Composition of petroleum.
\r\n\tRadiation monitoring deals with the sampling and measurement of different products found in different radiation pathways from the environment ending with consumption in humans. Gamma-spectroscopy is the main tool for measurement of these radiations.
\r\n\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to investigate the radionuclide concentrations in the most consumable food products, air, water and soil. Particularly, it is essential to investigate the radiations level in the surroundings of a nuclear facility.
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In this sense, PH is extremely a mixture of chemicals. They are called hydrocarbons in light of the fact that practically every one of them is made totally from hydrogen and carbon. Crude oils can move in the measure of each compound they contain the oil based products that are delivered utilizing crude oils. PHs are clear or light-hued fluids that vanish effectively and others are thick, dull fluids, or semi-solids that do not dissipate. Huge numbers of these items have trademark gasoline, kerosene, or oily scents. Since present day society utilizes such a significant number of oil-based items such as, gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, mineral oil, and asphalt, pollution of nature by them is conceivably across the board. Pollution brought about by petroleum-based goods will contain an assortment of these hydrocarbons [1, 2].
Petroleum hydrocarbons spills are among the most broad and naturally harming contamination that are potentially dangerous to human and ecosystem health. Chronic exposure results from constant presentation to little proportions of oil over broad stretches of time [3, 4] and typically occurs in closeness to trademark spills, yet anthropogenic sources are also typical point sources, such as spilling pipelines, age discharges, or overflow from land-based sources can result in a solid inclination of high to low oil focus. Non-point sources, for example, atmospheric fallout and earthly spillover, additionally result in chronic exposure, yet may not contain an unmistakable inclination of focus. Hydrocarbons, as saturates, olefins, and aromatics, make up 97% of most petroleum [3]. Of these compounds, aromatics are among the most stable and may persist in the environment for long periods of time. Ceaseless exposures can result in subcellular impacts including altered metabolism, cell structure and function, or enhancement of chromosome mutation; this cascade of biological consequences associated with chronic pollution from frequent smaller spills are frequently viewed as a bigger risk than that related with acute exposure from tanker mishaps. Oil contamination in the ocean, regardless of whether from anthropogenic or common sources, endless or intense, is a noteworthy natural concern [2]. This chapter outlines the outdoor, occupational, and natural sources of PH exposure and considers the evidence relating to harmfully effect in living things.
Petroleum (crude oil) principally consist of carbon (83–87%) and hydrogen (12–14%) having complex hydrocarbon blend like paraffins, naphthenes, fragrant hydrocarbons, vaporous hydrocarbons (from CH4 to C4H10). Other than these, crude oil likewise contains little measure of non-hydrocarbons (sulfur mixes, nitrogen mixes, and oxygen mixes) and minerals, heavier crudes contain higher sulfur [3]. Contingent upon power of hydrocarbons, petroleum is delegated paraffin base, middle of the road base or naphthenic base (Table 1). The unfavorable impacts of petroleum contamination on such necessary part of oceanic biological systems might be of extraordinary noteworthiness. Since the lethality of oil to biota is brought about by unsaturated hydrocarbons, naphthenic acids and another compound containing fragrant gatherings and nitrogen, the genuine harmful impacts portion is firmly identified with the measure of broke down non-unstable material [5]. The crude oil spills influence human well-being through their exposure to the intrinsic risky synthetics, for example, paraphenols and unpredictable benzene. The anticipated courses of introduction to synthetic compounds from the oil spill are inward breath, dermal contact, sustenance and water ingestion, and contact with the shoreline sand. This chronic exposure leads to affects physiological function such as hematologic, hepatic, respiratory, renal, and neurological functions.
Hydrocarbons | |||
---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen family | Distinguishing characteristics | Major hydrocarbons | Explanations |
Paraffins (Alkanes) | Straight carbon chain | Methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane | General formula CnH2n+2, boiling point increases as the number of carbon atom increases. With number of carbon 25–40, paraffin becomes waxy |
Isoparaffins (Iso alkanes) | Branched carbon chain | Isobutane, isopentane, neopentane, isooctane | The number of possible isomers increases in geometric progression as the number of carbon atoms increases |
Olefins (Alkenes) | One pair of carbon atoms | Ethylene, propylene | General formula CnH2n. Olefins are not present in crude oil, but are formed during process. Undesirable in the finished product because of their high reactivity. Low molecular weight olefins have good antiknock properties |
Naphthenes | 5 or 6 carbon atoms in ring | Cyclopentane, methyl cyclopentane, dimethyl cyclopentane, cyclohexane, 1,2 dimethyl cyclohexane | General formula CnH2n+2-2RN. RN is number of naphthenic ring The average crude oil contains about 50% by weight naphthenes. Naphthenes are modestly good components of gasoline |
Aromatics | 6 carbon atom in ring with three a round linkage | Benzene, toluene, xylene, ethyl benzene, cumene, naphthaline | Aromatics are not desirable in kerosene and lubricating oil. Benzene is carcinogenic and hence undesirable part of gasoline |
Composition of petroleum.
Oil energizes and oils are capricious mixes of hydrocarbons that move, among the fuel types, yet moreover inside each fuel type dependent upon maker, geographic zone, and customary use. The manifestations of these things are included a hardly any hundred hydrocarbon blends. Of these blends, toxicological information is available on only a not a lot of. This makes choosing the prosperity danger exposed by oil hydrocarbons troublesome.
Customarily, petroleum fuel or oil defiled destinations have been portrayed by two measures: explicit marker mixes called the synthetic compounds of concern (COCs) and by the aggregate of all the petroleum hydrocarbons called absolute petroleum hydrocarbons. The Petroleum Hydrocarbons Criteria Work Group (PHCWG) and the conditions of Washington and Massachusetts have created approaches that empower the improvement of human well-being hazard-based conclusion levels for PH. IDEM essentially concurs with these methodologies and has created comparable techniques. The PH conclusion levels depend on the non-malignancy end purposes of exposure. IDEM addresses the cancer-causing exposure by investigating certain cancer-causing COCs (benzene and certain cancer-causing polycyclic sweet-smelling hydrocarbons, cPAHs). Also, IDEM still requires source zone estimation of certain non-cancer-causing COCs (n-hexane, naphthalene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, in addition to non-cancer-causing polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for waste oil). This new methodology separates the piece of explicit petroleum items into substance gatherings called portions, in view of carbon chain length and comparable physical/compound properties. Since the arrangement of each division is variable, and toxicological data is not accessible for each compound in each portion, the physical/concoction and toxicological properties of at least one surrogate mixes are chosen to represent each fraction [6].
Despite the fact that social and financial improvement generally relies upon petroleum hydrocarbon as it is an overwhelming wellspring of vitality, it has caused an enormous zone of defilement and significant unfriendly impacts. The defilement of petroleum hydrocarbon scatters from soil, water to human well-being. Petroleum hydrocarbon tainting of soil is a far reaching worldwide natural concern. Oil and fuel spills in soil are among the most broad and ecologically harming contamination issues as it is a threatening to human well-being and biological systems, particularly in cold area. Biochemical and physicochemical properties of soil is disintegrated by refinery items and it likewise restricts the development and improvement of plants. Water and oxygen shortfalls, just as to deficiency of accessible types of nitrogen and phosphorus, are the fundamental changes of soil properties because of tainting with petroleum-inferred substances [7]. Petroleum hydrocarbon sullied soil causing natural contamination of underground water which confines its use and causes financial misfortune, ecological issues, and diminishes the rural efficiency of the soil. Microorganisms, plants, creatures, and people are confronting helpless circumstance on account of the lethality of petroleum hydrocarbons. Soil compounds are one of the essential biotic segments which are in charge of soil biochemical responses. Petroleum hydrocarbon has unfriendly impacts of on soil enzymes activities (Table 2
Product | Residential soils | Industrial soils | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Direct contact (mg/kg) | Migration to ground water (mg/kg) | Direct contact (mg/kg) | Migration to ground water (mg/kg) | |
Gasoline range organics | 3100 | 120 | 4300 | 1500 |
Diesel range organics | 3100 | 230 | 5800 | 2300 |
High end hydrocarbon oils | 3100 | 230 | 5800 | 2300 |
PH closure levels.
For more information, see the December 7, 2009, House Enrolled Act 1162 Interim Implementation Document at http://www.in.gov/idem/4202.htm.
Oil spills influence plants by making conditions which make fundamental supplements like nitrogen and oxygen required for the plant development inaccessible to them [8]. Crude oil sullying at various dimensions caused critical decrease in the development of the plant utilizing plant tallness, crisp weight and leaf territory and the impact is relative to the dimensions of pollution [9]. Crude oil contamination has likewise unfriendly consequences for soil fruitfulness and plant generation. It could decrease or stop plant development prompting demise because of shaping a physical obstruction and covering the roots [10]. Table 3 indicates antagonistic impacts of crude oil sullied soil in various plant species [7].
Toxic effects | Plant species |
---|---|
Root development is reduced | Red beans ( |
A significant reduction in heights of seedlings, leaf length, and number of leaves | Soybean ( |
Significant reductions in plant height, leaf area and stem diameter was observed | Maize ( |
Hindered germination, reduced heights, and girths were observed | |
The plant growth was reduced significantly in low levels | Horsetail tree ( |
Crude oil pollution has an adverse effect on growth, yield, and leaf chlorophyll content | Air Potato ( |
Reduction in the length of the radicle for the four crop plants |
PH toxicity in plants.
Petroleum hydrocarbon discharged in to the ocean, regularly amid transportation, prompting the contamination of a few destinations, and can in the long run achieve the coasts. Oil spills extending from low level releases to calamitous mishaps undermined beach front conditions; expansive spills generally are trailed by tidy up endeavors, yet total regulation is uncommon [7]. As dissolvability of petroleum hydrocarbon in water is commonly low, certain divisions of it drift in water and structure slim surface movies, which will encourage agglomeration of particles and regular natural issue, and effect on oxygen exchange. Other heavier portions will gather with the residue at the base of the water, which may influence base sustaining fish and living beings [7].
Animals are exposed to petroleum in many ways directly or indirectly. Some byproducts are formed during petroleum refining and processing which are used for the manufacturing of other products that are highly toxic. Constantly, these toxic compounds are inadvertently released into the environment and if this effect is connected to the effect of accidental crude oil spills worldwide, then these combined sources of unrestricted hydrocarbons constitute the major cause of environmental pollution. Despite the large number of hydrocarbons found in petroleum products, only a relatively small number of the compounds are well characterized for toxicity. Petroleum hydrocarbon molecules which have a wide distribution of molecular weights and boiling points cause diverse levels of toxicity to the environment
PH effect on humans.
All together for oil metabolites have a direct organic impact on earthbound vertebrates, they should enter the individual, normally by means of ingestion, inward breath, or retention [11]. For most life forms, the essential course of PAH exposure in oil-influenced living spaces is through the ingestion of tainted soils, residue, and diet things. Thusly, species that feed vigorously on sediment-related invertebrates will generally be at more serious danger of PAH exposure in respect to higher order consumers [12]. Be that as it may, PAHs only occasionally display sustenance web bioaccumulation and biomagnification; in this way, their potential for exchange up the natural pecking order is constrained. This is essentially connected with the expanded limit of vertebrates, including winged animals and warm-blooded creatures, to utilize and thusly dispense with PAH deposits.
PAHs can be perceived not long after presentation over a wide extent of vertebrate living creatures and tissues. For instance, field considers have recognized PAHs in the blood of feathered creatures and in turtle eggs and lab work has distinguished PAHs in snake skins [13]. Following their take-up, PAHs are processed by hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) oxygenase or blended capacity oxygenase proteins. Digestion can likewise happen in vivo. Because of this biotransformation, direct estimation of oil portions, for instance, hard and fast PAH in tissues isn’t commonly a definite impression of exposure. Or maybe, the different isoforms of CYP (e.g., CYP1A) or CYP-related chemicals (e.g., ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase [EROD]) that are upregulated within the sight of PAH are frequently utilized as roundabout biomarkers of crude oil or PAH exposure. For instance, hostage rodents presented to crude oil demonstrated a portion subordinate increment in a few hepatic CYP-connected chemicals. Field investigations of ocean ducks conceivably exposed to crude oil from the Exxon Valdez spill showed raised dimensions of these biomarkers in oiled regions even decades later (Figure 2) [14].
Oil exposure in the environment. (a) Ear-tagged marsh rice rat, (b) tortoise, (c) seaside sparrow, (d) human, (e) oiled marsh (photographs: Philip C Stouffer). Adapted from [
Albeit molecular biomarkers, for example, CYP1A can be demonstrative of relative PAH exposure, only they may not suggest hurt or natural centrality. Unfriendly well-being impacts related with PAH exposure frequently result from the development of PAH metabolites, which have been exhibited to be genotoxic. In particular, these metabolites can tie to and harm DNA, framing DNA adducts (i.e., the official of DNA to a synthetic contaminant). For instance, hostage rodents presented to normally defiled soils with a wide scope of PAHs were found to have a subset of these PAHs in the liver and huge upregulation of EROD, and acceptance of DNA adducts came about. On the off chance that the DNA adduct is not fixed, generally typical cells can malfunction, prompting mutations and cancer. Other perceived lethal impacts of PAH on vertebrates incorporate conceptive brokenness, immunosuppression, and edema. Be that as it may, a large portion of what is thought about PAH digestion originates from hostage ponders, in which dosing may not reflect characteristic dimensions. There are moderately few field investigations of harmfulness that connect physiological results with vertebrate exposure to PAHs. This is especially valid for earthbound species and the vast majority of this work has been led on feathered creatures. For example, an investigation of yellow-legged gulls (
Synthetic concoctions and dispersants in crude oil can cause a wide scope of well-being impacts in individuals and natural life, contingent upon the dimension of presentation and helplessness. The Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are known parts of petroleum and petroleum-determined items. The PAHs are vital ecological toxins due to their cancer-causing nature. This mixes are routinely decided in modern waste water, drinking water, and groundwater. Guidelines on these lethal synthetic concoctions are as of now essentially in North America and Europe. The PAHs to a class of mixes with a high dangerous potential and thusly have a place with the gathering need contaminations. This dangerous synthetic substances can harm any organ system in the human body like the sensory system, respiratory system, circulatory system, immune system, regenerative system, tactile system, endocrine system, liver, kidney, and so on and subsequently can cause a wide scope of ailments and disarranges (Figure 3) [17, 18].
Ways petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs) from oil enter aquatic animals.
Long-term exposure to low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons may impair behaviour and memory. This claim has led to an appraisal of the effect of these products on the nervous system.
A single exposure to a moderately high concentration of virtually any hydrocarbon solvent vapour will cause a general depression of CNS which, at high doses, will lead to unconsciousness. This property has been recognised for many years and some hydrocarbons (e.g. ethane) have been used as anaesthetics. Controlled short-term exposure of healthy subjects (up to 1-2 weeks), by repeated inhalation, to xylene, toluene, white spirit and jet fuel has shown that at levels of exposure above 250, 150, 300 and 200 ppm respectively an impairment of concentration, and of coordination occurs. These effects are readily and completely reversible on cessation of exposure [19].
PH to delivering CNS melancholy n-hexane and methyl n-butyl ketone cause harm to the fringe nerves, especially of the feet and hands and this outcomes in unsettling influences of sensation and muscle shortcoming. In the event that the harm is serious, loss of motion may result; this loss of motion is infrequently lasting yet recuperation is moderate. Nerve harm of this sort has been found to happen in laborers with a background marked by genuinely overwhelming and delayed presentation to the dissolvable vapor and fluid. A common precedent is that of the shoemakers who worked for extended periods in restricted spaces and utilized a paste broke up in n-hexane. This kind of nerve harm has been appeared because of the arrangement of hexane 2,s-dione from the digestion of n-hexane and methyl n-butyl ketone and does not have all the earmarks of being brought about by different hydrocarbons or ketones; there is, in any case, proof that substances with structures identified with hexane or methyl n-butyl ketone can potentiate the nerve harm brought about by these two hydrocarbons [20].
Over the most recent 10 years or something like that, various distributions have showed up, especially from Scandinavia which recommend that laborers utilized in occupations including presentation to natural solvents endure a disintegration in their enthusiastic parity, memory, knowledge, and forces of focus. They likewise portray a higher than normal occurrence of cerebral pains, wooziness, and other abstract grievances. Those examined were mainly painters and lacquerers. The condition has been given different names such as, painters’ disorder, natural solvents illness, psycho-natural disorder, ceaseless Danish disorder, and incessant natural dissolvable inebriation. Specific examinations have given no proof of nerve or cerebrum harm in laborers influenced by this disorder. A basic assessment of these productions uncovered that the solvents primarily included are toluene, white soul, and fly fuel; xylene and styrene do not seem to have been involved. Toluene and white soul are imperative parts of numerous paints; what is more toluene is utilized widely as a deluding and cleaning specialist [21].
Examination utilizing a battery of mental tests in specialists who had been uncovered for quite a while to toluene vapor at air dimensions of around 100 mg L−1 neglected to build up any distinctions from controls. At high focuses, for example, it may happen in paste sniffing, toluene has been accounted to harm the cerebellum (a piece of the mind that controls balance). No investigations are, at present, accessible on the impacts of long haul introduction to white spirits, however two such examinations are accessible on stream fuel. Mental and mental tests uncovered no significant distinction between gatherings of laborers who had been presented to fly fuel for quite a long while and a coordinated control aggregate that had not been uncovered. Since painters and lacquerers are presented to an assortment of solvents, it is difficult to determine which of the solvents (or of the numerous blends accessible) is embroiled in the painters’ syndrome.
All the more significantly, regardless of whether or to what degree introduction to solvents adds to the reason for this ailment is dubious. In most of the papers explored, lack of consideration has been given to the likelihood that different components could prompt the advancement of the discoveries in those uncovered. The most imperative of these variables are liquor addiction, utilization of psychoactive medications, introduction to lead or mercury, and propelling age. Lead and mercury are particularly relevant in this respect since they have, until recently, been important components of many paints; hence most of the painters who had been in this occupation for ten or more years must have had substantial exposure to these chemicals [22].
Most of lung cancer patients examined had non-small cell lung cancer. A few investigations showed that a blend of volatile organic compounds (VOC) (benzene, xylene, toluene, and styrene), distinguished by GC-MS, could separate lung cancer patients from controls. By and large, the quantity of VOCs per demonstrate went from 7 to 33, with an affectability of 50–100% and a particularity of 80–100%. These examinations, together with studies exploring single VOCs, uncovered that the discriminative VOCs were prevalently alkanes (e.g., pentane, butane, and propane), alkane derivatives (e.g., propanol and various aldehydes), and benzene derivatives (e.g., ethyl-, propylbenzene). Albeit most VOCs levels were raised, certain dimensions (e.g., isoprene) were diminished in patients compared with controls. The indicative capability of VOCs profiles in lung cancer was additionally shown by gatherings the utilized eNose and other refined strategies. Additionally, breath profiles were diverse in patients with divergent histology (adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma). Moreover, Peng et al. have shown unmistakable VOCs profiles in patients with lung, colon, bosom, and prostate cancer. The vital discoveries of VOC marks of various cancer types should be affirmed in more extensive clinical examinations. Multiple studies investigated the potential of VOCs to discriminate between lung cancer and other pulmonary diseases [23]. No single compounds (such as ethane), but a combination of multiple VOCs were able to distinguish lung cancer patients from patients with non-cancer pulmonary diseases (such as COPD, pleurisy, and idiopathic fibrosis) with a reasonable accuracy. Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is an uncommon tumor for the most part brought about by asbestos presentation. VOCs profiles had the capacity to analyze MPM in a group of subjects with long haul proficient asbestos presentation. In addition, Altomare et al. refined cyclohexane as conceivable marker of MPM [24].
Kanoh et al. exhibited that breathed out ethane was raised in patients with an interstitial lung malady (including sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis) compared with controls, with largest amounts in those with a functioning and dynamic infection. A small VOC, 2-pentylfuran, was ordinarily present in the breath of patients with a ceaseless pneumonic illness (including asthma and CF) with
Diesel fumes particulates (DEPs) have additionally been accounted to cause the disturbance of male conceptive capacity. Earlier examinations have demonstrated that DEP exposure aggravated spermatogenesis, bringing about decrease of every day sperm creation and motility, expanded morphological sperm variations from the norm, and ultrastructural changes in Leydig cells in mice. In male rodents, the guideline of testicular capacity was adjusted bringing about height of serum testosterone and decrease of luteinizing hormone (LH) and sperm generation after DEP exposure. Scarcely, any epidemiological investigations have detailed regenerative harmfulness of xylene. In China, an examination was led on specialists who were presented to blended natural solvents in the petroleum business. The aftereffect of this examination demonstrated that such a blend of natural solvents caused an expansion in the commonness of oligomenorrhea. There is another report on ladies uncovered solvents containing natural aliphatic and fragrant hydrocarbons. What’s more, exposure to these solvents caused antagonistic result on regenerative hormones like decrease of pregnanediol 3-glucuronide (pd3G) in corpus luteum stage, pre-ovulatory luteinizing hormone (LH), and estrone 3-glucuronide, and higher follicle stage pd3G. In addition, the commitment of xylene in the rate of such impact was more than 50%. Concerning barrenness, there are a few reports of abatement spermatozoa reasonability, and decline motility alongside lower acrosin activity discharge from spermatozoa which help in infiltration of the zona pellucida, diminished γ-glutamyl transferase activity, lactate dehydrogenase C4 (LDH-C4), and hoist the fructose level because of xylene exposure. One investigation showed that 4-nitrophenol (PNP) had estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities in vivo, prompting sterility. The amassing of PNP in air, water, and soil might be one factor in expanding frequency of sterility in people and creatures, yet epidemiologic examinations are pending [27].
Different examinations have discovered an expanded sharpness of kidney tubules, declined creatinine in the pee and hematuria because of xylene exposure. Kidney impacts because of xylene were relied upon focus and portion which led to conglomeration of m-xylene in the fats of kidney in the fringe. Other enzymatic exercises and expanded relative load of the kidney were additionally distinguished in rodents with various centralization of xylene. Histopathological assessment uncovered insignificant ceaseless renal ailment. However, pee result was common, the essential unfavorable impacts identified was ascending in an adjustment in hyaline bead in male rodents and harm of kidney in the female rodents led to cell toxicity [28, 29].
To begin with, oil spill mishaps could influence marine meteorological condition through scattering, disintegration, emulsification, and vanishing of the crude oil. When oil is spilled into the ocean, it could spread over the outside of the seawater. Some exploration revealed that a huge amount of spilled oil can frame 5 × 106 m2 of smooth on the outside of the ocean water. The smooth could hinder the O2/CO2 trade straightforwardly and lead to an oxygen consumption and pH change in the ocean water. In this manner, a few reports demonstrated that marine desertification was brought about by oil spill mishaps. Moreover, oil spill mishaps seriously affect the marine/earthbound biological communities and human well-being. For instance, oil smooth structures an anaerobic condition in the ocean water and prompts the demise of widely varied vegetation. Oil spills can cause hypothermia of marine fowls and well evolved creatures by decreasing/decimating the protecting capacity of the plumage of feathered creatures and the hide of vertebrates. In the short-term, the poisonous establishes in petroleum could toxic substance or slaughter winged animals, well evolved creatures, angles and other marine living beings and harm the delicate submerged biological systems which lead to a horrible impact on the worldwide natural way of life, and in the long run mischief human well-being by harming inner organs, for example, kidneys, lungs, and liver. In addition, oil spill mishaps could influence marine plants and farming creation by blocking light and vaporous trade. It is evaluated that half of the all-out seaside wetland misfortune was brought about by oil spill mishaps. Finally, the oil contamination in marine condition can cause noteworthy financial misfortunes in the travel industry and marine asset businesses, for example, beach front salt industry, marine aquaculture, and fishery industry [30].
Oil spill mishaps could influence marine meteorological condition by means of scattering, disintegration, emulsification, and vanishing of the unrefined petroleum. When oil is spilled into the ocean, it could spread over the outside of the seawater. Some examination revealed that a huge amount of spilled oil can frame 59 × 106 m2 of smooth on the surface of the ocean water [31, 32]. The smooth could obstruct the O2/CO2 trade straightforwardly and lead to an oxygen exhaustion and pH change in the ocean water. Furthermore, smooth could likewise impact water vanishing and precipitation in marine condition. Accordingly, a few reports showed that marine desertification was brought about by oil spill mishaps. Examines have exhibited expanded mortality of fish because of oil spills. Fish eggs and larvae are regularly powerless against poisonous oil mixes because of their little size, ineffectively created films and detoxification frameworks just as their situation in the water segment [33, 34, 35]. A research investigations have demonstrated that oil or oil mixes (for the most part polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) at low fixations can execute or cause sub-deadly harm to angle eggs and larvae. Sub-deadly impacts incorporate, for example, morphological disfigurements, decreased sustaining, and development rates, and are probably going to build helplessness to predators and starvation. The few existing in situ investigations of fish mortality at spill locales demonstrate sub-deadly impacts or raised mortality of eggs and larvae [35].
Marine warm-blooded creatures having an all-around created pelage would be relied upon to have oil stick promptly to them. This is upheld by research center examinations including ringed seals [36], ocean otters [37], and polar bears [38]. Extra proof incorporates the finding, in zones of spilled oil, of oil-fouled creatures, for example, harp seals (
Exploratory introduction ponders in ringed seals and polar bears recognized that these species in any event had an incredible ability to discharge hydrocarbons collected from its exposure. The flood of ringed seals in an oil smooth brought about a take-up of hydrocarbons into tissues as examined beforehand, and likewise abnormal states in bile and pee. Renal and biliary discharge instruments gave off an impression of being successful to clear blood and most tissues of the gathered buildups by 7 days. Further, incredibly high buildup levels were found in pee following ingestion of a (14)C-naphthalene named oil [41]. A functioning digestion of the oil hydrocarbons, in any event of the aromatic parts, is demonstrated by the way that practically the majority of the (14)C-naphthalene movement was available as polar water-dissolvable buildups in both plasma and pee. Freedom of retained oil in polar bears appeared to happen by method for pee and bile [41]. Renal release officially huge in perspective on the high fixations and delayed nearness of oil hydrocarbons in pee, was presumably thought little of since the example readiness technique separated just dissolvable extractable hydrocarbons which were estimated by fluorometry, like the ringed seal oil inundation ponder. This strategy could not represent increasingly polar processed hydrocarbons. Albeit one may theorize that the biochemical instrument for hydrocarbon digestion in marine warm-blooded animals is like that of earthly vertebrates and depends on a blended capacity oxygenase framework, few subtleties of such a framework exist. Engelhardt [41] demonstrated that the chemical aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase, one of the blended capacity oxygenases, exists in both liver and kidney tissues of ringed seals. Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase was observed to be inducible by in vivo exposure to unrefined petroleum, especially in kidney tissue where the movement of the compound multiplied.
Petroleum hydrocarbons may be high-profile events that can result in environmental impacts and affect the lives of living organisms. It is understandable that interest will be expressed by both individuals and organizations in knowing what damage was done and how long it will take to recover. However, while government agencies may have environmental quality monitoring programs in place for routine assessment, these will not be designed for large-scale pollution incidents. Government agencies that create guidelines for PH substances incorporate the EPA, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Proposals give profitable rules to ensure general well-being, however cannot be authorized by law. Government associations that create proposals for PH substances incorporate the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Guidelines and proposals can be communicated in not-to-surpass levels in air, water, soil, or nourishment that are generally found on levels that influence creatures. At that point, they are acclimated to help ensure individuals. Now and then, these not-to-surpass levels contrast among government associations in view of various introduction times, the utilization of various creature contemplates, or different variables. Despite the fact that there are no bureaucratic guidelines or rules for PH by and large, the administration has created guidelines and rules for a portion of the PH parts and mixes. These are intended to shield people in general from the conceivable hurtful well-being impacts of these PH.
In natural sciences, the standardization of operation procedures, aiming at methodologies and the reliability as well as the validity of resulting data, is most important.
Thinking of test settings in sensory science, especially to control and monitor panelist and panel performance during the panel work in defined test settings is necessary. In the context of sensory evaluation of olive oil specifically, several official requirements do exist—on the one hand the EEC regulation 2568/91 [1], as amended, as well as several underlying documents and guidelines from the International Olive Council (IOC) [2, 3, 4] and moreover the general EN ISO/IEC 17025 regulations for any kind of testing laboratories [5].
Data quality must be the overriding objective in natural sciences and therefore is indispensable. Assuring a high data quality during data collection and assessment requires a clear focus on “data reliability” (high precision → same/similar results) and “data validity” (high accuracy → correct results). Well known is that one can gain high precision in measuring something, but at the same time can miss the target—meaning that results are precise, but not correct. So, overall high data quality can only be achieved, if data are on the one hand precise (reliable) and at the same time as well accurate (valid).
Reliability: consistency and precision of measurement (in sensory analysis—repeatability of results—over time, of single panelists, of whole panels, indifferent test locations, …)
Validity: accuracy and trueness of measurement (in sensory analysis—homogeneity of results—between panels, in different test locations, …)
Factors that might have a negative impact on data quality in sensory science are manifold. They can be related to the execution of the general procedure (test methodology), to the handling of test samples (blinding, distribution, temperature), to training and monitoring aspects of panelists and panels, to statistical analysis and data management as well as to the test infrastructure.
All above-named regulations and guidelines have in common to standardize and control procedures and finally to minimize “noise” in resulting data. This is helpful and valuable, but nevertheless, not all possible and focused so-called “influencing factors” cause a similar or even a relevant impact on data quality—some of them, presupposing a specific framework of instructions and settings, even have none.
The study at hand focuses on the aspect of different test locations for objective sensory analysis and their possible impact on the quality of resulting data.
Normally tests in sensory analysis take place as central location tests (CLT) in standardized testing rooms, such as sensory laboratories. Most of the regulations and guidelines propose these “
But how about panelists in so-called “external panels,” who must travel to be able to participate in regular on-site and synchronic trainings and test situations? Such dates can be organized and scheduled only medium or long-term presupposed. Rather flexible and spontaneous testing under such conditions is almost not possible. This consideration shows us—independently from pandemic situations—the need for additional appropriate test settings, that on the one hand can secure high standards of data quality/validity in sensory analysis and are on the other hand flexible as well as time and cost-efficient. Doing sensory trainings and tests with panelists “remote” (off-site), meaning that panelists work at home respectively at defined and standardized “home-testing-stations,” cause less costs for traveling (time per panelist, transportation). Data can be collected and exchanged online (web-based) either synchronously or asynchronously and as well panel meetings can take place remotely. Moreover, the latest data even show a better availability of panelists, due to less necessary time effort for traveling and thereby as well a higher motivation for contribution in panel work, compared to more elaborate (
The aim of the study at hand is to prove the overall performance of participating sensory panels and the quality of the collected data. The focus lies on the evaluation of the suitability of “
The study at hand compares results from two sensory olive oil panels, namely the German Olive Oil Panel/DOP and the Swiss Olive Oil Panel/SOP.
Both panels are objective expert panels whose members have many years of experience in the sensory evaluation of olive oil. Specific infrastructure makes it possible to either carry out sensory tests synchronously and “
The SOP consists overall of 38 panelists and was founded in 2002. Since 2006 the SOP is accredited in accordance with EN ISO/IEC 17025 [5] and has been recognized by the International Olive Council (IOC) between 2009 and 2021. In the study at hand, the same nine panelists contributed “
The DOP consists overall of 25 panelists and was founded in 1999. Since 2012 the DOP is accredited in accordance with EN ISO/IEC 17025 [5] and has been recognized by the International Olive Council (IOC) between 2012 and 2021. In the study at hand, the same 11 panelists contributed “
There are at least two options to conduct sensory tests—on the one hand “
The sensory laboratory of SOP is located on the ZHAW campus in Wädenswil. It consists of 12 separate test booths. Each booth is equipped with a computer (incl. data acquisition software FIZZ by Biosystemes) and a heating device by Ettore Pasquali (mod. 145). Each heating device is recorded in a device list of the QMS and is checked regularly. Detailed information concerning the procedure of testing in the sensory laboratory (and concerning additional equipment, such as test glasses, spittoons, and palate-cleansing agents) is described in the QMS (internal document: Standard Operation Procedure: LMT-SEN-A5-302_translated EN → Sensory Evaluation at ZHAW (Sensory Laboratory)).
The sensory laboratory of DOP is in Nuremberg, Maxfeldstrasse 50. It consists of 12 separate mobile test booths. Each booth is equipped with a computer (incl. data acquisition software SENSORY by IMEDIA) and a heating device by Ettore Pasquali (mod. 145). Each heating device is recorded in a device list of the QMS and is checked regularly. Detailed information can be found in the QMS (internal document: Standard Operation Procedure SOP 07-02-02).
On the “Pro” side (Table 1) there is of course a high level of standardization. Samples are prepared in an absolute neutral way by the panel leader (or a technician), the testing takes place synchronously (at the same time) and electronic equipment is used for data collection and analysis.
Pros | Cons |
---|---|
ISO 17025 accreditation leads to a high level of standardization (controlled test situation, panelist/panel performance, etc.) | Synchronous testing causes low flexibility in terms of timing/scheduling tests → all testers have to be available at the same time |
Sample preparation (pouring 15 ml) in coded glasses is done by the panel leader | Necessity for testers to get on-site requires traveling-time and is rather time-consuming for them |
Synchronous testing (8–12 panelists) | Other potential influencing factors (malfunction interruption, noise, etc.) … |
Use of electronic equipment to collect, compile and analyze data |
Pros/cons of a test situation in a sensory laboratory.
On the “Contra” side (Table 1) we see low flexibility in terms of scheduling tests, especially because panelists must be available at the same time. If panelists are not collaborators and work on-site, they must travel. This is time- (and cost-) consuming. Moreover, even in a sensory lab, there is potential for additional interruptions (noise, malfunction, or else) with negative effects.
Within the SOP, each panelist has set up a personal testing station in a room in his or her home. Each testing station is equipped with a heating device (Rosenstein & Söhne), a thermometer (Testo Mini penetration thermometer), and blue glasses including cover glasses. Each heating device and the thermometer is recorded in a device list of the QMS and is checked regularly. Detailed information concerning the procedure of testing in a home testing station is described in the QMS (internal document: Standard Operation Procedure: LMT-SEN-A5-303_translated EN → Sensory Evaluation at Home Testing Stations).
Within the DOP each panelist has set up a personal testing station in a room in his or her home, which meets the test conditions of the IOC in terms of light, temperature, noise, and odors (COI/T.20/DOC. No 6/Rev. 1). The mobile booth is made up of folding elements in such a way that the panelist is isolated from negative ambient conditions. Each test station is equipped with a heating device (Ettore Pasquali, mod. 145), a thermometer (Testo Mini penetration thermometer), and blue glasses, including a cover glass. Each heating device and the thermometer is recorded in a device list of the QMS and is checked regularly. Detailed information can be found in the QMS (internal document: Standard Operation Procedure SOP 07-02-02).
On the “Pro” side (Table 2) there is—like for a lab situation—as well a high level of standardization because as well home testing stations provide ISO accreditation. Asynchronous testing increases flexibility for scheduling tests, meaning that testers do not have to be available at the same time, only in a defined period. Less traveling time and costs are positive and of course—like in the lab situation—as well at home testing stations, electronic equipment for data collection and analysis is used.
Pros | Cons |
---|---|
ISO 17025 accreditation leads to a high level of standardization → controlled test situation, panelist/panel performance, etc. | Sample dispatch is needed → 30 ml (per olive oil) in dark glass bottles and use of styroporous boxes which secure sample temperature |
Asynchronous testing enables high flexibility in terms of timing/scheduling tests → testers do not have to be available at the same, they have to respect deadlines, but otherwise can plan rather independently | Sample preparation (pouring 15 ml) in coded glass is done by each panelist → half of the whole 30 ml quantum |
Asynchronous testing (8–12 panelists) → no relevance because of training status | |
Less requirement of traveling-time because of remote testing (at home) | Other potential influencing factors (malfunction interruption, noise, etc.) … |
Use of electronic equipment to collect, compile and analyze data |
Pros/cons of a test situation at a home testing station.
On the “Contra” side (Table 2), we see that a sample dispatch is needed, which must be well organized regarding packaging and preparation of samples. For temperature protection during transport, Styrofoam boxes are used, and the oil is coded and bottled to dark 30 ml bottles. Sample preparation, directly before testing, is done by the panelist. He or she must pour out exactly half of the bottle (15 from 30 ml). Asynchronous testing is of course different compared to asynchronous lab testing situation, but since panelists are well trained on using the methodology and it is always (as well in the lab) a single panelist evaluation before compiling data, this does not lead to any problems. Finally, and again like in the lab situation, there is of course potential for additional interruptions (noise, malfunction, or else).
The applied sensory methodology is based on the official panel test according to the regulation EEC regulation 2568/91 [1] and related IOC documents.
To be able to record high data quality in the context of sensory evaluation of olive oil, the reliability and validity of raw data must be ensured. Therefore, a study concept, based on the recommendations of the IOC (COI/T.28/Doc. No.1/Rev. 5 2019), was considered. Among other criteria, analyzing the panelist and panel performance, the concept focuses especially on the aspect of the test situation (sensory laboratory versus home testing stations) (Table 3).
Validation criteria.
Both participating panels did evaluate the same selection of 10 olive oils (same lot number) “
No. | Sample code* | Product information |
---|---|---|
P1 | 104 | 100% Italian olive oil; different varieties, extra virgin |
P2 | 507 | European Blend; different varieties, extra virgin |
P3 | 620 | 100% Italian olive oil, 100% Nocellara, extra virgin |
P4 | 733 | 100% Italian olive oil; different varieties, extra virgin |
P5 | 249 | 100% French olive oil; different varieties, extra virgin |
P6 | 362 | Olive Oil from IOC Org 2—2020, extra virgin |
P7 | 878 | Olive Oil from IOC Org 1—2020, defective |
P8 | 168 | Olive Oil from IOC Org 1—2020, extra virgin |
P9 | 055 | Olive Oil from IOC Org 2—2020, defective |
P10 | 652 | Olive Oil from IOC Org 2—2020, defective |
Test samples.
For each test situation, individual three-digit codes were used to avoid influencing the testers.
Both participating panels did evaluate the test samples in the same period, but independently. The evaluation criteria on the used profile sheets from both panels (electronically/paper) were identical, corresponding with the EEC regulation 2568/91 [1].
To collect data in the sensory laboratory of ZHAW, panelists from SOP are provided with PC’s in the test booth, equipped with the sensory software “Fizz” (Biosystemes Fizz for Windows 2.46 A), which allows direct electronic recording of individual panelist data on an electronic profile sheet.
For the collection of data at home testing stations, panelists from SOP use a profile sheet (paper) and transfer individual panelist data, online via the internet, to the panel leader, using the software “LimeSurvey.”
To collect data in the sensory laboratory situation, panelists from DOP are provided with PC’s in the test booth, equipped with the software “SENSORY” (IMEDIA), which allows direct electronic recording of individual panelist data on an electronic profile sheet.
For the collection of data at home testing stations, panelists from DOP use a profile sheet (paper) and transfer individual panelist data, online via the internet, to the panel leader, using the software “SENSORY” (IMEDIA).
All results of the different tasting sessions with all panelists and all panels were combined to a common data set, using the software program “Excel” (Microsoft Office Excel 365). The following data evaluation was done with help of the Add-in Software “XLStat” (version 2020).
In the study at hand altogether 10 olive oils (seven of them extra virgin and three defective ones) were independently tested by the Swiss Olive Oil Panel/SOP (nine panelists) and the German Olive Oil Panel/DOP (11 panelists) in different test situations—namely in sensory laboratories (
Agreement between test situation (
Agreement (homogeneity) between panels (SOP versus DOP)
Individual performance of both panels (SOP, DOP)
All data/panel results were valid according to IOC specifications (e.g., Cvr < 20%).
First, and for both panels separately, the agreement between data collected in different test situations—sensory laboratory (
Looking at the attribute fruitiness, Figure 1 shows the comparison of the two medians per sample of all seven extra virgin olive oils. The maximum difference found was 0.4 for sample 249 (Figure 2). So, one can say, that—for the attribute fruitiness—there is no significant difference between results coming from
Median of fruitiness (SOP)—
Median of bitterness (SOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | P-value | Significant |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.142 | 0.991 | 2.120 | 0.336 | No |
Mixed model ANOVA for fruitiness (SOP)—
For bitterness, you can easily see in Figure 3 that there were found as well similar medians for all analyzed oils. The maximum difference was 0.3 for sample 104. Similar to fruitiness, as well as bitterness, there is no significant difference between results coming from the
Median of main defect (SOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | P-value | Significant |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.065 | 0.532 | 2.120 | 0.602 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for bitterness (SOP)—
For pungency, not surprisingly the comparison of medians in all seven oils in Figure 4 shows only slight differences. The maximum difference found is 0.5 for sample 249. Again, there is no significant difference between results coming from the lab (
Median of pungency (SOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.017 | 0.125 | 2.120 | 0.902 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for pungency (SOP)—
Finally, Figure 5 focuses on defects and visualizes the comparison of medians of the main defect of the three defective olive oils. The maximum difference between medians was 0.4 for sample 878. So as well for defects, we can see no significant difference between results coming from the
Median of bitterness (DOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.082 | 0.289 | 2.086 | 0.775 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for main defects (SOP)—
Looking at the attribute fruitiness, Figure 6 visualizes the comparison of the medians of all seven extra virgin olive oils analyzed. Like for SOP, as well for DOP the maximum difference between medians for very small, in this case, 0.4 for sample 362. This proves that there is no significant difference between results coming from the
Median of fruitiness (DOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.004 | 0.044 | 2.086 | 0.966 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for fruitiness (DOP)—
For bitterness, Figure 5 visualizes the comparison of the median of all extra virgin olive oils analyzed. The maximum difference between medians is 0.2 for samples 104 and 507. There is no significant difference between results coming from
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.095 | 1.500 | 2.086 | 0.149 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for bitterness (DOP)—
For pungency, Figure 7 visualizes the comparison of the median of all extra virgin olive oils analyzed. The maximum difference between medians is 0.3 for samples 104 and 362. There is no significant difference between results coming from the
Median of pungency (DOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.134 | 1.958 | 2.086 | 0.064 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for pungency (DOP)—
Finally, Figure 8 focuses on defects and visualizes the comparison of the median of the main defect of the 3 defective olive oils. The maximum difference between medians is 0.2 for samples 055 and 652. There is no significant difference between results coming from the
Median of main defect (DOP)—
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.078 | 0.142 | 2.120 | 0.889 | No |
Mixed-model ANOVA for main defects (DOP)—
Second, mixed-model ANOVA was used to analyze whether there exist differences between the data collected from the two IOC-recognized panels separately. It was found that there are statistically significant differences between the two panels. The largest difference for the mean value is 0.5 on a 10 cm scale. This means, that panels show variance, but nevertheless, results are within the expected and accepted variation proposed by the IOC.
For the attribute fruitiness “
Median of fruitiness (SOP versus DOP)—
Median of fruitiness (SOP versus DOP)—remote.
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SOP versus DOP | 0.181 | 2.702 | 1.978 | 0.008 | Yes |
Mixed-model ANOVA for fruitiness (SOP versus DOP).
This is as well the case for the other positive attributes—bitterness and pungency. Regardless that the comparisons of panels show significant differences, it can be stated, that the maximum deviation in the mean value was in all attributes only 0.5.
A similar situation is found for the main defects “
Median of main defect (SOP versus DOP)—
Median of main defect (SOP versus DOP)—remote.
Contrast | Difference | Standardized difference | Critical value | Significant | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SOP versus DOP | 1.449 | 3.853 | 2.002 | <0.0001 | Yes |
Mixed-model ANOVA for main defect (SOP versus DOP).
Based on the shown data, it can be concluded, that even if the “difference between panels” (DOP/SOP) is significant, the variance in all cases is well below the IOC accepted differences between recognized panels.
Third, and based on the document COI/T.28/Doc. No.1/Rev. 52,019, the panel performance for both panels were analyzed according to the following selected criteria:
The calculation of the
*Reference result = median of results from all four considered test situations (DOP remote, DOP
SD = maximum standard deviation of the method = ±0.7
Warning limit = ±2
Action limit = ±3
→ Proof of trueness/homogeneous results (statistically acceptable)
We can see in Figures 13 and 14 for the attribute fruitiness, that for
The calculation of the DNp (deviation number for panels) focuses on the sum of differences (squared) between duplicate results (median) and the reference result (median) in relation to the number of reference samples (in our case 4). The reference result (in this study) is defined as the mean over all four test results.
DNp = sum of differences (squared) between duplicate results (median) and the reference result* (median) in relation to the number of reference samples (4).
*Reference result = median of results from all considered test situations (DOP remote, DOP
Duplicate = comparison between
Number of samples building the reference mean = 4
→ Proof of trueness/homogeneous results (statistically acceptable)
Figure 15 shows for the attribute fruitiness, that the deviation number for SOP is in line with the requirements, that is: well below the warning limit of 1.0 and the action limit of 2.0). This is the case for bitterness and pungency as well, not shown here. Based on these findings, it is proven that results of SOP are homogeneous between different test situations and statistically acceptable (= aspect of trueness).
DNp (SOP) fruitiness (
The calculation of the
Duplicate = comparison between
SD = maximum standard deviation of the method (or maximum error) ± 0.7
→ Proof of precision/consistent results (statistically acceptable)
Coming to the aspect of “Precision” (repeatability, consistency), we can see in the figure for fruitiness (Figure 16) that results of the normalized error from SOP are in line with the requirements, that is—well below the action limit of 1.0. This is the case for bitterness and pungency as well, not shown here. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that results of SOP are repeatable between different test situations and statistically acceptable (precise, consistent).
The calculation of the PNp (the precision number for panels) focuses on the sum of differences (squared) between duplicate panel results (mean) in relation to the number of duplicate samples (in this study 10).
PNp = sum of differences (squared) between duplicate panel results (mean) in relation to the number of duplicate samples (10)
Duplicate = comparison between
Number of duplicate samples = 10
→ Proof of precision/consistent results (statistically acceptable)
We can see in the figure for fruitiness (Figure 17) that the results of the precision number for panels from SOP are in line with the requirements, that is—well below the action limit of 2.0. This is the case for bitterness and pungency as well, but not shown here. Based on these findings, it is proven that results of SOP are consistent and precise between different test situations and statistically acceptable.
PNp (SOP) fruitiness (
To prove data quality in terms of reliability and validity, 10 olive oils (seven of them extra virgin and three defective ones) were independently tested by the Swiss Olive Oil Panel/SOP (nine panelists) and the German Olive Oil Panel/DOP (11 panelists) in different test situations—namely in sensory laboratories (
Analyzing the raw data, various aspects of panel performance were looked at—especially the different test situations (
The individual panel performance per panel [3] shows that both panels meet the requirements from IOC.
Significant differences between the two considered olive oil panels were found, but the variation is within the accepted limits required by the IOC.
No significant differences between test situations (
Overall, results show that the influence of testing through different panels (SOP versus DOP) is bigger than the impact of testing in different test situations (
Besides the convincing findings from this study—many comparison tests over the last years took place proofing reliability and precision of tests taking place either
In the future, it will be valuable to set up advanced follow-up studies with even more participating panels from different countries to regularly confirm findings and strengthen the trust in the data and conclusions of the study at hand.
Our thanks go especially to the panelists from the two involved panels—the German Olive Oil Panel DOP and the Swiss Olive Oil Panel SOP—as well as to their panel leaders: Richard Retsch from DOP and Martin Popp/Annette Bongartz from SOP.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"32846",doi:"10.5772/36950",title:"Current Importance and Potential Use of Low Doses of Gamma Radiation in Forest Species",slug:"current-importance-and-potential-use-of-low-doses-of-gamma-radiation-in-forest-species",totalDownloads:5252,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"L. G. Iglesias-Andreu, P. Octavio-Aguilar and J. Bello-Bello",authors:[{id:"110581",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias-Andreu",slug:"lourdes-iglesias-andreu",fullName:"Lourdes Iglesias-Andreu"}]},{id:"58410",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72074",title:"Radiation-Induced Degradation of Organic Compounds and Radiation Technologies for Purification of Aqueous Systems",slug:"radiation-induced-degradation-of-organic-compounds-and-radiation-technologies-for-purification-of-aq",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Environmental application of radiation technologies is an important part of radiation processing. Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]},{id:"53504",doi:"10.5772/66925",title:"Applications of Ionizing Radiation in Mutation Breeding",slug:"applications-of-ionizing-radiation-in-mutation-breeding",totalDownloads:3454,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"As a predicted result of increasing population worldwide, improvements in the breeding strategies in agriculture are valued as mandatory. The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74724,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2897,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2476,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. 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Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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