Narayanasamy’s ACCESS model (1998).
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6819",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Prefrontal Cortex",title:"Prefrontal Cortex",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The prefrontal cortex reaches its greatest development in the human brain, making up nearly one third of the neocortex. Due to its remarkable evolution, the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in higher integrative functions such as information processing, thinking, understanding, attention, behavior, motivation, emotions, working memory, and analysis. This book brings together theoretical and technical research advances on the prefrontal cortex, from the basic explanations of the neuronal architecture of the prefrontal cortex and its anatomy, presenting it as a morphological substrate for many psychological conditions, through normal and altered connectivity and its manifestation in different behavior and identification of organizational levels inside the prefrontal cortex through different neuroimaging methods. It also provides an interdisciplinary view of the prefrontal cortex and its issues and discovers the main role of this part of brain in psychosocial, economic, and cultural adaptation.",isbn:"978-1-78923-904-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-903-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-726-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73226",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"prefrontal-cortex",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"903b3a38d3c8196f6a865526c124a6de",bookSignature:"Ana Starcevic and Branislav Filipovic",publishedDate:"October 3rd 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6819.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9590,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 2nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 24th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 13th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 11th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Starcevic",slug:"ana-starcevic",fullName:"Ana Starcevic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182584/images/system/182584.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ana Starcevic is an Assistant Professor of Anatomy and researcher at the Medical Faculty, University of Belgrade. She holds PhD in Molecular medicine and has extensive experience and expertise in Basic and Applied Neuroscience. Translational approach in neuroscience is one of her main research goals, as it bridges the gap between basic investigations of different mental conditions and psychological operations such as cognitive to human social behavior. Dr. Starcevic is also a Psychiatry specialist who worked with individuals with Posttraumatic stress disorder and Transgender people. Dr. Ana Starcevic is a member of Serbian Medical Society, Serbian Anatomical Society, Serbian Psychiatric Society, European Society for Traumatic Studies (ESTSS), International Society for Development and Sustainability (ISDS). She is the author of a large number of peer reviewed papers and the regular speaker at the international scientific conferences.",institutionString:"University of Belgrade",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"179727",title:"Prof.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Filipovic",slug:"branislav-filipovic",fullName:"Branislav Filipovic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179727/images/6500_n.jpg",biography:"Branislav Filipović, M.D., Ph.D. is a Full Professor of Anatomy, Director of the Institute of Anatomy, Medical faculty, University of Belgrade. Professor Filipovic is also Psychiatrist, Court Expert for posttraumatic stress disorder and sub-specialist for the Addiction Diseases . Head of the grants financed by Ministry of Science of Serbia. Member of the Organizing Committees of many domestic congresses, President of the Organizing Committee for the national congress of the Serbian Anatomical Society, Editor in Chief of “Folia Anatomica”, member of the Board for Test, School of Medicine, Belgrade, Member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Medical Case Reports. Author of a large number of peer reviewied papers, monographies,and speaker at many international scientific conferences.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"209",title:"Cognitive Neuroscience",slug:"cognitive-neuroscience"}],chapters:[{id:"63179",title:"Development Period of Prefrontal Cortex",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78697",slug:"development-period-of-prefrontal-cortex",totalDownloads:3645,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter outlines the issues associated with the development of prefrontal cortex in children and adolescents, and describes the developmental profile of executive processes across childhood. The prefrontal cortex plays an essential role in various cognitive functions and little is known about how such neural mechanisms develop during childhood yet. To better understand this issue, we focus the literature on the development of the prefrontal cortex during early childhood, the changes in structural architecture, neural activity, and cognitive abilities. The prefrontal cortex undergoes maturation during childhood with a reduction of synaptic and neuronal density, a growth of dendrites, and an increase in white matter volume. With these neuroanatomical changes, neural networks construct appropriate for complex cognitive processing. The organization of prefrontal cortical circuitry may have been critical to the occurrence of human-specific executive and social-emotional functions, and developmental pathology in these same systems underlies many psychiatric disorders; therefore, if we understand these developmental process well, we could better analyze the development of psychiatric disorders.",signatures:"Merve Cikili Uytun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63179",authors:[{id:"163607",title:"Dr.",name:"Merve",surname:"Cikili",slug:"merve-cikili",fullName:"Merve Cikili"}],corrections:null},{id:"62290",title:"The Dynamic Maturation Process of the Brain Structures, Visual System and Their Connections to the Structures of the Prefrontal Cortex during 4–6 Years of Age",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79169",slug:"the-dynamic-maturation-process-of-the-brain-structures-visual-system-and-their-connections-to-the-st",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter summarizes an author’s research in the field of child neuropsychology, devoted to the dynamics of non-verbal visual gnosis in 365 children aged 4–6 with typical development. Data from a study of perceptual operations in difficult conditions (a sample to identify incomplete images), the deficits in which they are considered as a predictor of dyslexia, are analyzed. Against the backdrop of a predominantly analytical (left brain) strategy in the processing of visual incentives, a progressive improvement in the holistic (right brain) strategy was also noted, especially in children aged 6. The positive dynamics of identifying visual stimuli in difficult conditions by integrating distinct signs in the 4–6-year period is explained both by the activation of the holistic processing strategy and by the increasing participation of the prefrontal cortex in the functioning of the complex forms of non-verbal visual gnosis.",signatures:"Neli Cvetanova Vasileva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62290",authors:[{id:"243925",title:"Prof.",name:"Neli",surname:"Cvetanova Vasileva",slug:"neli-cvetanova-vasileva",fullName:"Neli Cvetanova Vasileva"}],corrections:null},{id:"63249",title:"Frontal Lobe: Functional Neuroanatomy of Its Circuitry and Related Disconnection Syndromes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79571",slug:"frontal-lobe-functional-neuroanatomy-of-its-circuitry-and-related-disconnection-syndromes",totalDownloads:1523,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Disconnection syndromes are classified as higher function deficits that result from lesions to white matter or association cortices, the latter acting as relay stations between primary motor, sensory, and limbic areas. In 1965, Norman Geschwind brought disconnection to the fore after publishing a paper entitled “Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man.” In the last decades, a large number of studies concerning this topic have been published in order to elucidate new perspectives of localizationist view of brain functioning. In view of those considerations, it is noteworthy to mention that the understanding of connection pathways involving frontal lobe is one of the most challenging fields of research in neuroscience. The better comprehension of those concepts is an important mark for the multidisciplinarity of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry. The purpose of this chapter is to expose relevant data of recent literature embracing the association between disconnection syndromes and frontal lobe dysfunction.",signatures:"Rafael Batista João and Raquel Mattos Filgueiras",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63249",authors:[{id:"243900",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Batista João",slug:"rafael-batista-joao",fullName:"Rafael Batista João"},{id:"248830",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel",surname:"Mattos Filgueiras",slug:"raquel-mattos-filgueiras",fullName:"Raquel Mattos Filgueiras"}],corrections:null},{id:"62392",title:"Prefrontal Cortex: Role in Language Communication during Social Interaction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79255",slug:"prefrontal-cortex-role-in-language-communication-during-social-interaction",totalDownloads:1146,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One important question that remains open for the relationship between the brain and social behavior is whether and how prefrontal mechanisms responsible for social cognitive processes take place in language communication. Conventional studies have highlighted the role of inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in processing context-independent linguistic information in speech and discourse. However, it is unclear how the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC), and other structures (such as medial superior frontal gyrus, premotor cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, etc.) are involved when socially relevant language is encountered in real-life scenarios. Emerging neuroimaging and patient studies have suggested the association of prefrontal regions with individual differences and impairments in the comprehension of speech act, nonliteral language, or construction-based pragmatic information. By summarizing and synthesizing the most recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, this chapter aims to show how neurocognitive components underlying the social function of prefrontal cortex support pragmatic language processing, such as weighing relevant social signals, resolving ambiguities, and identifying hidden speaker meanings. The conclusion lends impact on an emerging interest in neuropragmatics and points out a promising line of research to address the mediating role of prefrontal cortex in the relation of language and social cognition.",signatures:"Xiaoming Jiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62392",authors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"62849",title:"Hemoglobin (Hb) - Oxyhemoglobin (HbO) Variation in Rehabilitation Processes Involving Prefrontal Cortex",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79163",slug:"hemoglobin-hb-oxyhemoglobin-hbo-variation-in-rehabilitation-processes-involving-prefrontal-cortex",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The prefrontal cortex is the anterior part of the frontal lobe, situated before the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex and plays a role in the regulation of complex cognitive, emotional and behavioral functioning. It includes various Brodmann areas, such as 9, 10, 11, 12, 46, 47. The basic function of this region is guiding thoughts and actions toward one’s goals. The goal of the study is using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to identify the most suitable rehabilitation model in subacute post-ischemic pathologies and impairments involving directly or indirectly the prefrontal cortex. The aim is to measure threshold parameters for neural fatigue through Hb-HbO2 variation. The overall purpose is the ongoing evaluation of Hb-HbO2 variation throughout the entire tailored rehabilitation program with the observation of patient’s clinical changes, which represents the heart of the Cerebro rehabilitation model.",signatures:"Samorindo Peci and Federica Peci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62849",authors:[{id:"245761",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Samorindo",surname:"Peci",slug:"samorindo-peci",fullName:"Samorindo Peci"},{id:"247744",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",surname:"Peci",slug:"federica-peci",fullName:"Federica Peci"}],corrections:null},{id:"62543",title:"Consciousness and Social Cognition from an Interactionist Perspective: A New Approach on Understanding Normal and Abnormal Relations between Metacognition and Mindreading",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79584",slug:"consciousness-and-social-cognition-from-an-interactionist-perspective-a-new-approach-on-understandin",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Contemporary discussions on relations between metacognition and mindreading result in several theoretical accounts allowing various combinations of both mechanisms in the process of formation of beliefs, intentions, and decisions with respect to oneself or others. In fact, various prefrontal areas of the brain are activated when individuals mentalize about themselves and about other people. Interestingly, the latest accounts of the relationship between mindreading and metacognition clearly favor arguments for interactionism between functionally different mechanisms in the formation of our social knowledge. In particular, a two-level architecture enables a mutual interaction within a complex metacognitive system that is evolutionarily structured into higher and lower level metacognition with different functions and tasks. In our opinion, cognitive architecture of such systems needs to include conscious mechanisms that incorporate information accessibility as activation through the interaction. Here, we will argue that the combination of the two-level account on mindreading and metacognition along with a global broadcasting architecture embedded in the human brain is a good starting point that explains formation of accurate social knowledge and access to such knowledge. In our opinion, it becomes clear that consciousness via the interaction activates many unconscious brain regions, including interpreter systems such as metacognition and mindreading.",signatures:"Małgorzata Gakis, Ewelina Cichoń, Tomasz Cyrkot and Remigiusz\nSzczepanowski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62543",authors:[{id:"222700",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Remigiusz",surname:"Szczepanowski",slug:"remigiusz-szczepanowski",fullName:"Remigiusz Szczepanowski"},{id:"232890",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Gakis",slug:"malgorzata-gakis",fullName:"Małgorzata Gakis"},{id:"249819",title:"MSc.",name:"Ewelina",surname:"Cichoń",slug:"ewelina-cichon",fullName:"Ewelina Cichoń"},{id:"249820",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Cyrkot",slug:"tomasz-cyrkot",fullName:"Tomasz Cyrkot"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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\r\n\tToday, scientists describe the Universe mainly in terms of two theories: (1) Einstein's general theory of relativity (GTR), which describes the force of gravity and the large-scale structure of the Universe, and (2) quantum mechanics (QM), which describes the physics of the very small. However, as emphasized by Stephen Hawking and others, these two theories are known to be inconsistent with each other, so one needs to accommodate the gravitational force within the domain of QM by developing a quantum theory of gravity that will apply to both the large and small scales of the Universe. In a recent book entitled "The God Equation: The Quest for a Theory of Everything, Michio Kaku discusses the history and the nature of such a theory, which made significant progress during the 20th century through the development of the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics that represented the best understanding of the subatomic world at that time. Unfortunately, the SM makes no mention of the gravitational force. However, by removing several dubious assumptions made during the development of the SM, an alternative model, the Generation Model (GM), was developed from 2002-to 2019. The GM proposes that the gravitational force is not a fundamental force, as believed for centuries, but is a universal attractive, very weak residual interaction of the strong nuclear force, acting between the three massive particles, the proton, the neutron, and the electron, which are the constituents of a body of ordinary matter: this residual force provides a quantum theory of gravity. The main aim of this book is to discuss both the flaws of the SM and the GTR and also the considerable successes of the GM.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-018-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-017-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-019-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"085d4f6e00016fdad598675f825d6775",bookSignature:"Prof. Brian Albert Robson",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11861.jpg",keywords:"Standard Model, Twelve Elementary Particles, Higgs Boson Research, Universal Weak Force, CP-Violating Research, Big Bang Theory, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Modified Gravity, Massless Elementary Particles, Quarks in Hadrons, Mixed Parity States",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 24th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in theoretical nuclear physics and the scattering of polarized particles, recognized by Marquis Who’s Who Top Scientists for achievements and leadership in education and research. 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According to the definition made by Turkish Language Institution Culture, the culture is described as the sum of all the material and spiritual values created in the process of social development and the tools that are used to create and hand these values down to next generations and show the extent of the man’s authority and control over their natural and social environment [1].
\nAccording to another definition, the culture is the general total of beliefs, attitudes and behaviors, customs and traditions, learned and shared values, and sustains its existence through learning and teaching of attitudes, actions and role models [2].
\nAs it can be understood from these definitions, culture is a non-written link from the past to the present day, bridging the individuals in society. As a phenomenon, The term “culture,” which diversifies in each community and so is experienced differently, also affects the way individuals perceive the phenomena such as health, illness, happiness, sadness and the manner these emotions are experienced [3].
\nCulture is a relative concept that varies according to health cultures as well as affecting the perception of health [4].
\nHealth is determined by biological and environmental factors as well as by cultural practices [5].
\nCulture affects many aspects of human life, such as parental attitudes, child rearing patterns, how to speak, what language to speak, how to dress, believe, treat patients, what to do with and how to feed them and to deal with funerals [6, 7].
\nIndividuals’ health behaviors and health perceptions are regarded inseparable from each other. Communities having endeavored to maintain their cultural characteristics for centuries have passed down this on their health behaviors and strived for finding cures to their health problems in their cultural lives. Types of food, cooking methods, sleeping habits, dressing patterns, forms of treatment of diseases, housing and residence, perception of diseases, modes of acceptance of innovations are characteristics varying from culture to culture and intertwined with culture. It is known that people cannot act independently of the culture they live in [8].
\nCulture is influential at many levels in health, ranging from the formation of new diagnostic groups, to the diagnosis of disease to the determination of what is called a disease or not symptoms and disease cues [6, 7].
\nHowever, in almost all regions of the world, wars, ethnic conflicts, repressive regimes, environmental and economic crises along with globalization have forced many people to abandon their country and migrate in their country or to immigrate other countries as refugees. As a result, multicultural populations comprised of individuals, families and groups from different cultures and subcultures are rapidly emerging all around the world [9, 10, 11].
\nIn order to improve the health behaviors of the community, cultural factors affecting health behavior and health care services need to be clearly recognized [12, 13].
\nThe individuals’ beliefs about health, attitudes and behaviors, past experiences, treatment practices, in short their culture, play a vital role in improving health, preventing and treating diseases [14].
\nCultural variables can be motivational factors in health-disease relationships, [8].
\n\n
Socioeconomic status
Family pattern
Gender roles and responsibilities
Marriage patterns
Sexual behavior
Preventive patterns
Population policy
Pregnancy and birth practices
Body
Nutrition
Dressing/wearing
Personal hygiene
Housing arrangements
General health regulations
Professions
Religion
Habits
Culture-induced stress
Status of immigrants
Substance use
Leisure time habits of
Pets and birds
Self-healing strategies and therapies [8].
Today, health-related cultural traits are under the influence of a medical approach that may be considered as highly conservative almost all around the world. There is an increasing tendency to perceive and evaluate health and disease-related processes explained in medical terms. The rigid medical approach, engaged in extending human life with costly inventions, with a narrow level of knowledge and practices, makes it impossible for individuals to use the potential for qualified living. Modern medicine overwhelms the will of people to experience their own facts and solve their problems. On the other hand, the concept of health should be regarded as a dynamic phenomenon in life and be removed from some patterns of thought. Hence, healthcare should be assessed with a comprehensive understanding of culture in order to promote the art of living healthily among people [15].
\nIndividuals who embrace contemporary public health, evaluate health with a holistic approach, give the other individuals an opportunity to participate in their health care issues, and have the potential to solve problems with appropriate preferences can only be the output of cultural constructs supporting health, values, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and norms. Health culture is concerned with every individual’s or the society’s patterns of living, celebrating, being happy in life, suffering and dying. It is not enough for the individual to acquire only health-related information, but basic skills such as comprehending health-related values, developing a healthy lifestyle and self-evaluation must be developed. The main purpose of developing health culture is to raise the level of health in the country scale. This can only be ensured by the fact that health education standards be established by well-trained and conscious individuals into practice with the help of their knowledge and skills [15].
\nIt is vital that health services are also appropriate for the target cultures to the extent that they are compatible with contemporary medical understanding. People’s beliefs and practices are part of the culture of the society in which they live. Cultural characteristics should be seen as a dynamic factor of health and disease. In order to be able to provide better health care, it is necessary to at least understand how the group receiving care perceives and responds to disease and health, and what cultural factors lie behind their behaviors [7, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\nUnless health care initiatives are based on cultural values, it will be impossible to achieve the goal and the care provided will be incomplete and fail [2, 21].
\nFor this reason, healthcare providers should try to understand the cultural structure of a society. Health workers must collect cultural data to understand the attitudes of towards coping with illness, health promotion and protection [2, 21].
\nCultural differences and health beliefs have been recognized for many years as prior knowledge in practice. Despite that, cultural health care is unfortunately not part of a routine or common health practice. Knowing cultural beliefs related to health can enable us to build a framework for data collection in health care [2, 22].
\nToday, health policies focus primarily on the prevention of health-related inequalities and discrimination, especially ethnic characteristics. In order for the societies to regulate health care that will meet the needs of different groups in terms of culture, all health team members must be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills [23, 24].
\nThe term health, with its changing nature and meanings from one culture to another, requires care, including cultural recognition, value and practice. The main element in the transcultural approach in which every health professional has an active role is the individual. The transcultural approach can be applied at all levels of health care institutions; but nurses are in a privileged position in this approach. According to Leininger’s model, only nurses can provide transcultural health services. Because the main aim of nursing is to provide a caring service that respects people’s cultural values and lifestyles. Nurses should offer acceptable, affordable and culturally suitable care to individuals under the conditions of the day [2].
\nKnowing what cultural practices are applied in the societies receiving healthcare services and identifying the cultural barriers to accessing health care services positively affects the caring process [25].
\nThe nursing profession, which plays an important role in the health team, is a cultural phenomenon. The patient’s cultural values, beliefs and practices are an integral part of holistic nursing care [26, 27].
\nThe nurses should explore new ways of providing cultural care in multicultural societies, understand how cultures affect health-disease definitions, and bridge the gap between care for individuals in different cultures [13, 28, 29].
\nTranscultural nursing provides effective nursing care to meet the cultural needs of individuals, families and groups [30].
\nThe concept of “Transcultural Nursing” derived from the need to care for individuals in different cultures in nursing was first used by Madeleine Leininger in 1979 [30, 31, 32].
\nIn addition to Leininger, a pioneer model of transcultural nursing, many nurses worked in the field of cultural care. Giger and Davidhazar developed the “Cross-Cultural Diagnosis Model” to assess various variables related to health and illness and provide a practical diagnostic tool for nursing so that culturally competent care could be offered [33].
\nCampinha-Bacote described the cultural competence model [34].
\nCulturally competent nurses are in contact with cultural experiences and aware of their own personality traits and contribute to socio-cultural knowledge in nursing care by providing individualized care [35].
\nNurses who are aware of cultural differences and the effects of these differences on the health of the individual enhance the therapeutic environment by communicating more effectively with the patients [13].
\nThe role and significance of transcultural nursing has been increasingly recognized in the world challenged by cultural diversity. Cultural differences can be seen among ethnic groups as well as within any ethnic group [36].
\nIt has been reported that cultural differences may exist among individuals who live in the same or different regions in Turkey [37].
\nAlthough studies on cross-cultural nursing care in our country are limited, several studies have examined the views of nursing and midwifery students regarding patient care [37, 38, 39].
\nIn a study conducted, the views of nurses working in two different hospitals on the cultural problems they faced in patient care were compared [11, 36].
\nIn recent years, it has been recognized that nurses must explore new ways of providing cultural care in culturally diverse societies, understand how culture affects disease-health definitions, and act as a bridge between the biomedical system and care for individuals in different cultures [2, 40].
\nThe nature and importance of providing culturally sensitive nursing services is multidimensional, including individual and professional aspects. The transcultural approach allows nurses to broaden their horizons and perspectives in addition to making them competent in offering creative care to individuals. Culturally based approaches and knowledge can enhance both the nurse’s and the patient’s self-esteem [2, 41, 42].
\nThe American Nurses Association (ANA) refers to three reciprocal interactions: the culture of the individual (patient), the culture of the nurse, and the culture of the environment in relation to the patient-nurse:
\nIndividuals’ beliefs about health, culture, past illness/health experiences form a wholistic structure and play a vital role in improving the health of individuals [43].
\nCulture is influential in how people think, speak the language, how to dress, believe, treat their patients and how to feed them and what to do with their funerals etc. Moreover, it plays a significant role in a variety of aspects such as new diagnostic methods, prognosis, symptomatic patterns and determination of whether there is an illness or not [7].
\nIt is essential for nurses to be able to offer appropriate holistic care to patients from different cultures and to know how the transcultural approach is to be put into practice, as it provides guidance on how to behave in the case of these situations.
\nTranscultural nursing is sensitive to the needs of families, groups and individuals who are representatives of groups with different cultures in a community or society. This sensitive approach provides support for the individual in achieving the well-being and happiness [2].
\nCulturally sensitive nursing practices involve the identification of cultural needs, the understanding of cultural links between family and individuals to provide care without affecting the cultural belief system of the family, and the use of emotional strategies for caregivers and patients to reach reciprocal goals. Building therapeutic relationships, offering appropriate and responsive care and treatment can be accomplished through transcultural nursing approach [2].
\nIt is necessary for nurses to recognize individuals in their own cultural patterns, examine them in their own culture, and take these into account in the nursing approach [2, 7, 22].
\nNursing is a developing profession that can continuously adapt to changing situations. Changes in social rules and expectations, the advent of new medical treatments, and improvements in technical systems have helped shape contemporary nursing practices [4, 44, 45].
\nNursing has been significantly influenced by the fact that an increasing number of societies around the world have become multicultural and cultural specific care has been recognized [4].
\nThe concept of cultural competence is a relatively new concept commonly used in the academic disciplines from the beginning of 1989 [4, 46, 47].
\nIn multicultural societies, health care professionals need to be culturally competent, which is expected by the society. Interest in cultural competence has been manifested in the studies conducted on the cultural characteristics of the patients [46].
\nThe nurses’ understanding of the cultures of patient groups is very important for the provision of meaningful effective nursing care [48].
\nThe study performed by Chenowethm et al. titled as the “Cultural Proficiency and Nursing Care: With an Australian Perspective” and Giger and Davidhizar’s study titled as “Culturally Adequate Care: The Afghan, Afghan Origin American and the Importance of Understanding Islamic Cultural and Islamic Religion” can be cited as examples of conducted research on this subject [4, 33, 49].
\nProviding culturally adequate care is an obligation imposed by increased cultural diversity and disclosure of identities, an understanding of home care and inequalities in health care. Cultural competence is a dynamic, variable and continuous process. Although cultural competence is a basic component of nursing practice, this concept has not been clearly explained or analyzed but defined in many ways. At times, various terms such as “transcultural nursing”, “culturally appropriate nursing care” or “culturally sensitive nursing care” were used instead of the term cultural competence [46].
\nThe literature review reveals that there is a common definition of cultural competence the term among researchers and a general consensus on the term. For example, the concepts of “ethnic nursing care”, “cultural care”, “cultural appropriateness” or “culturally appropriate care” are seen as terms close to cultural adequacy [4, 47].
\nCultural competence is the application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal manners anticipated from nurses to provide services and care appropriate to the cultural characteristics of the patients.
\nBaşalan İz ve Bayık Temel reported that Vydelingum [47] made use of Murphy and Macleod-Clark, Bond, Kadron-Edgren and Jones, Spence, Blackford’s findings in his study. In Murphy and Macleod-Clark’s study on ethnocentric views, it was stated by nurses that patients from a minority group were generally regarded as a problem and these patients were perceived as inappropriate for daily routine, and there was lack of holistic care among nurses working to develop a therapeutic relationship with minority groups. Bond, Kadron-Edgren and Jones conducted a study evaluating the knowledge and attitudes of nursing students and professional nurses regarding patients from different cultures. This study has shown that undergraduate and post-graduate nursing programs are partially limited in terms of the knowledge and skills about special cultural groups. Spence, in his study on nurses’ experiences in caring for people from other cultures in New Zealand found that they experienced tension and anxiety when they encountered with an odd case. The subject of cultural well-being and nursing approaches in nursing education was reported in a study carried out by Blackford in Australia. The necessity of care structured under the roof of the white race culture has revealed that it does not consider the health care culture. The lack of cultural adequacy in the care of patients from different cultures has been recognized as an great challenge to all these studies. Cultural conflict has been shown as an output of ethnocentric focus, resulting in a lack of cultural competence, misunderstanding, lack of confidence, communication and obstacles to establishing a positive relationship [4].
\nThe nurse experiencing cultural conflict must first recognize his/her subconscious cultural behaviors in order to understand the reason for the cultural conflict [13].
\nIn a cultural conflict, the nurse can respond negatively from the cultural perspective in the following ways:
\n
The individual/patient’s own perspective and cultural beliefs must be respected and recognized.
The nurse should be competent and authorized to carry out professional actions and make decisions.
The nurse should help the individual to develop new patterns to lead a satisfying and healthy life in the case of harmful behaviors [50].
The nursing care plan must be individual, holistic and contemporary. Interpreters or religious leaders may need to be included in the caring plan if there are any linguistic problems. The patient’s view on the cause of his or her illness is also a key element in planning the care [49].
\nIn preparing the nursing care plan, basic principles related to culturally sensitive nursing practices can be followed.
\n\n
The importance and influence of the culture should be considered,
Cultural differences should be valued and respected,
Cultural influences in the manners of individuals should be understood,
An empathic approach should be put into action towards individuals with cultural diversity,
Individuals’ cultures should be respected,
Health professionals should be patient with individuals in cultural issues,
Individuals’ behaviors should be thoroughly analyzed,
Cultural knowledge should be increased and enhanced,
Adaptation and orientation programs about cultural diversity should be offered [2, 7, 22].
The scope of cultural nursing practice can be:
identification of cultural needs
understanding the cultural connections of the individual and the
using emotional strategies for the caregivers and the patients to reach the reciprocal goals
Thus, the cultural approach will guide the nurses in planning nursing interventions. In this case, nursing care can be provided without harming the cultural belief system of the family [13, 51].
\nThis short review provides the basis for a deeper cultural assessment that the nurse can do in the future. The nurse has the opportunity to communicate effectively with the individual through brief cultural assessment data collected [7, 13, 22, 52].
\nNurses should make cultural evaluations when they first communicate with individuals. This evaluation may be in-depth, or a brief review that will form the basis for an in-depth assessment to be done later. In a brief review, several questions about health practices, diet, religious preference, ethnic background and family can be asked to the individual. This short review provides the basis for a deeper cultural assessment to be done by the nurse in the future. Thıs, the nurse has a chance to communicate effectively with the individual through brief cultural data [7, 13, 22, 52].
\n\n
Demographic data
Regional population density
Population density entering the region
Age distribution of the residents in the region
Distribution of demographics such as education, job, income etc.
The national origin of the population living in the region
Traditional health beliefs
Definition of illness
Definition of health
Health-related behaviors
Reasons for your illness
Poor eating habits/nutrition
Bad eating arrangements
Viruses, bacteria and other organisms
A punishment/curse from Allah (the God)
Being affected by the evil eyes
Magic, charm, spell or jealousy
Witchcraft
Environmental changes
Sorrow or loss
Excessive or little labor
Methods for maintaining health
Health protection methods
Methods of restoring health-home treatments/household recipes
Utilization of health care resources and visitations
Traditional healers favored by sick people
Health beliefs and practices related to childbirth
Health beliefs and practices related to raising children
Traditional practices and ceremonies arranged for dying individuals and related to death
In addition to recognizing the cultural characteristics of the community, by depending on these data, nurses should recognize traditional medicines, places of worship and sacredness, and other such organizations and, if possible, should visit and observe such places in order to identify the service group.
\n\n
The nurses should be knowledgeable about the community receiving care services provided by themselves.
The nurses should identify the social gathering environments such as schools, hospitals, places of worship of the community they serve care.
The nurses should define the specific areas they want to focus on prior to cultural evaluation.
The nurses should determine the strategies that can help them collect data about cultural values.
The nurses should define the items that may act as bridges between the cultures.
The nurses should be able to ask appropriate questions without hurting the individuals.
The nurses should cooperate with colleagues and other health workers.
The nurses should discuss with the community leaders, whether official or non-official, about cultural characteristics deemed important in the lifestyle of the society.
The nurses should not resort to unethical traps to make an early generalization based on the cultural data of the society.
The nurses should be honest, open and sincere towards the individuals and the self.
The nurses should obtain both objective and subjective data and verify them to be correct before implementing nursing care [7, 13].
Additionally, the nurses should at least learn some relevant vocabulary and common phrases used in caregiving that will facilitate communication [7, 13].
\n\n
Nurses are transcultural care personnel.
An individual is considered as a cultural asset and cannot be separated from his/her own cultural heritage and background.
Environment is a structure or framework
Transcultural care is a sensitive nursing care service addressing to the needs of individuals from different cultural groups [18].
A manual of guidelines has been prepared by International Nurses Association (ICN), American Nursing Academy, Transcultural Nursing Association, with the aim of creating a common language for nursing practice all over the world and providing a holistic and cultural content care that respects social equality, justice and individual differences. There are 12 items in the manual given in the following:
Social Justice and Equality
Critical Perspective
Cultural Awareness
Cultural Based Care
Cultural Based Health Care Systems and Organizations
Patient Advocacy and Empowerment
Multicultural Workforce
Cultural Based Care in Education and Training
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Leadership
Policy Development
The foundations of transcultural nursing were laid in the mid-1950s. In nursing, Peplau first mentioned in 1950 that the cultures were an important variable affecting mental health. The growing interest in Leininger’s transcultural nursing model has begun with population changes and migration. Leininger tried to promote transcultural nursing movements. Much more attention was paid to the care of individuals from different cultures in the 1960s. Since 1960s, nurses have been carrying out studies aimed at providing particularly cultural care to people from all communities/cultures. In 1962, King stated that psychopathological behaviors differ from culture to culture. In 1969, the International Council of Nursing (ICN) began using cultural content in nursing. The Transcultural Nursing Society (TCNS) was established in 1974 to train nurses in this area.
\nThis organization aims to provide the nurses and other health care professionals with the basic knowledge necessary to develop cultural skills in culturally sensitive practice, education, research and management [2].
\nSince 1989, “Journal of Transcultural Nursing” has been published, aiming to train nurses about transcultural care and improve their practice. Evidence-based studies have been conducted in this area. Today, there are about 25 books and over 800 articles covering research, theory and applications related to transcultural nursing [2].
\nThis is a promising field of study with which Turkish nurses have recently started to be familiar. Now that globalization is inevitable, studies on transcultural care practices will broaden the horizons of Turkish nurses and the others all around the world.
\nIn addition to Leininger, a pioneer model of transcultural nursing, many nurses worked in the field of cultural care including Boyle, Campinha-Bacote, Yahle Langenkamp, Giger and Davidhizar, Juntunen, Leuning, Swiggum et al., Purnell, Ryan, Carlton and Ali.
\nAmong these, there are researchers arguing that the models and theories of two modelists (Giger and Davidhizar and Purnell) who do myriads of studies on cultural care are extremely simple, comprehensible and suitable for use in many different fields and cultures [5].
\n\n
Burchum JLR; Cultural competence: Evolutionary dimension.
Campinha-Bacote J; Cultural competence in providing health care services: Culturally adequate care model.
Cross T., Bazron B; Dennis K., Isaacs M.; Towards a culturally adequate care process: Effective services for minority children with emotionally serious illness.
Kim-Godwin YS; Clarke PN & Barton L.; Providing culturally adequate public care model.
Leininger MM; The differences in cultural care and the theory of universality.
Leininger M; Cultural care theory and ethnocentric research method.
Leininger M; Evaluation of culture care for appropriate and adequate practices.
Orque M.; Orque’s ethnic/cultural system: Conceptual framework for ethnic nursing care.
Pacquiao DF; Cultural competence in ethical decision making.
Papadopoulos I. & Lees S; Training culturally competent researchers.
Purnell LD. & Amp; Paulanka BJ; Ppur model for cultural competence.
Suh EE; Cultural competence model through evolutionary concept analysis.
Wells M; Beyond cultural competence: a model for individual and institutional cultural development [4, 46].
\n
Giger JN. & Davidhizar RE; Transcultural nursing; Evaluation and intervention
Spector RE; Cultural difference in health and disease.
\n
Andrews MM; Culturally adequate nursing care.
Andrews MM; History of health and cultural competence in physical examination.
Bloch B; Bloch’s assessment guide for ethnic/cultural diversity.
Boyle JS & Andrews MM; Andrews/Boyle assessment guide.
Spector RE; Cultural care: guidelines for inheritance, assessment and health traditions [4, 46].
The conceptualization of the cultural competence model in nursing has emerged after 1989. Leininger, Campinha-Bacote, Giger and Davidhizar, Orque, Purnell and Paulanka, Spector, Andrews and Boyle are regarded as the pioneers contributing to the accumulation of the relevant data. Orque is a leading figure in developing a cultural model for nursing with “the conceptual framework of the ethnic system”. The use of nursing theories and models in nursing researches offers unparalleled contribution to the health care system through the practices of the nurse as a professional. Cultural competence models developed by nurse researchers can be transferred not only to nursing but also to other disciplines.
\nLeininger describes transcultural nursing as a branch of nursing or nursing school based on comparative research and analysis of different cultures which provides cultural universalism and cultural independence in nursing care and focuses on comparative studies and analyzing differences in cultures around the world in a respectful manner in view of health, illness, care, beliefs and values [3, 5, 13].
\nThe aims of transcultural nursing are to provide sensitive and effective nursing care to meet the cultural needs of individuals, families and groups, to integrate transcultural concepts, theories and practices into nursing education, research and clinical applications, to improve transcultural nursing knowledge, and to incorporate this knowledge into nursing practice.
\nThe International Nurses Association (ICN) invited the nurses from the World Health Organization (WHO) member countries to work on adaptable models to their communities at the 1989 Seoul Conference. The studies conducted in Turkey show that the nurses need to have classification lists and guidelines to be used in care, and thus a more systematic care will be provided in less time for individual patients and more data will be collected. In Turkey internationally developed models and classification systems in nursing care are translated into Turkish, or new guidelines specific to clinics are developed and used. These include NANDA’s diagnosis, Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns, NIC, NOC and Daily Living Activities and the OMAHA system [55].
\nThe use of transcultural nursing models, classification systems and guidelines is becoming widespread. These models focus on the relationship of nursing to concepts and theories related to life, health, disease and society, facilitate organizing their thoughts, and provide a common language among professional members.
\nWhile there has been an increased awareness of the importance of cultural care and collecting cultural data in recent years in Turkey, no models or guides have been developed in Turkey [55].
\nThe “Culture Care Diversity and Universality” theory developed by Leininger in 1960, the first nurse who made the first work in this field and received the title of anthropologist, is the first theory developed in the field of transcultural nursing and still used worldwide. This theory focuses on exploring different and universal cultures and providing comparative care. It adopts a multi-factorial approach affecting health and care such as environmental conditions, ethnography, language, gender, class, racism, social structuring, belief, politics, economics, kinship, technology, culture and philosophy. This model includes technological, religious and philosophical, kinship and social factors, cultural values and lifestyle, political and legal, economic and social factors [50], which have been used in many studies in the west and in other countries since 1960 (Figure 1).
\nLeininger’s sunrise model. Reference: [
Narayanasamy described the model in 1998 with the letters ACCESS (Assessment, Communication, Cultural negotiations and Compromise, Establishing respect, Sensitivity and Safety) to form the framework of cultural care practices [42] (Table 1).
\nTranskültürel Hemşirelik | \n|
---|---|
Assessment | \nCulturally focusing on the patient’s life style, beliefs and practices related to health | \n
Communication | \nAwareness of the variety of verbal and nonverbal reactions | \n
Cultural Negotiation and Compromise | \nBecoming more aware of the other people’s cultures and exploring their problems as well as understanding the patient’s opinion, | \n
Respect | \nDescribing therapeutic relationship relevant to the patient’s cultural beliefs and consensus values | \n
Sensitivity | \nApplying the sensitive care model to culturally different groups | \n
Safety | \nMaking the patient feel safe in the culturally sensitive care | \n
The model developed in 1988 was first published in 1990. This model is a tool developed to assess cultural values and their effects on health and disease behavior [33] (Figure 2).
\nGiger and Davidhizar’s transcultural assessment model. Reference: [
This ethnographic model created to promote cultural understanding of people’s status in the context of health promotion and illness is based on ethical perspectives of individual, family and community. It can be used in primary, secondary and tertiary protection stages [56] (Figure 3).
\nPurnell’ s model for cultural competence. A care preparation that is accepted as appropriate from a cultural perspective requires that the nurse personally develops, perfects and uses specific skills. Reference: [
\n
Having the ability to understand complex cultural dimensions,
Assuming a holistic approach to care instead of biophysical approach,
Showing efforts to reach rapidly increasing cultural beliefs and activities that are unique to distinct groups and individuals
Being able to change the idea of believing that individuals’ own race is superior to others,
Being able to make cultural evaluations,
Developing communicative and scientific language skills,
Being able to deal with cultural differences in real terms and make interpretations,
Being able to use appropriate cultural teaching techniques
Compromising cultural beliefs and studies with the general state of provision of health care,
Respecting for the sociocultural diversity of women, newborn babies and their families [8, 57].
The ability of nurses to change their current and future nursing practices through transcultural nursing care approach in the nursing care system can be achieved through cultural specific transcultural nursing education programs [22, 58].
\nRegardless of their ethnic characteristics, nursing educators have great responsibilities to develop positive attitudes towards intercultural nursing care as a role model for their students [29, 58].
\nIn addition, registered nurses should be aware of these issues and develop their knowledge and competence. Educators and administrators need to know, understand and believe in the importance of intercultural nursing care in order to be role models for students. The first step in the development and implementation of intercultural nursing education programs in nursing institutions is to evaluate the curriculum. It is recommended that the review in nursing schools be started with an examination of the mission statement. It should be examined whether the significance of cultural differences, care and education are explained in the mission statement [58, 59].
\nThe multicultural education approach and educational program should replace the dominant cultures in nursing schools. With the help of this approach, school administrators and academics should observe whether content issues are appropriate and adequate in terms of multicultural education in current educational programs [58].
\nIn terms of multiculturalism, important main subjects, concepts, theories should be defined and integrated into the curriculum [59].
\nThe terms such as cultural competence, multiculturalism, cultural diversity, cultural awareness, cultural safety should be intertwined with other professional subjects into the curriculum.
\nAn educational environment should be created in which racial differences are accepted and respected in nursing education. Within the scope of the program, generalizations and conceptualizations specific to different cultural groups should be introduced in theoretical and practical courses. During the courses social problems, experiences brought about by different racetracks such as racism, prejudicial discrimination, language problems, communicative difficulties, lack of obtaining information, health services that do not meet the needs, lack of recognition or determination of diagnosis, and incorrect nursing diagnosis should be discussed [58, 59, 60, 61].
\nStudents can examine and evaluate their racial characteristics in the communication and skills lab. In addition, similarities and differences between ethnic groups should be emphasized in all lectures [58, 59].
\nIn intercultural nursing education, the students’ ethnocentric worldview “just like me” should be replaced by the view “not like me”. It is stated in the nursing education that it is very useful for the student to assume some duties and responsibilities in community services and health education programs to develop cultural competence [58].
\nIn addition, it has been shown that the exchange of national and international students and teaching staff in nursing schools is a very useful way to build cultural awareness and sensitivity by experiencing, working, and living in another culture, in order for students to find intercultural opportunities in different cultural settings [58, 62, 63].
\nIt is stated that it is a useful teaching method for nurses to teach nursing diagnoses with case studies involving different cultural items in education programs. In nursing programs focusing on intercultural education, nursing educators use methods and tools such as critical reflection, discussion groups, role playing, observations, simulation exercises, clinical scenarios as well as written materials, videos, film monitoring and audio tapes [58].
\nAlthough transcultural nursing has an important role in the holistic approach, it is criticized at some points and is also mentioned in opposing views.
\nIn the case of launching nationalist initiatives in intercultural care, it has been stated that stereotyped images may emerge, and that particular attention may be paid to certain cultural individuals in the caring process. Given the presence of some 3000 cultures around the world, it is impossible for healthcare professionals to have knowledge of all cultures. It also requires the specialization of health personnel in order to provide qualified, culturally specific care. Despite the desire to create multicultural societies in the world in which there are liberal immigrant policies, it cannot be argued that there is an accepted standard in health care, in terms of the socioeconomic status, ethnic characteristics, sexual behavior and lifestyle preferences. There is a cultural crisis in health care services. Individualized intercultural care is a nurse’s responsibility as both a human and a professional. However, it is noted that nurses may be ethnocentric with cultural knowledge, understanding, awareness, education, cultural competence and lack of faith [58].
\nIt is argued that extraordinary endeavors in cultural sensitivity can result in the classification of cultures, thereby leading to stereotyped behaviors in certain cultures, races and religions. Another criticism is that paying particular attention to the patient of a particular culture, and focusing on that side can cause limitations in care. It is emphasized that the patient may feel “special”, “needing protection” or “patronized”. In addition, it has been pointed out that concerns about transcultural care in the field of health will only lead to formation of specialization in transcultural care that could increase responsibilities for nurses, which in turn will put a burden on them [2].
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
No outside funding was received for this study.
World’s 80% population resides in the developing countries, but these consume only 40% of the total energy consumption. Per capita energy consumption gauges the prosperity and economic growth of any country. The significant energy demand of the world is fulfilled by the petroleum sources. The fuel consumption region wise is shown in Figure 1 for the year 2017–2018. It is seen that Asia is the leading consumer of coal, oil, hydroelectricity, and renewable power. North America leads in consuming natural gas and nuclear energy. Asia’s consumption of coal is nearly 74.5% of the world coal consumption [1]. The fast depletion of petroleum resources is a major concern for the economic development of many countries. Therefore, the energy crisis is debated on all forums, and evolution from conventional to sustainable energy sources has become very relevant to maintain the momentum of economic growth. Renewable sources of energy can provide the energy sustainably and without harming the environment. Figure 2 shows the broad classification of renewable energy sources.
\nFuel consumption (in percentage) region wise for the year 2017 [
Classification of energy by source type [
Biofuels are the most effective and efficient form of renewable energy. They can be easily extracted from the biomass, and they are biodegradable and are environment-friendly [3]. Their combustion is almost similar to fossil fuels [4], and they produce less toxic compounds [5, 6]. The biomass absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and when they are used as energy source, they release the carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. However, the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere is less than that absorbed by the biomass [7]. The biofuels’ production of the world increased by 3.5% in 2017, shown in Figure 3. The United States alone provided the largest increment of 950 ktoe. Ethanol production grew at the rate of 3.3% and contributed over 60% of the total biofuels’ growth. Biodiesel production also rose by 4% on the account of growth in Argentina, Brazil, and Spain [1]. Several alternatives in diesel engines are available and can be used with minor or no modification. The advantages of these fuels include lower emissions, and since most of them are derived from renewable biomass sources, it will decrease the dependency on nonrenewable petroleum. The most potential fuel either to supplement or to substitute diesel is biodiesel, butanol, producer gas, dimethyl ether, hydrogen, and so on.
\nWorld biofuels’ production (million tons of oil equivalent).
Biodiesel appears more attractive for many factors because it is nontoxic and biodegradable. It is the substitution of petroleum diesel for either power generation or motive power without major modification. Furthermore, it releases significantly low aromatic compounds, sulfates, and chemical matters that pollute the atmosphere. Emissions of carbon dioxide are relatively low when the life cycle analysis is considered. Presently, biodiesel has been utilized throughout the world such as the United States, Brazil, Germany, Indonesia, Italy, France, Malaysia, and European countries. Consequently, there is a great prospect for its production and utilization. As of now, annual biodiesel production in the world is around 28 billion liters [1].
\nOver 350 oil-bearing crops were identified worldwide, which are appropriate for the production of biodiesel. Biodiesel feedstocks are regionally diversified [8]. It mainly depends on the soil conditions, climate, methods of cultivation and harvesting, and geographical locations of the country [9, 10]. The availability of potential feedstock plays a major role, which contributes to nearly 75% of the total cost of biodiesel [11, 12]. Therefore, it is very important to select an economical feedstock for improving the economics of biodiesel production.
\nApart from that, the percentage of oil in the feedstock and the yield per hectare are also significant factors. Several edible oil resources namely sunflower, rice bran, palm oil, rapeseed, soybean, peanut, and coconut are considered the first-generation feedstock of biodiesel. However, food versus fuel is a major concern for the researchers. Also, it is felt that plantation of feedstocks for biodiesel may require deforestation, reduction in available cultivatable land, and damage to soil resources. Moreover, the raw vegetable oil cost has seen a steep rise in the last decade that has changed the cost-effectiveness of biodiesel production [13, 14]. Furthermore, a number of countries are unable to cope with the growing gap between their demand and supply, which has created a challenge for them to produce cost-effective biodiesel from edible oil resources.
\nSeveral nonedible oils, waste oils, greases, and animal fats are considered as the second-generation biodiesel feedstocks [15]. Despite a large list of feedstocks of the second generation, it was believed that these might not be sufficient to fulfill the energy requirements. Moreover, animal fats and saturated fats have under-performed in low-temperature regions [16]. Collection mechanism of waste cooking oil [17] is tough because of its scattered sources, and there is always a problem of contamination with foreign particles [11, 16].
\nNumerous new researches are carried out nowadays to highlight the limitations of edible oils and the advantages of nonedible oils as a biodiesel feedstock. Nonedible oils for producing biodiesel can help in providing the key to tackle the problems of harmful emissions, cost-effectiveness, and the never-ending debate of food versus fuel [18]. Moreover, the plants used to produce seeds for nonedible oils can be cultivated on marginal lands, which can be degraded forests, arid lands, vacant lands, along highways, railways, and irrigation waterways and poverty-stricken areas. Various rural and low-income communities can take advantage of adopting the methods of production of biodiesel from nonedible sources to empower them. They also help in providing energy security and self-reliance. Nonedible feedstocks of biodiesel being sustainable shall be very advantageous as a substitute for diesel [11, 19].
\nBiodiesel or similar fuels can be produced by various methods such as pyrolysis, blending with other fuels, forming microemulsions and transesterification. These methods are briefly discussed later.
\nPyrolysis is carried out at high temperatures in the presence of catalyst and the absence of oxygen for decomposing the organic matters. The materials that are normally used for pyrolysis are oils derived from seeds, methyl esters of fatty acids, and animal fats. Several investigations were carried out in the past to obtain a diesel substitute by pyrolysis. Aromatics, alkanes, carboxylic acids, alkenes, alkadienes, and small quantities of gaseous products are produced by pyrolysis [20]. When compared to diesel, the fats and oils that have been pyrolyzed have a lower pour point, flash point, viscosity, and comparable calorific values. Other benefits of pyrolyzed vegetable oils include acceptable levels of copper corrosion values, sulfur, and water content. However, lower cetane number, ash, and carbon residual make their usage in diesel engine challenging [21]. It is worthwhile to mention that the pyrolysis process is a good alternative to diesel because of its simplicity, effectiveness, and pollution-free nature [15, 22].
\nTo make vegetable oil suitable for usage in a diesel engine, they are normally blended or simply diluted with diesel. The main benefit of blending is a reduction in viscosity of the blend and also improves the overall performance of the engine [23]. Hundred percent vegetable oil can be used in a diesel engine, but it gives rise to certain new challenges, which question its practical use on a long run [14, 24, 25]. Therefore, vegetable oil/diesel blends up to 25% shall be one of the choices for diesel engine [14, 24, 25]. However, the usage of vegetable oil and diesel blends in engines also brings some unwanted problems that need to be addressed thoroughly.
\nDimensions of a colloidal dispersion of optically isotropic fluid fall in the range of 1–150 nm that forms a microemulsion. It consists of one and more ionic amphiphiles and two immiscible liquids. Microemulsion of vegetable oils can be formed with alcohols, surfactant, cetane improver, or with an ester and dispersant (cosolvent) [22]. Microemulsion is beneficial due to their viscosity being similar to diesel. It has been observed that for both microemulsions (ionic and nonionic), the short-term performances are nearly equal to diesel [14, 24, 25, 26].
\nTransesterification also known as alcoholysis is one of the most popular, cost-effective, and simple chemical processes of conversion of high viscosity vegetable oils to a very low viscosity substance known as biodiesel. In transesterification process, 1 mole of vegetable oil and 3 moles of alcohol are allowed to react in the presence of a catalyst to produce 3 moles of alkyl ester and 1 mole of glycerine [27]. The triglycerides are first converted into diglycerides, which are further converted to monoglyceride and finally to glycerol. The products thus formed can be separated into two layers on its own by gravity. Biodiesel floats in the upper region, and glycerol settles at the bottom. In the cosmetic industry, glycerol is used extensively. Methanol and ethanol being economical are used commonly in the transesterification process. However, various higher chain alcohols namely propanol, butanol, and octanol could also be used for the production of biodiesel.
\nTransesterification process can be carried out by catalytic and noncatalytic methods. In the catalytic method, the catalyst is added to alcohols to increase its solubility, which enhances the reaction rate. Catalytic transesterification can be processed by an alkaline or an acid catalyst. Use of an alkaline catalyst is preferred because of its fast reaction, high yield, and economical nature. It is commonly seen that alkaline catalyst gives 4000 times faster reactions than acid catalyst [28, 29]. Alkaline catalyst namely sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, potassium methoxide, and sodium methoxide are extensively used. Despite the higher cost of potassium and sodium hydroxide, they are most preferred due to their higher yields.
\nAlkaline catalysts are normally employed when the free fatty acid (FFA) level of the oil or fat is lower than 3%. Beyond this limit, the reaction proceeds with difficulty and challenges such as soap formation and reduced ester yields [30]. Some other limitations of the alkaline catalytic process include higher energy for production of biodiesel, difficulty in removal of unused catalyst from the final product, difficulty in glycerol recovery, and wastage of water during washing [10, 31].
\nHydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, ferric sulfate acid, para toluene sulfonic acid (PTSA), and Lewis acid (AlCl3 or ZnCl2) are normally used as an acid catalyst. The acid catalyst is preferable over alkaline catalysts for their better results with high FFA oil and the presence of water. However, the time taken for the reaction is much more (3–48 h). It is observed that wet washing of the oil uses a large quantity of water for the removal of unreacted acid or base catalyst and the leftover salt of the neutralization process [32].
\nTransesterification process has relatively high conversion efficiency, small energy usage, and lower cost of catalyst and reactants [10, 31]. The transesterification process has certain challenges including long reaction time, poor catalyst solubility, and poor separation of the products. Besides this, the wastewater produced during the process can cause environmental issues. To overcome these challenges, other faster methods such as supercritical fluid methods have been developed, which complete in a very short time (2–4 min).
\nFurthermore, the absence of catalyst helps in easy recovery of glycerol and purification of biodiesel, which makes the process environment-friendly [10, 25, 33]. However, the method is having a limitation of the higher cost of equipment and working at high temperature and pressures. Methanol requirement is also higher (methanol to oil molar ratio—40:1) [34, 35]. Transesterification reaction is dependent upon several factors. For better yield, reaction time, temperature, agitation speed, molar ratio, and catalyst concentration need to be set in the right manner [14, 31].
\nAs described in the previous section, biodiesel is a preferable choice as an alternative to diesel. Jatropha biodiesel has received a great attention due to high conversion and its relatively competitive cost. Several exhaust and performance characteristics were evaluated by Chauhan et al. [36] on blends of diesel and biodiesel derived from oil of Jatropha in an unmodified diesel engine. The authors reported that for the test blends, performance and emission parameters were better, with some higher NOx emissions and BSFC than that of diesel. Similar studies were conducted by Nalgundwar et al. [37], and Huang et al. [38], which showed the same characteristics of Jatropha biodiesel. According to Bari et al. [39], combustion characteristics of 20% Jatropha biodiesel (B20) blend and D100 were comparable. Due to heavier particles and low volatility of biodiesel, B20 takes more combustion time than D100. The authors concluded that in a conventional diesel engine, B20 (a blend of diesel and Jatropha biodiesel) can be used without any modification. Similarly, Ganapathy et al. [40] conducted experiments on a full-factorial design using diesel and Jatropha biodiesel with 27 runs for each fuel. Some increase in BTE was observed with an advancement in injection timing. This has also caused a reduction in HC, CO, smoke emissions, and BSFC. For Jatropha biodiesel, small increments are observed for HRRmax, Pmax, and NO emission. Injection timing of 340 crank angle degree (CAD) increased HRRmax, Pmax, and BTE. Mofijur et al. [41] evaluated the feasibility of biodiesel derived from Jatropha oil in Malaysia. Interestingly, only 10 and 20% of biodiesel was blended with diesel to consider engine performance and emission as compared to 100% diesel. There is 4.67% reduction in brake power (BP) for B10 and 8.86% for B20. It was seen that there is some increase in BSFC with the increase in the amount of biodiesel in the blends. In comparison to D100, 16 and 25% reduction in CO emission, 3.8 and 10.2% reduction in HC emission and 3 and 6% increase in NOx emission using B10 and B20 blends were observed. The authors concluded that up to 20% biodiesel can be a potential substitute to diesel, which can be used without alteration in the diesel engine.
\nKaranja biodiesel is another substitute in which researcher showed more interest. Dhar and Agarwal [42] investigated several characteristics of blends of diesel and Karanja biodiesel on the engine. The engine is set to run at variable loads and speed. The authors observed that 10 and 20% Karanja biodiesel blends exhibited higher values of maximum torque than diesel. However, for higher biodiesel concentrations in the blends, maximum torque attained was slightly lower. It is also observed that the BSFC of biodiesel blends increases with a percentage increase of biodiesel in the blends, while, for lower concentrations, it is very close to diesel. From emission results, it is seen that HC, CO, and smoke emissions were lower for the blends than diesel with slightly higher NOx emissions. The authors concluded that up to 20% blends of Karanja biodiesel and petroleum diesel are well suited for an unmodified diesel engine. Similar outcomes were found by Raheman and Phadatare [43] and Nabi et al. [44]. The engine emissions including CO and smoke reduced with some reduction in engine noise, but NOx emissions increased in small quantities. Hundred percent KME reduced CO emissions from the diesel engine by 50% and smoke emissions by 43%, while NOx emission increased by 15%. Chauhan et al. [45] conducted transesterification of Karanja oil and observed that all the properties were within the standard limits. The engine trials confirmed that BTE for Karanja biodiesel blended with diesel in a ratio of 5, 10, 20, 30, and 100% was about 3–5% lower with respect to neat diesel. It was also revealed by the engine trials that CO, CO2, UBHC, and smoke emissions were lowered by the use of biodiesel derived from Karanja oil. However, Karanja biodiesel and its blends as compared to diesel produced a little higher quantities of NOx emissions with lower values of HRR and peak cylinder pressure. The results suggested that Karanja biodiesel and its blends will be a viable alternative to diesel, and they shall also be beneficial for small- and medium-energy production.
\nSahoo et al. [46] explored Polanga (
Raheman and Ghadge [48] used biodiesel derived from Mahua (
Hajra et al. [53] produced biodiesel from Sal oil (
Some researcher showed their interest in waste cooking oil biodiesel. In this sequence, Muralidharan et al. [56] tested biodiesel blends (20, 40, 60, and 80%) in a single-cylinder VCR engine at 21 CR and a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The performance parameters included brake power, specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, mechanical efficiency, and indicated mean effective pressure. The exhaust gas emission was found to contain nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The results confirmed substantial improvement in the performance parameters and exhaust emissions as compared to diesel. The blends helped in reduction of hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide with slightly higher nitrogen oxide emissions. It has been deduced that waste cooking oil biodiesel and diesel blend combustion characteristics are very close to diesel.
\nButanol in the last decade has emerged as a promising biofuel for its application in the diesel engines. Like ethanol, butanol is a biomass-based renewable fuel that may be produced by fermentation [55, 56, 57, 58]. It is a next-generation greener fuel and also known as 1-butanol, n-butanol, or butyl alcohol. Efforts are made by the research community to explore efficient methods for obtaining this alcohol in bio-refineries, wherein higher alcohols are produced from shorter alcohols [59, 60]. Butanol is linear four carbon aliphatic alcohol having a molecular weight of 74.12 g/mol. It has a distinct aroma with a strong alcoholic odor. It is low hydrophobic colorless and flammable liquid.
\nEthanol has received more attention the world over. However, butanol is a better option with high energy content and better physicochemical properties. Butanol was discovered in 1852 by Wirtz, and in 1862, Pasteur concluded that butyl alcohol was a direct product of anaerobic conversion [57].
\nButanol having excellent fuel qualities is very suitable as a diesel engine fuel. Butanol being renewable is not only sustainable but also possesses higher cetane number and heating value than ethanol. It has a higher flash point making it safer, and it has a lower vapor pressure. Butanol is hydrophilic in nature and easy miscible with diesel. This eliminates the problems, which are experienced with lower alcohols such as nonmiscibility [58]. The important properties of n-butanol, ethanol, and diesel are shown in Table 1.
\nProperties | \nDiesel fuel | \nn-Butanol | \nEthanol | \n
---|---|---|---|
Chemical formula | \nC14.09H24.78 | \nC4H9OH | \nC2H5OH | \n
Specific gravity | \n0.85 | \n0.81 | \n0.79 | \n
Boiling point | \n190–280 | \n108.1 | \n78.3 | \n
Net heating value (MJ/kg) | \n42.6 | \n33 | \n27 | \n
Heat of vaporization (KJ/kg) | \n600 | \n578.4 | \n900 | \n
Octane number | \nNA | \n94 | \n92 | \n
Cetane number | \n45 | \n17 | \n8 | \n
Flash point (°C) | \n65–88 | \n35 | \n13 | \n
Viscosity (mm2/s) at 40°C | \n1.9–3.2 | \n2.63 | \n1.2 | \n
Auto-ignition temperature (°C) | \n210 | \n385 | \n434 | \n
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio | \n14.6 | \n11 | \n9 | \n
Molecular weight | \n193.9 | \n74 | \n46 | \n
Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) | \n265 | \n585 | \n900 | \n
Bulk modulus (bar) | \n16,000 | \n15,000 | \n13,200 | \n
Lubricity (μm) | \n310 | \n590 | \n950 | \n
% of carbon (wt.) | \n86.7 | \n64.9 | \n52.1 | \n
% of hydrogen (wt.) | \n12.7 | \n13.5 | \n13.1 | \n
% of oxygen (wt.) | \n0 | \n21.5 | \n34.7 | \n
C/H ratio | \n6.8 | \n4.8 | \n4 | \n
Production of butanol is carried through the chemical process, that is, fermentation by bacteria. Clostridium acetobutylicum is the most popular species of bacteria used for fermentation. The process is abbreviated as ABE because of the end products—acetone, butanol, and ethanol are obtained from it. Butanol production is carried out by molasses (consists of fermentable sugars—55 wt.% and nonfermentable solids—30 wt.%), water, and nutrients in the reactor. Nutrients and diluted molasses are allowed to combine in the tank. Sterilization of the mixture is continuously carried out. The broth containing ethanol, acetone, and butanol is removed from the reactor. It also contains small quantities of butyric acids, acetic acids, proteins, cells, and molasses (in the form of nonfermentable solids), which are then separated in distillation columns to give the final products [60].
\nSome experimental studies have highlighted the favorable effects of n-butanol/diesel fuel blend in diesel engine [61]. Work of different researchers is highlighted later.
\nAtmanli et al. performed an engine trial on wide operating conditions at varying blend of diesel fuel, cotton oil, and n-butanol using RSM. Homogeneity was observed along with no phase separation. BMEP, brake power, and thermal efficiency of the blend were reduced; however, BSFC has increased marginally. Emissions namely HC, NOx, and CO of the blends have reduced [62]. Yilmaz et al. studied the emissions and performance characteristic of butanol/biodiesel blends in a multi-cylinder, indirect injection diesel engine. Butanol blended with biodiesel was compared with standard diesel (D100) and neat biodiesel (B100) at four engine loads. Lower exhaust gas temperatures and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions with higher CO and HC emissions were found [63]. Zhu et al. [64] carried experiments on n-butanol blends, EGR rate, and injection timing on a modified diesel engine. The results suggested that with increased EGR rate, NOx emissions reduce, but smoke emissions increase. With the increase of n-butanol fraction, smoke emissions were found to decrease with a small increase in NOx.
\nDogan conducted some studies on a diesel engine at four different loads. No phase separation was observed in 20% butanol/diesel blend. The performance was slightly improved in comparison to diesel. Gaseous emissions, for example, NOx, CO, smoke content, and exhaust gas temperature reduced with the blends [65]. Butanol/diesel blends (8, 16, and 24%) were prepared by Rakopoulos et al., and it was found during the trial that the smoke opacity, NOx, and CO emissions were significantly reduced. However, the HC emissions were higher. Greater SFC and BTE and slightly lesser exhaust gas temperatures were noted in comparison to petroleum diesel [66]. In a similar study, Karabektas et al. evaluated the suitability of butanol-diesel blends in a diesel engine. Four blends were prepared consisting of 5, 10, 15, and 20% butanol by volume. Brake power was lower, whereas BSFC rose with the addition of butanol. CO and NOx levels were lower for blends; however, there was a considerable increase in HC emissions [67]. In another study, Lebedevas et al. conducted investigations on a multi-cylinder diesel engine.
\nTwo types of test fuels were prepared. The first is comprised of diesel, rapeseed methyl ester (RME), and butanol, and the second consisted of diesel, rapeseed oil butyl esters (RBE), and butanol. Almost the same efficiency was observed, and there was a significant reduction in CO and HC emissions. NOx emissions remained almost the same; however, there was a reduction in smoke emissions for all butanol-based fuels as compared to petroleum diesel [68]. The above studies suggest that butanol-diesel blends are potential alternative fuel in a diesel engine.
\nBiomass-based producer gas is a viable alternative to conventional fuels, where there is a large availability of the biomass as a primary source. Biomass feasible for producer gas is dry materials such as wood, charcoal, rice husks, and coconut shell. Producer gas is produced by gasifying these dry carbonaceous organic materials. In the gasification process, the solid biomass is broken down by the use of heat. The gasification system consists of a reactor or container into which the biomass is fed along with a gasification agent such as air, oxygen, and steam. According to the supply, producer gas with different calorific values is produced. When air is used, the gas with 4–6 MJ/Nm3 calorific value is produced, and the gas can be used for direct combustion or as an internal combustion engine fuel. With oxygen, the gas produced has 10–15 MJ/Nm3 calorific value. The producer gas with 13–20 MJ/Nm3 calorific value is produced with steam as a gasifying agent, and the gas can be subsequently used as a feedstock for methane and methanol production [69, 70].
\nProducer gas was produced from sugarcane bagasse and carpentry waste by Singh and Mohapatra [71]. The authors mixed the raw materials thoroughly in the ratio 1:1, and the major steps followed for gasification are mentioned here. (1) In the first step, the mixed raw material is fed from the top into a downdraft gasifier, and air enters over air inlets through which firing also takes place using a diesel torch. After operation of the gasifier for 15–20 min, the gas constantly comes out of the gasifier at a temperature of nearly 450°C. (2) In the second step, the gas is cooled and cleaned in the scrubber. As the gas is passed through a jet of cold water, the particulates, dust, and gases such as HCl, H2S, SO2, and NH3 are removed as they are water soluble. All the tar present in the gas is also washed in the scrubber. (3) In the third step, the gas is passed through a drum-shaped secondary filter containing a mixture of wood chips and powder. As the gas passes through the filter, the particulate matter is absorbed along with the excessive moisture present. Gas with high purity and temperature of nearly 50°C comes out of the filter. (4) In the final step, the gas is passed through a safety filter, which contains a paper filter. The minute soot particles are absorbed by the filter and gas with higher purity, and 35°C temperature is obtained.
\nIn spark ignition engines, the use of producer gas is already established. However, its use in a dual fuel CI engine as an inducted fuel is still a topic of research [72]. In dual fuel engines, the producer gas is inducted along with the air into the cylinder, and it is ignited by injecting a small quantity of diesel or other similar fuel such as biodiesel. Some of the research on producer gas being used as a dual fuel compression ignition engine fuel is discussed here. Ramadhas et al. [73] used producer gas produced from coir pith and wood for fueling a dual fuel engine with diesel as the direct injected fuel. The authors observed a reduction in brake thermal efficiency with dual fuel operation as compared to neat diesel operation. The energy consumption of dual fuel operation was also higher. At part-load conditions, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions were higher with dual fuel operations. The smoke density was similar for all the tested fuels. The authors found that producer gas (made from wood chips) fueled dual fuel operation performed well than coir pith engine operation. Also, the engine could be run only to 50–60% of the maximum load. In another study by Ramadhas et al. [74], coir pith was used to produce producer gas, and rubber seed oil was used as the direct injected fuel. The authors observed that with diesel and rubber seed oil, the engine performance reduced in dual fuel mode. The fuel consumption with rubber seed oil as direct injected fuel is more than diesel as a pilot fuel. At all loads, the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions are higher with rubber seed oil-fueled dual fuel operation on account of higher fuel consumption due to lower calorific value of fuel. The other exhaust emissions are almost the same. Similar study was conducted by Singh and Mohapatra [71], who directly injected diesel and inducted producer gas in the air produced from sugarcane bagasse and carpentry waste mixed equally during gasification. The authors observed a maximum reduction of 45.7% in consumption of diesel and 69.5% reduction in NOx emissions along with a slight increase in engine noise.
\nSingh et al. [75] blended refined rice bran oil (75% v/v) with diesel and used producer gas produced from wood in a three-cylinder diesel engine. It was observed that at 84% of the maximum engine load with a compression ratio of 18.4:1, the pollutant concentration reduced by 48.28, 61.06, and 80.49% for HC, NO, and NO2, respectively; however, in comparison to diesel, CO emission increased by 16.31%.The authors also observed an increase in noise levels with producer gas induction at all the loads. Honge oil and Honge oil methyl ester were used as a pilot fuel with producer gas as the injected fuel with and without carburetor by Banapurmath and Tiwari [76]. The authors found that producer gas and honge oil engine operation resulted in higher emission levels and low thermal efficiency due to lower heat content and high viscosity of honge oil along with the low burning speed of producer gas. With methyl ester of honge oil and producer gas in dual-fuel engine operation, brake thermal efficiency improves on account of higher calorific value and low viscosity. Overall, with dual fuel operation, smoke and NOx emissions reduce, whereas HC and CO emissions increase considerably.
\nCarlucci et al. [77] used biodiesel and a synthetic producer gas for a dual fuel engine operation. The authors initially varied the injection pressure, injection timing of biodiesel with a single-pilot injection, and also varied the producer gas flow rate. The results revealed that the combustion is affected by both injection timing and pressure. The thermal efficiency was higher with slightly advanced injection timing along with low injection pressure. Lowering of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions was observed, whereas an increase in NOx emission occurs. In the second phase, the splitting of the pilot fuel injection was carried out, which leads to improved fuel efficiency and reduced pollutants compared to single-pilot fuel injection at low loads. The authors also concluded that injection pressure plays a vital role in reducing gaseous emissions.
\nHydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas, which produces heat and water when combusted with oxygen at high pressure and temperature. Hydrogen has high energy content as compared to other fuels. However, its density is low, that is, the storage space required for a vehicle to run on hydrogen for the same distance is more than gasoline [78]. Table 2 compares the properties of hydrogen with diesel and gasoline.
\nProperty | \nGasoline | \nDiesel | \nHydrogen | \n
---|---|---|---|
Density at 1 atm. and 15°C (kg/m3) | \n721–785 | \n833–881 | \n0.0898 | \n
Stoichiometric A/F | \n14.8 | \n14.5 | \n34.3 | \n
Flammability limits (Vol.% in air) | \n1.4–7.6 | \n0.6–7.5 | \n4–75 | \n
Auto-ignition temperature (°C) | \n246–280 | \n210 | \n585 | \n
Lower calorific value at 1 atm. and 15°C (kJ/kg) | \n44,500 | \n42,500 | \n120,000 | \n
Properties of gasoline, diesel, and hydrogen.
The flammability limits of hydrogen are wide, which make its use suitable for a wide range of air-fuel mixture. The engine can be operated at lean mixtures, which considerably improves the fuel economy as complete combustion takes place with few residues. Hydrogen has high diffusivity and flame speed because of which faster combustion takes place at near constant volume. However, due to its high auto-ignition temperature, it is suitable for a spark ignition engine, whereas for its use in a diesel engine, a low auto-ignition temperature fuel is required to initiate combustion. Also, the engine may knock or detonate due to its low ignition energy requirement.
\nHydrogen in gaseous state is not available on Earth due to its low density as it is pushed out from the gravitational pull of the Earth. However, it exists in the combined form in natural resources such as coal, natural gas, fossil fuels, and water. Presently, small amount of hydrogen is produced using renewable sources such as wind, solar, geothermal energy, and biomass, and nearly 95% of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels. Therefore, the hydrogen production is costly, and a large amount of emissions are produced. For a true hydrogen economy to exist, the hydrogen needs to be produced abundantly and economically from renewable sources. Hydrogen can be produced by natural gas reforming, gasification of biomass, and electrolysis of water.
\nMethane reforming is the most common method of hydrogen production in the United States. In this method, methane and steam are reformed at 3−25 bar pressure and 700–1000°C temperature in the presence of a catalyst. The by-products of the reaction are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Heat is required for the process as it is endothermic. The carbon monoxide subsequently is reacted with steam in the presence of a catalyst, resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. This reaction is called water gas shift reaction. Lastly, using the pressure-swing adsorption process, the gas is freed of all the carbon dioxide and other impurities, which leaves only pure hydrogen [79]. The steam reforming can also be carried out on other fuels such as ethanol, propane, and even gasoline. This process can become truly renewable if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources.
\nHydrogen can be produced by gasification of biomass and coal. Biomass is a renewable source, which includes crop residue, forest residue, algae, crops grown specifically for energy use (switchgrass), municipal wastes, and animal waste. Since carbon dioxide is captured from the atmosphere by biomass itself, the net carbon emissions of the process are low. In gasification process, the carbon-rich material at a temperature greater than 700°C is converted to hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen and/or steam. Water is then reacted with carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and more amount of hydrogen via the water-gas shift mechanism. Gasification process can also be carried out using solar energy [80].
\nHydrogen and oxygen can form by passing an electric current through water. The process is called electrolysis, and this process consumes the highest energy for production of hydrogen [81]. However, the process is clean and free of emission if the energy source used for electricity production is renewable.
\nHydrogen can also be produced from other sources such as reforming of renewable liquid, splitting of water using solar, high-temperature thermochemical water splitting, and microbes [82, 83].
\nHydrogen is a carbon-free substance; therefore, no greenhouse gas emissions take place from its combustion in an IC engine. Hydrogen has good heat transfer characteristics, which increases the combustion temperature resulting in improved engine efficiency even at lean mixture operation [84]. This section describes the methods and the compression ignition engine performance characteristics when operated in dual fuel mode with hydrogen.
\nBack in 1978, Homan et al. [85] used hydrogen to operate a diesel engine. The authors realized that the engine has limited operation range because of its high auto-ignition temperature, which could not be resolved by even increasing the compression ratio up to 29. They later investigated the use of glow plugs and a multiple strike spark plug. The results showed that both the methods resulted in providing reliable ignition and smooth engine operation. The authors also observed reduction in ignition delay; however, the indicated mean effective pressure was higher than diesel-fueled engine operation. Moreover, the cyclic variations in ignition delay were significant along with the formation of high amplitude waves in the combustion chamber [86].
\nAn indirect injection single-cylinder diesel engine was operated with hydrogen only by Ikegami et al. [87, 88]. The authors found that the engine had limited operation range with hydrogen. The authors were able to extend the operating limit and attain smoother combustion by injecting small amounts of pilot fuel in the swirl chamber as the pilot fuel became the source of ignition for the hydrogen. However, excessive pilot fuel presence resulted in its auto-ignition resulting in rough engine operation.
\nDirect use of hydrogen as CI engine fuel is possible within a limited operating range due to its high auto-ignition temperature. To increase the engine’s operation range, hydrogen needs to be supplemented by a low auto-ignition temperature fuel such as diesel, vegetable oils, and biodiesel. Such an engine is called dual fuel engine, wherein hydrogen is either inducted in a carburetor or injected in the intake manifold or the intake port. The low auto-ignition fuel, called pilot fuel, is injected directly into the combustion chamber when the piston is approaching top dead center and the fuel ignites the hydrogen-air mixture. It has been observed that port injection of hydrogen shows better engine performance and reduction of emissions in comparison to manifold injection or use of a carburetor [89, 90, 91].
\nVarde and Frame [92] aspirated small amounts of hydrogen in the intake of a single-cylinder diesel engine for investigating the possibility of smoke reduction. They observed that the smoke levels reduced at part- and full-load conditions. The optimum hydrogen energy share for smoke reduction lies between 10 and 15%. At optimum energy share, the smoke reduced by nearly 50 and 17% at part- and full-load conditions, respectively. Unburned hydrocarbon emission was not affected by hydrogen injection; however, NOx emission increased with an increase in hydrogen addition especially at loads above 50% of full load. The NOx emission increase is due to the increase in the combustion temperature, which increases with an increase in hydrogen addition as well as load. Lilik et al. [93] also observed an increase in NOx emission for a hydrogen dual fuel engine with diesel as a pilot fuel. The authors injected hydrogen in the intake air up to 15% of the energy share. The authors also observed a shift in the ratio of nitrogen oxide to nitrogen dioxide, wherein the nitrogen oxide decreased and nitrogen dioxide increased.
\nExhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been proved to be the best method for NOx reduction and for suppressing knocking in a hydrogen dual fuel engine [94, 95, 96]. In EGR, the exhaust gas is reintroduced in the cylinder. As it has high-specific heat, it absorbs the combustion heat and reduces the cylinder temperature leading to reduction in NOx formation. However, introducing the exhaust gas also reduces the amount of oxygen available resulting in increase in smoke, CO, and HC emission. Although these emissions may increase, they will be still lower than diesel operation [97].
\nBose and Maji [95] compared the performance and emission characteristics with and without EGR of a neat diesel engine and a hydrogen diesel dual-fuel engine. The brake thermal efficiency without EGR for hydrogen fueled engine was higher than neat diesel operation. Higher flow rates of hydrogen deteriorated the engine efficiency. The engine efficiency was adversely affected by EGR. The smoke emissions reduced with hydrogen induction; however, with EGR, the smoke levels increased, but they were still lower than neat diesel operation. The authors observed that in order to reduce NOx emissions by 40%, 20% EGR is necessary.
\nSaravanan and Nagarajan [98] injected hydrogen in a dual-fuel diesel engine using a carburetor, injector placed in the port (TPI) and injector placed in the manifold (TMI). The port injector and manifold injector were located 5 and 100 mm from the intake valve seat, respectively. The injection timing used for diesel was 23°BTDC. The optimized injection timing for hydrogen port injection was 5° before gas exchange top dead center (BGTDC) with 30° CA injection duration. The observations made during running of the engine at different operating conditions were as follows: (a) engine operation was unstable during the late injection (30°AGTDC) especially at higher loads and with the injection duration of 90°CA, (b) knocking of the engine at flow rates greater than 25 lpm, and (c) with port and manifold injection of hydrogen greater than 20 lpm flow rate, smoke emissions increased rapidly. The brake thermal efficiency and peak heat release rate were high for both port and manifold injections. The engine efficiency with carburetion was lower than neat diesel operation. NOx was higher for both TPI and TMI modes. HC, CO, CO2, and smoke emissions reduced with all the three modes. It was concluded that using H2 as a fuel and adopting TPI gave better efficiency and emission reduction than all the other modes.
\nThe challenge with hydrogen induction is that at high loads, the engine performance is limited due to knocking. EGR is one of the ways to extend the knock limit of the engine, but as discussed earlier, it tends to increase the harmful emissions. Another way of reducing the knock at higher loads is injection of water as it can control the combustion phase. Chintala and Subramanian [99] inducted water at various specific water consumption (SWC) in a hydrogen-fueled dual fuel engine. The authors found that the optimum SWC of 200 h/kWh lead to a knock-free operation up to 20% hydrogen energy share resulting in 24% NOx emission reduction and 5.7% reduction in efficiency. The carbon monoxide emission increased from 0 g/kWh without water injection to 1.2 g/kWh with water injection. The authors conducted another study [100], wherein they were able to increase the hydrogen energy share without knocking of the engine from 18 to 24 and 36% by retarding the injection timing and injecting water, respectively.
\nNatural gas can also be used as an injected fuel in a dual fuel engine. However, the engine efficiency is low followed by high emissions due to slow rate of burning of natural gas. Hydrogen can be used to supplement natural gas such that the engine’s performance can improve and the emissions can reduce. One such study was conducted by McTaggart-Cowan et al. [101], wherein the authors used a single-cylinder engine fueled with natural gas blended with 10 and 23% hydrogen (by volume). In this study, the mixture of hydrogen and methane was injected directly into the cylinder, and diesel was used as a pilot fuel. Diesel was injected approximately 1 ms prior to the natural gas to initiate the combustion process. The dual fuel injector used concentric needles. The results show that with 10% H2, NOx, and PM emissions remained almost the same though CO and THC were slightly reduced. With 23% H2, NOx increased slightly, while CO, THC, and CO2 were reduced. Also, the peak heat release rate was 20% higher than natural gas. With PM, significant influence was seen at latest injection timings (15° ATDC), where it was found to decrease. At such timings, the burn duration for 23% H2 was also substantially reduced. The combustion variability (COVGIMEP) for 10% H2/methane fuel reduced only at late timings, while with 23% H2, it reduced for all injection timings. The combustion stability was found to improve, and the effect of hydrogen addition was observed to be consistent with variations in injection timings and pressure.
\nBiodiesel and its blends with diesel have also been used by many researchers as a pilot fuel in a hydrogen-fueled dual fuel engine. Geo et al. [102] used rubber seed oil and rubber seed oil methyl ester as the direct injected fuel and hydrogen as the injected fuel in the intake port in a dual fuel engine to reduce smoke and increase the engine’s thermal efficiency. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine increased by nearly 1.5%, whereas the smoke emission reduced by more than 30% with hydrogen induction. The maximum hydrogen energy share at full load that the engine can tolerate was 12.69% with diesel, 11.2% with rubber seed oil methyl ester, and 10.76% with rubber seed oil. The HC and CO emissions reduced at all loads with hydrogen induction for all the fuels. However, the NOx emissions increased for all the fuels with an increase in hydrogen induction. The authors attributed the increase to high combustion temperature because of high premixed combustion. The authors also observed higher emission values and lower efficiency with rubber seed oil due to poor mixture formation because of high viscosity of the fuel.
\nPalm oil methyl ester was blended with diesel in various proportion, and the blends were used as a pilot fuel in a single-cylinder dual fuel engine along with hydrogen as the injected fuel [103]. The performance and emission characteristics of the engine were recorded at 50% load and full load. The authors observed that at 25% blend of palm oil methyl ester in a liter of diesel, the engine gave the best efficiency at 5 lpm flow rate of hydrogen. Hydrogen induction resulted in drastic reduction in carbon monoxide emissions. However, unburnt hydrocarbon emissions increased at 5 lpm flow rate, but with increase in flow rate to 10 lpm, some reduction in emission level was observed.
\nBiodiesel produced from waste cooking oil can also be used as a pilot fuel in a hydrogen dual fuel engine. Kumar and Jaikumar [104] used waste cooking oil (WCO) and emulsion of waste cooking as direct injected fuel and hydrogen as manifold injected fuel in a dual fuel engine. Dual fuel operation reduced CO, HC, and smoke emissions with waste cooking oil as a pilot fuel at all loads; however, thermal efficiency reduced at 40% load. The ignition delay with WCO emulsion is higher than neat WCO, which further increases with hydrogen induction. The authors observed improvement in engine performance with hydrogen induction at high loads and fall in performance at low loads with WCO emulsion as a pilot fuel.
\nDimethyl ether (DME) is the simplest ether with chemical formula of CH3OCH3. DME in gaseous state is colorless, nontoxic, and highly flammable with a slight narcotic effect. By slightly pressurizing the gas, it can also be handled as a liquid fuel. DME and liquefied petroleum gas have similar properties. Moreover, the cetane number of DME is greater than 55. A blue flame is visible while burning DME, and it has wide flammability limits [105, 106, 107, 108]. Table 3 shows the physicochemical properties of DME and diesel.
\nProperty | \nDME | \nDiesel | \n
---|---|---|
Vapor pressure at 20°C (bar) | \n5.1 | \n<0.01 | \n
Boiling temperature (°C) | \n−25 | \n~150–380 | \n
Liquid density at 20°C (kg/m3) | \n660 | \n800–840 | \n
Liquid viscosity at 25°C (kg/ms) | \n0.12–0.15 | \n2–4 | \n
Gas specific gravity (vs air) | \n1.59 | \n– | \n
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | \n28.43 | \n42.5 | \n
Cetane number | \n55–60 | \n40–55 | \n
Stoichiometric A/F ratio (kg/kg) | \n9.0 | \n14.6 | \n
Enthalpy of vaporization at normal temperature and pressure (kJ/kg) | \n460 (−20°C) | \n250 | \n
Properties of DME and diesel [109].
Advantages of dimethyl ether are as follows: (a) high content of oxygen and the absence of any bond between carbon atoms result in low smoke formation, (b) low boiling point results in quick evaporation of fuel spray, and (c) auto-ignition temperature of DME is low, and its cetane number is high, which reduces the physical ignition delay [110]. The disadvantages of DME are as follows: (a) the calorific value is less due to the presence of oxygen molecules, hence the fuel required to produce the same power is more; (b) it has viscosity lower than diesel, which causes leakage in the fuel system, and due to its low lubricity, the fuel injection system surface wear may be high; and (c) its bulk modulus of elasticity is low, it can be compressed nearly four to six times that of diesel, and more work has to be put in the fuel pump to compress the fuel to the same level of diesel [111].
\nDME is usually used as a spray-can propellant and in cosmetics. Both fossil fuels and renewable energy sources can be used to produce DME. Dehydrogenation of methanol and direct conversion of syngas [112] are the two processes used for DME production. The two methods are essentially similar.
\nIn the direct conversion method, syngas can be used to simultaneously produce DME and methanol using suitable catalysts. The first step of the direct conversion process is the conversion to syngas by either reforming natural gas using steam or partial oxidation of coal and biomass by using pure oxygen. In the second step, a copper-based catalyst is used to synthesize methanol from syngas. In the third step, alumina or zeolite-based catalyst is used to dehydrogenate methanol to form DME. Lastly, the raw product is purified as it may contain some amount of methanol and water. Bio-DME can be produced using renewable sources; however, the production route is costly relative to diesel [110].
\nDME can be used in an engine as a neat fuel or by blending it with diesel, biodiesel, or LPG. This section briefly describes the effect of DME on a diesel engine in terms of its efficiency, combustion, and the exhaust emissions.
\nA direct injection single-cylinder diesel engine was used by Sato et al. [113] for operating with DME. The engine was supercharged with a multiple hole injector. The authors observed that heat release and combustion pressure with DME-fueled engine are higher than diesel. Also, the engine had lower ignition delay and higher indicated mean effective pressure with DME engine operation than diesel engine operation. The authors found NOx emission reduction by one-third with DME with an increase in the exhaust gas recirculation rate. Carbon dioxide emission was lower than diesel. In middle- and low-load conditions, the energy consumption was higher than diesel.
\nThe fuel injection system of a diesel engine needs to be redesigned for operating with DME due to its low lubricity, viscosity, lower heating value, and elasticity. Lubricity can be improved by adding additives; however, for other issues, new materials need to be developed. DME is soluble in hydrocarbons, which make it a lucrative proposition, such as propane blending improves the calorific value of the blend or biodiesel blending improves the lubricity and viscosity of the blend.
\nYing et al. [114] blended DME with diesel in various proportions and found decrease in lower heating value, kinematic viscosity, and aromatic fraction of the blends. Cetane number, carbon to hydrogen ratio, and oxygen content of the blends increased. The authors found low fuel consumption for the blends at high engine speed than diesel operation. At high engine speeds, the velocity of the plunger is high in the fuel pump, which makes the pressure in the plunger lower than DME vapor pressure, hence vaporizing the DME in the plunger, thereby reducing the effective stroke of the plunger and fuel delivered per stroke. However, at lower speed, the vaporizing rate is not much, hence more quantity of blended fuel is delivered due to high delivery pressure and the fuel consumption is higher. The impact on emissions due to blends varies with varying load conditions. At high loads, the effect of blends on smoke is significant, whereas at low loads, the smoke emission is slightly affected. NOx emission decreases a little, whereas HC and CO emissions increase at all operating conditions. The decrease in NOx emission is due to lower combustion temperature caused by shorter ignition delay and less amount of fuel prepared for premixed combustion caused by high cetane number and lower auto-ignition temperature [113, 115]. Also, the blend injection timing is delayed due to low elasticity [116] than diesel, which further reduces the NOx emission.
\nRapeseed oil was blended with DME at 2, 4, 6, and 10% volume by volume ratio by Wang and Zhou [117]. The results show that engine performance is good with different blends in all operating conditions. With the increase in rapeseed oil percentage in the blend, the power and torque output of the engine increase as well as the NOx emission increases. Smoke emissions were insignificant up to 6% of rapeseed oil in the blend; however, with further increase in rapeseed percentage, the emission level increased drastically. The authors also observed increase in the heat release rate and the fraction of the fuel burned in premixed combustion phase with an increase in rapeseed oil mass fraction.
\nIn another study, Hou et al. [118] used blends of used cooking oil and DME in a turbocharged compression ignition engine. The authors also observed that increase of DME proportion in the blends reduced the peak in-cylinder temperature, pressure, ignition delay, and peak heat release rate. The authors varied the nozzle hole diameter (0.35 and 0.4 mm) and found that peak cylinder pressure and heat release are higher for 0.35 mm nozzle, and the combustion phase is also advanced. NOx emissions with 0.4 mm diameter are lower than 0.35 mm diameter at 100% DME, whereas at 50% blend of DME, NOx emission is higher with 0.4 mm diameter than 0.35 mm diameter. HC and CO emissions are lower with 0.4 mm diameter at 50% blend of DME, and the emissions increased when 100% DME is used with 0.4 mm diameter nozzle.
\nSince DME and LPG have similar physicochemical properties, DME can be handled and stored in a similar manner. Also, the infrastructure used to supply LPG can be used for DME supply for DME-fueled vehicles [119, 120]. DME and LPG can be easily blended, and they compensate for each other’s disadvantage namely LPG’s low cetane number and DME’s low calorific value.
\nLee et al. [121] used a single-cylinder diesel engine for operating with blends of n-butane and DME. The n-butane was varied from 0 to 40% by mass in the blend. The n-butane content above 30% resulted in poor self-ignition and unstable combustion, especially at low loads. The increase in n-butane content led to late start of combustion due to ignition delay caused by reduced cetane number. High HC and CO emissions were observed with higher n-butane content due to partial burning of the charge caused by over mixing of the unburnt charge and the burnt charge. NOx emissions were higher at low loads and low n-butane content, which are mainly due to early start of combustion giving more time for NOx formation. Whereas, at high load and high n-butane content, the NOx emission is higher. Also, the NOx emissions are lower with blended fuels than diesel engine operation. Less smoke emissions were detected for medium and low loads.
\nAs already highlighted, depleting petroleum reserves and climate change is mandating the use of alternative fuel to give a new life to millions of off- and on-road engines. The benefits of alternative fuels are enormous for developing countries such as energy security, social empowerment, employment generation, and substantial savings of foreign exchange. The fossil fuels are neither sustainable nor inexhaustible, and alternatives must be explored to address different issues with the use of petroleum-derived fuels.
\nThere are greater challenges with the use of alternative fuels due to their adaptability with the vital parts of engines, cost, availability of feedstocks, and so on. Also, knowledge of important chemical, physical, thermodynamic, and logistics features of the alternative fuel are very much required for large-scale adaptation. Moreover, production of alternative fuels is a complex process, and keeping track of constantly upgrading technology shall be very helpful to drastically reduce the cost and production time.
\nIt is not possible for a single-alternative fuel to completely replace the diesel, and various options have both positive and negative attributes. The alternative fuels reduce the risk to health as they are clean burning. The engine performance is quite similar, and well-to-wheel analysis is required for estimating the operating cost. Since various disciplines are linked with production and adaptation of alternative fuels, synergy is necessary among research fraternity to understand the efficacy of different options. Some of the fuels are very promising, but further research is required to prove their potential. It is envisaged that with the enforcement of more stringent norms, the alternative fuels would become more attractive either as a drop in fuels or blend. It can be concluded that diesel engines can be fueled in an efficient and sustainable way with various options of alternative fuels with some trade-off on price and performance; however, they are capable of bringing a new era of green environment.
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Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",middleName:null,surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:12,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"20922",doi:"10.5772/21416",title:"Sediment Transport and River Channel Dynamics in Romania – Variability and Control Factors",slug:"sediment-transport-and-river-channel-dynamics-in-romania-variability-and-control-factors",totalDownloads:3045,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"304",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",fullTitle:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments"},signatures:"Liliana Zaharia, Florina Grecu, Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac and Gianina Neculau",authors:[{id:"43010",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",slug:"liliana-zaharia",fullName:"Liliana Zaharia"},{id:"55977",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ioana-Toroimac",slug:"gabriela-ioana-toroimac",fullName:"Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac"},{id:"91185",title:"Prof.",name:"Grecu",middleName:null,surname:"Florina",slug:"grecu-florina",fullName:"Grecu Florina"},{id:"91186",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianina",middleName:null,surname:"Neculau",slug:"gianina-neculau",fullName:"Gianina Neculau"}]},{id:"66461",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85139",title:"Fish Sperm Physiology: Structure, Factors Regulating Motility, and Motility Evaluation",slug:"fish-sperm-physiology-structure-factors-regulating-motility-and-motility-evaluation",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"For reproduction, most fish species adopt external fertilization: their spermatozoa are delivered in the external milieu (marine- or freshwater) that represents both a drastic environment and a source of signals that control the motility function. This chapter is an updated overview of the signaling pathways going from external signals such as osmolarity and ionic concentration and their membrane reception to their transduction through the membrane and their final reception at the flagellar axoneme level. Additional factors such as energy management will be addressed as they constitute a limiting factor of the motility period of fish spermatozoa. Modern technologies used nowadays for quantitative description of fish sperm flagella in movement will be briefly described as they are more and more needed for prediction of the quality of sperm used for artificial propagation of many fish species used in aquaculture. The chapter will present some applications of these technologies and the information to which they allow access in some aquaculture species.",book:{id:"7912",slug:"biological-research-in-aquatic-science",title:"Biological Research in Aquatic Science",fullTitle:"Biological Research in Aquatic Science"},signatures:"Jacky Cosson",authors:[{id:"188281",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacky",middleName:null,surname:"Cosson",slug:"jacky-cosson",fullName:"Jacky Cosson"}]},{id:"20911",doi:"10.5772/19948",title:"The Significance of Suspended Sediment Transport Determination on the Amazonian Hydrological Scenario",slug:"the-significance-of-suspended-sediment-transport-determination-on-the-amazonian-hydrological-scenari",totalDownloads:4122,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"304",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",fullTitle:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments"},signatures:"Naziano Filizola, Jean-Loup Guyot, Hella Wittmann, Jean-Michel Martinez and Eurides de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"36890",title:"Dr.",name:"Naziano",middleName:null,surname:"Filizola",slug:"naziano-filizola",fullName:"Naziano Filizola"},{id:"60004",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez",slug:"jean-michel-martinez",fullName:"Jean-Michel Martinez"},{id:"60005",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Loup",middleName:null,surname:"Guyot",slug:"jean-loup-guyot",fullName:"Jean-Loup Guyot"},{id:"102592",title:"Dr.",name:"Hella",middleName:null,surname:"Wittmann",slug:"hella-wittmann",fullName:"Hella Wittmann"},{id:"102593",title:"Mr.",name:"Eurides",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"eurides-de-oliveira",fullName:"Eurides De Oliveira"}]},{id:"56153",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69686",title:"Deep Gorgonians and Corals of the Mediterranean Sea",slug:"deep-gorgonians-and-corals-of-the-mediterranean-sea",totalDownloads:1720,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Recent studies, carried out by means of innovative technological tools as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), have highlighted the richness of the Mediterranean deep‐sea environments, characterized by great diversity and abundance of organisms. In particular, corals, gorgonians, and sponges play the important ecological role of ecosystem engineers in deep marine environments, creating complex three‐dimensional habitats enhancing high biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at every level. Coral forests and bathyal white coral communities, starting from depths of 50–70 m and below 300 m, respectively, represent the richest ecosystems known so far for the Mediterranean basin. The different assemblages show a strong heterogeneity, varying in terms of specific composition, abundance, size of colonies, and associated fauna, even on a small spatial scale. Unfortunately, the high commercial fishing effort of trawling and longline fleets mainly operating along this bathymetric range represents a major threat for these vulnerable marine ecosystems, particularly in consideration of their structuring organisms which are long‐lived species with slow growth rates and recovery ability. Further knowledge on deep coral assemblages is urgently needed to implement effective management and proper conservation measures. This approach is now an international priority that proceeds together with the inclusion of the structuring species in numerous directives.",book:{id:"5765",slug:"corals-in-a-changing-world",title:"Corals in a Changing World",fullTitle:"Corals in a Changing World"},signatures:"Michela Angiolillo and Simonepietro Canese",authors:[{id:"197032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Michela",middleName:null,surname:"Angiolillo",slug:"michela-angiolillo",fullName:"Michela Angiolillo"},{id:"197763",title:"Dr.",name:"Simonepietro",middleName:null,surname:"Canese",slug:"simonepietro-canese",fullName:"Simonepietro Canese"}]},{id:"60698",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74923",title:"Overview on Mediterranean Shark’s Fisheries: Impact on the Biodiversity",slug:"overview-on-mediterranean-shark-s-fisheries-impact-on-the-biodiversity",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Bibliographic analysis shows that the Mediterranean Sea is a hot spot for cartilaginous species biodiversity, including sharks, rays, and chimaeras; 49 sharks and 36 rays were recorded in this region. However, they are by far the most endangered group of marine fish in the Mediterranean Sea. The IUCN Red List shows clearly the vulnerability of elasmobranchs and the lack of data; 39 species (53% of 73 assessed species) are critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. The biological characteristics of elasmobranchs (low fecundity, late maturity, and slow growth) make them more vulnerable to fishing pressure than most teleost fish. Overfishing, the wide use of nonselective fishing practices, and habitat degradation are leading to dramatic declines of these species in the Mediterranean Sea. In general, elasmobranchs are not targeted but are caught incidentally. In many fisheries, they are, however, often landed and marketed. A decline in cartilaginous fish species landings has been observed while fishing effort has generally increased. Better understanding of the composition of incidental and targeted catches of sharks by commercial fisheries are fundamentally important for the conservation of these populations. Moreover, problems encountered by elasmobranchs in the area are highlighted, and conservation measures are suggested.",book:{id:"6266",slug:"marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions",title:"Marine Ecology",fullTitle:"Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions"},signatures:"Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai, Bechir Saidi and Samira Enajjar",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60368",title:"Biological and Medicinal Importance of Sponge",slug:"biological-and-medicinal-importance-of-sponge",totalDownloads:2505,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sponges are multicellular, heterotrophic parazoan organisms, characterized by the possession of unique feeding system among the animals. They are the most primitive types of animals in existence, featuring a cell-based organization where different cells have different tasks, but do not form tissues. Sponges (Porifera) are a predominantly marine phylum living from the intertidal to the abyssal (deepest ocean) zone. There are approximately 8500 described species of sponges worldwide with a prominent role in many reef coral communities. Several ecological studies reported have shown that secondary metabolites isolated from sponges often serve defensive purposes to protect them from threats such as predator attacks, biofouling, microbial infections, and overgrowth by other sessile organisms. In the recent years, interest in marine sponges has risen considerably due to presence of high number of interesting biologically active natural products. More than 5300 different natural products are known from sponges and their associated microorganisms, and every year hundreds of new substances are discovered. In addition to the unusual nucleosides, other classes of substances such as bioactive terpenes, sterols, fatty acids, alkaloids, cyclic peptides, peroxides, and amino acid derivatives (which are frequently halogenated) have been described from sponges or from their associated microorganisms. Many of these natural products from sponges have shown a wide range of pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antifungal, antiviral, anthelmintic, antiprotozoal, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, neurosuppressive, and antifouling activities. This chapter covers extensive work published regarding new compounds isolated from marine sponges and biological activities associated with them.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Musarat Amina and Nawal M. Al Musayeib",authors:[{id:"213049",title:"Dr.",name:"Musarat",middleName:null,surname:"Amina",slug:"musarat-amina",fullName:"Musarat Amina"},{id:"213050",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawal",middleName:null,surname:"M. Al Musayeib",slug:"nawal-m.-al-musayeib",fullName:"Nawal M. Al Musayeib"}]},{id:"59865",title:"Marine Fisheries in Nigeria: A Review",slug:"marine-fisheries-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:3852,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Fisheries production especially from marine is important for the socio-economic development of Nigerians and its contribution to the nation’s economic growth through the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Nigeria is blessed with enough marine fisheries resources that could enhance increased fish production. Yet, fish supply from domestic production is far below the fish demand of her citizens. This chapter is therefore focused on marine fisheries in Nigeria. We adopted a desk review approach. This chapter is divided into different sections such as the Nigerian fisheries sector, marine fisheries resources in Nigeria, status of marine fisheries production in Nigeria, marine fisheries regulations, and constraints to optimal marine fisheries production in Nigeria. We concluded that the contribution of aquaculture to marine fisheries production has been low, compared to the marine capture fisheries production. Also, we noted that despite the availability of regulations, noncompliance by fisher folks has not helped to optimize marine fisheries production. We therefore recommended that the culture of marine fishes should be intensified. Marine waters should also be protected against destruction and pollution as a result of human activities. Available marine fisheries regulations should be enforced and violators of the regulations should be punished as stipulated in the regulations.",book:{id:"6266",slug:"marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions",title:"Marine Ecology",fullTitle:"Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions"},signatures:"Olalekan Jacob Olaoye and Wahab Gbenga Ojebiyi",authors:null},{id:"57327",title:"Closed Aquaculture System: Zero Water Discharge for Shrimp and Prawn Farming in Indonesia",slug:"closed-aquaculture-system-zero-water-discharge-for-shrimp-and-prawn-farming-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:2465,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the development and application of zero water discharge (ZWD) system, which has become an alternative solution to conventional methods of aquaculture production. With this system, it is expected to answer many issues in aquaculture cultivation, such as environmental damage, disease outbreak, and land-use change, and to create a sustainable aquaculture cultivation system. ZWD system is an improved batch system with an emphasis on microbial manipulation in rearing tank. The principle of microbial selection is based on the role of each microbial component in nutrient cycle in the rearing tank. This chapter contains in detail how methods and stages are performed in order to conduct this system, including design of construction system, cultivation of microbial components, initial conditioning of this system, and microbial manipulation. The performance of the system was tested in crustacean culture such as white shrimp and giant freshwater prawns, and it showed that the system can increase the average survival rate of 10–20%. In addition, the technical and economic feasibility of this system was evaluated to illustrate the production efficiency upon the application of this system in the industry.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Gede Suantika, Magdalena Lenny Situmorang, Pingkan Aditiawati,\nDea Indriani Astuti, Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah and Harish\nMuhammad",authors:[{id:"216920",title:"Dr.",name:"Gede",middleName:null,surname:"Suantika",slug:"gede-suantika",fullName:"Gede Suantika"},{id:"220079",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena Lenny",middleName:null,surname:"Situmorang",slug:"magdalena-lenny-situmorang",fullName:"Magdalena Lenny Situmorang"},{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"220082",title:"Dr.",name:"Dea Indriani",middleName:null,surname:"Astuti",slug:"dea-indriani-astuti",fullName:"Dea Indriani Astuti"},{id:"220083",title:"MSc.",name:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur",middleName:null,surname:"Azizah",slug:"fahma-fiqhiyyah-nur-azizah",fullName:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah"}]},{id:"59973",title:"Genetic Applications in the Conservation of Neotropical Freshwater Fish",slug:"genetic-applications-in-the-conservation-of-neotropical-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:1626,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Neotropical fish correspond to approximately 30% of all fish species worldwide. The diversity of fish species found in Neotropical basins reflects variations in life-history strategies and exhibition of particular morphological, physiological and ecological attributes. These attributes are mainly related to different forms of feeding, life maintenance and reproduction. Today, fish populations are being threatened by anthropogenic actions that are having a visible impact on the natural state of continental aquatic ecosystems. The main causes are overfishing, non-native species introduction, reservoir-dam systems, mining, pollution and deforestation. The biology and population dynamics of the species are still unclear due to lack of research. Genetic tools can be useful resources for the conservation of Neotropical fish species in several ways. Molecular genetic markers are considered powerful tools to identify cryptic and hybrid fish and also allow the evaluation of the genetic variability and structure of populations of Neotropical ichthyofauna. Several analyses of molecular markers have been performed on Neotropical fish, including allozyme analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphisms in regions of DNA (RFLP), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (AFLP), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers. In order to analyse a high number of markers, next generation sequencing has allowed researchers to generate a large amount of genomic information that can be applied to the conservation of Neotropical fish.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Vito Antonio Mastrochirico Filho, Milena V. Freitas, Raquel B.\nAriede, Lieschen V.G. Lira, Natália J. Mendes and Diogo T.\nHashimoto",authors:[{id:"215385",title:"Dr.",name:"Diogo",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"diogo-hashimoto",fullName:"Diogo Hashimoto"},{id:"226741",title:"MSc.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Matrochirico-Filho",slug:"vito-matrochirico-filho",fullName:"Vito Matrochirico-Filho"},{id:"226743",title:"MSc.",name:"Milena",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"milena-freitas",fullName:"Milena Freitas"},{id:"226744",title:"MSc.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Ariede",slug:"raquel-ariede",fullName:"Raquel Ariede"},{id:"226745",title:"MSc.",name:"Natália",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",slug:"natalia-mendes",fullName:"Natália Mendes"},{id:"226746",title:"MSc.",name:"Lieschen",middleName:null,surname:"Lira",slug:"lieschen-lira",fullName:"Lieschen Lira"}]},{id:"62582",title:"Mangrove Species Distribution and Composition, Adaptive Strategies and Ecosystem Services in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria",slug:"mangrove-species-distribution-and-composition-adaptive-strategies-and-ecosystem-services-in-the-nige",totalDownloads:2139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Mangroves of the Niger River Delta grade into several plant communities from land to sea. This mangrove is a biodiversity hot spot, and one of the richest in ecosystem services in the world, but due to lack of data it is often not mentioned in many global mangrove studies. Inland areas are sandy and mostly inhabited by button wood mangroves (Conocarpus erectus) and grass species while seaward areas are mostly inhabited by red (Rhizophora racemosa), black (Laguncularia racemosa) and white (Avicennia germinans) mangroves species. Anthropogenic activities such as oil and gas exploration, deforestation, dredging, urbanization and invasive nypa palms had changed the soil type from swampy to sandy mud soil. Muddy soil supports nypa palms while sandy soil supports different grass species, core mangrove soil supports red mangroves (R. racemosa), which are the most dominant of all species, with importance value (Iv) of 52.02. The red mangroves are adapted to the swampy soils. They possess long root system (i.e. 10 m) that originates from the tree stem to the ground, to provide extra support. The red mangrove trees are economically most viable as the main source of fire wood for cooking, medicinal herbs and dyes for clothes.",book:{id:"6411",slug:"mangrove-ecosystem-ecology-and-function",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function",fullTitle:"Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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