrients to be released into the environment due to enzymatic hydrolysis by salivary α-amylase. However, the decrease in polyphenols such as condensed tannins during mastication is due to the interaction with salivary proteins resulting in insoluble aggregates [50]. Luzardo-Ocampo et al. [68] indicated that the antioxidant activity of bean methanolic extracts during
Polyphenols are very poorly absorbed after ingestion and remain in the gastrointestinal tract, where they influence digestive enzymes activity, inhibiting crucial enzymes involved in the digestion of starch (α-amylase), lipids (pancreatic lipase), and protein digestibility (pepsin and trypsin). Digestibility is influenced by the polyphenol’s interaction with food and endogenous proteins, like digestive enzymes, salivary proteins, gastric and intestinal mucosa, and other endogenous proteins on the luminal side of the intestinal tract [16, 69, 70]. Studies with
Polyphenols are not completely absorbed in the small intestine (5–10%). More than 90% enter the large intestine and are fermented by the human colon microbiota interacting with microorganisms (10–14 bacterial cells) and enzymes (α-L-rhamnosidase and β-D-glucosidase). Fermentation facilitates the liberation and absorption of insoluble bound phenolics involved in colorectal cancer prevention. The degradation of phenolic acids by enteric bacterial or chemical conversions may produce other metabolites, including protocatechuic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, phloroglucinol aldehyde, phloroglucinol acid, and gallic acid [3, 9, 15, 20, 21, 24, 30, 63, 69].
Phenolic compounds are catabolized by the gut microbiota, originate common phenolic (e.g., daidzein to equol, flavan-3-ols to valerolactones, and ellagitannins to urolithins) intermediates as in phenylpropionic, phenylacetic, and benzoic acids with different degrees of hydroxylation [17]. The flavonoids present in bound form (glycosides) and in free form (aglycones) are changed during digestion; a low fraction of these glycosides can be enzymatically hydrolyzed to aglycones in the small intestine, causing these aglycones to be more hydrophobic compared to the original glycosides. Aglycones are absorbed by epithelial cells through passive diffusion and then transported to the liver, where they will be metabolized. However, flavonoid glycosides are hardly absorbed in the small intestine due to their hydrophilic nature and reach the large intestine intact, where they will be metabolized by the gut microbiota [24].
During intestinal digestion, polyphenols such as anthocyanins, phenolic acids, catechin, quercetin, resveratrol, and rutin are unstable in the alkaline environment intestinal fluid (pH 6.8–8.0) due to their degradation [29]. The main phenolic acids absorbed in the small intestine are gallic, caffeic, and ferulic acids [63, 68]. Luzardo-Ocampo et al. [68] observed that phenolic acids in beans, like ferulic, chlorogenic, and vanillin, do not change their content during their passage through the small intestine, for 60–120 min, indicating their resistance to the intestinal enzymes and allowing them to arrive at the large intestine for fermentation. Milán-Noris et al. [12] observed that chickpea cooking increased intestinal absorption of the existent isoflavones. On the other hand, Cárdenas-Castro et al. [54] evaluated the bioaccessibility and
The interaction between the gut microbiota and the diet components is fundamental to the promotion of gut health. Lignans, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds present in legumes participate in the modulation of the host’s mucosal barrier integrity, attenuate the inflammatory process associated with colitis, and improve epithelial barrier integrity, aside from modulating fecal and cecal microbiota composition and providing beneficial effects against metabolic diseases like obesity. The interaction of gut microbiota and phenolic compounds, mainly anthocyanins, can implicate hydrolysis, demethylation, reduction, decarboxylation, dehydroxylation, or isomerization of compounds into simpler components to modulate absorption [15, 21, 49, 69]. Chlorogenic acid is poorly absorbed in the small intestine, but it has been shown that the bioavailability of this compound depends on the metabolism of the gut microflora. However, when this compound is metabolized in the colon, it modulates the colonic microbiota inducing a significant increase in the growth of
The inclusion of legumes such as chickpeas, peas and beans in the diet has increased consumer health benefits due to their content of bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds and other nutrients. During digestion, these compounds are not completely absorbed in the intestinal tract and are metabolized in the colon, increasing their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. These compounds have been shown to participate in the modulation of the gut microbiota, the epithelial barrier and resistance to pathogen colonization, improving gut health by inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells through their chemopreventive effects. The impact of phenolic compounds on the gut microbiota suggests that the incorporation of legumes into the diet and the design of novel functional foods may improve human health by preventing the development of metabolic and gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, diabetes, colitis, and colorectal cancer. However, further research should be conducted to understand the impact of phenolic compounds during digestion and gut microbiota modulation.
The authors are grateful to the
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\\n\\nOAI-PMH
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"67289",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86474",title:"The Pivotal Role of Macrophages in Metabolic Distress",slug:"the-pivotal-role-of-macrophages-in-metabolic-distress",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Obesity is a prevalent condition with several associated co-morbidities including the development of metabolic diseases. In obesity there is immune cell infiltration into the white adipose tissue and this is associated with the generation of inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). A large majority of the infiltrating leukocytes in obese adipose tissue are pro-inflammatory macrophages, which upon activation induce a switch in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation, as is utilised by macrophages in lean adipose tissue, towards aerobic glycolysis. The signalling pathways evoked in the recruited macrophages induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in signalling pathways which directly interfere with insulin signalling and thus induce a state of IR. As macrophages appear to play such a pivotal role in the generation of IR and are the largest leukocyte population in the adipose tissue, they provide a promising therapeutic target. Indeed, there are several strategies currently being studied to induce a ‘switch’ in macrophages associated with obese adipose tissue, towards the phenotype of those associated with lean adipose tissue, with arguably the most promising being those strategies designed to target the metabolic pathways within the macrophages. This chapter will discuss the polarisation and activation of macrophages within lean and obese adipose tissue and how these cells can be targeted therapeutically.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Joseph Roberts, Padraic G. Fallon and Emily Hams",authors:null},{id:"64543",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81995",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"68678",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88754",title:"Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Leprosy",slug:"macrophages-in-the-pathogenesis-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. The disease may present different clinical forms depending on the immunological status of the host. M. leprae may infect macrophages and Schwann cells, and recent studies have demonstrated that macrophages are fundamental cells for determining the outcome of the disease. Skin lesions from patients with the paucibacillary form of the disease present a predominance of macrophages with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (M1), whereas skin lesions of multibacillary patients present a predominance of anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2). More recently, it was shown that autophagy is responsible for the control of bacillary load in paucibacillary macrophages and that the blockade of autophagy is involved in the onset of acute inflammatory reactional episodes in multibacillary cells. So, strategies that aim to induce autophagy in infected macrophages are promising not only to improve the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) but also to avoid the occurrence of reactional episodes that are responsible for the disabilities observed in leprosy patients.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Rhana Berto da Silva Prata, Mayara Garcia de Mattos Barbosa, Bruno Jorge de Andrade Silva, Jéssica Araujo da Paixão de Oliveira, Tamiris Lameira Bittencourt and Roberta Olmo Pinheiro",authors:null},{id:"67817",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86433",title:"Wnt Signaling Regulates Macrophage Mediated Immune Response to Pathogens",slug:"wnt-signaling-regulates-macrophage-mediated-immune-response-to-pathogens",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infection with pathogenic microbes is a global threat. Macrophages play a fundamental role in promoting host resistance to deadly infections from pathogenic microbes by virtue of a well-orchestrated immune defense system. Phagocytosis and obliteration of invading pathogens by macrophages are an innate immune function that not only sustains immune homeostasis but also bolsters adaptive immune response through antigen processing and presentation. Wnt signaling, where Wnt, a secreted glycoprotein which interacts with Frizzled and ROR cell surface receptors to initiate cellular interactions, could be vital for the immune response executed and propagated by macrophages in both innate and adaptive immune responses. The goal of this chapter is to describe how Wnt signaling influences phagocytosis, autophagy, and transcriptional activation to enable the macrophage to exercise its immune response program to resist infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Suborno Jati and Malini Sen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68185",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"68585",title:"Macrophage Polarization Is Decisive for Chronic Bacterial Infection-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"macrophage-polarization-is-decisive-for-chronic-bacterial-infection-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophages are the special cells of the immune system and play both immunological and physiological role. One of the peculiar characteristics of macrophages is that they are double-edged and highly plastic component of immune system. Due to this characteristic, they are responsible for both progressions as well control of a variety of inflammatory, infectious and metabolic diseases and cancer. These are found in the body in three major phenotypes, which are known as M0 (also known as naïve); M1 (classically activated macrophages); and/or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) at normal physiological conditions. We have been exploring macrophages in context of bacterial infection and previously demonstrated that M2 polarization of M1 effector alveolar macrophages during chronic/persistent Chlamydia pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori pathogens are decisive for the infection induced cancer development in host. Since chronic infection with these pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we feel that disruption of macrophage plasticity plays crucial role in the host for the development of cancer. On the basis of this, we propose that in such pathological conditions, management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Mishi Wasson, Sonia Kapoor, Manoj Garg, Sandhya Singh and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:null},{id:"64543",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"63248",title:"Neutrophil Activation by Antibody Receptors",slug:"neutrophil-activation-by-antibody-receptors",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in blood, are relevant cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody molecules are crucial activators of neutrophils. IgGs identify many types of pathogens via their two Fab portions and are in turn detected through their Fc portion by specific Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on the membrane of neutrophils. Thus, antibodies bring the specificity of the adaptive immune response to the potent antimicrobial and inflammatory functions of neutrophils. Two types of FcγRs with several polymorphic variants exist on the human neutrophil. These receptors are considered to be redundant in inducing cell responses. Yet, new evidence presented in recent years on how the particular IgG subclass and the glycosylation pattern of the antibody modulate the IgG–FcγR interaction has suggested that a particular effector function may in fact be activated in response to a specific type of FcγR. In this chapter, we describe the main types of FcγRs on neutrophils and our current view on how particular FcγRs activate various signaling pathways to promote unique effector cell functions, including phagocytosis, activation of integrins, nuclear factor activation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Eileen Uribe-Querol",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"},{id:"198687",title:"Dr.",name:"Eileen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe-Querol",slug:"eileen-uribe-querol",fullName:"Eileen Uribe-Querol"}]},{id:"67326",title:"Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Chinese Medicine Intervention: Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"polarization-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-by-chinese-medicine-intervention-mechanisms-and-applica",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophage polarization is a spectrum of phenotypes and generally can be classified into two states: (1) classically activated or M1 macrophages, which can be driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in association with Th1 cytokines and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and, IL-12, and (2) alternatively activated M2 macrophages, which can be promoted by Th2 mediators IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. Current studies have found that the phenotypic switch between M1 and M2 macrophages governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. The imbalance of M1/M2 polarization is closely involved in various pathological processes and is becoming a potential target for therapeutic strategies. Traditional Chinese medicine is an integrated healthcare system composed of many practices and is characterized by multi-target, multi-level, and coordinated intervention effects. Chinese medicines nowadays are applied to regulate phenotype polarization of macrophages to improve the microenvironment, thus ameliorating or even eliminating the symptoms. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of macrophage polarization, their roles in health and disease, and the intervention with Chinese medicines to modulate the polarization of macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) for therapeutic purpose.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Yuanjun Lu, Hor Yue Tan, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"904",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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