",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4adab31469b82dd5a99eec04dbbe09f2",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sonia Oliveira and Prof. Maria De Lourdes Pereira",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7901.jpg",keywords:"Germ Cell Biology, Disorders, Tumors and Fertility, Nanoparticles, Microfluidics, Radiogenomics, Proteomics, Gene-Editing, Encapsulation, CRISPR, Assisted Reproductive Technologies, Biotechnology",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 21st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 20th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Sonia M. Oliveira is a postdoctoral research fellow associate member of CICECO, Aveiro Institute of Materials (Portugal), and HMRI, Hunter Medical Research Institute (Australia). She has received 7 awards and/or honors and is a member of international scientific societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira is an Associate Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal. She published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in scientific journals and over 23 book chapters.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"323848",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"sonia-oliveira",fullName:"Sonia Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323848/images/system/323848.jpg",biography:"Sonia M Oliveira is a postdoctoral research fellow associate member of CICECO, Aveiro Institute of Materials (Portugal), and HMRI, Hunter Medical Research Institute (Australia). Completed a Doctor of Philosophy in Human Physiology in 2018 by The University of Newcastle (Australia) and License in Research Animal Use in 2012 by The University of Newcastle. She holds a MSc in Molecular and Cellular Biology (2010) and Licenciatura in Biology (pre-Bologna) (2008) by the University of Aveiro (Portugal). Published ~ 20 original works including 2 book chapters. She edited 1 book and is Invited Guest Editor to a Special Issue in a peer-reviewed International Journal. Participated in several national and international event(s). Supervised MSc and LSc/BSc student(s) and, work(s) of course completion, and tutored and lectured different Life Sciences subjects in Portugal and in Australia. She has received 7 awards and/or honors and is member of international scientific societies. Works in the area(s) of Life sciences with emphasis on Biological Sciences, Cellular and Molecular Biology, Medical and Health Sciences, Neurosciences, Cancer Biology, Reproduction Biology and Stem Cells, Toxicology and Biomimetic systems.",institutionString:"University of Aveiro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpOwQAK/Profile_Picture_1592568232161",biography:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira is Associate Professor with Habilitation since 2003 at the University of Aveiro, Portugal. She obtained her doctorate in Biology in 1991 from the University of Aveiro and graduated in Biology from the University of Lisbon (1982). She published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in scientific journals and over 23 book chapters. She organized multiple national and international scientific meetings. She supervised 7 PhD students and co-supervised 5. She also supervised about 79 Master theses and co-supervised 63. She supervised multiple end-of degree dissertations and works and was awarded 2 prizes. She participates/ed as principal investigator in several funded projects and is/was a participant researcher in many others. Her tenure responsibilities are focused in the field of Biomedical Sciences with emphasis in pesticides, biomaterials and nanoparticles. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
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This chapter summarizes author´s experience with environmental impact assessment in branch of wind farms. The introductory part of chapter describes history and development of wind power utilization world-wide and in the Czech Republic. Next part of chapter deals with technology of wind turbines and their development. The final part of chapter deals with experience with environmental impacts of wind farms and implementation of the environmental impact assessment process (pursuant to the Act No. 100/2001 Coll. on environmental impact assessment, as amended) in the field of wind power in the Czech Republic.
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2. History and development of wind power utilization
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2.1. Significance of wind energy as a renewable source
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A direct impetus for the development of wind energetics in Europe was the energy crisis in 1973 caused by an embargo enforced by OPEC on the oil export into developed countries. Pressured by a sharp increase in the world-wide prices of oil, countries with own limited classical energy sources began to search for a possible utilization of renewable energy sources, including wind, in a wider scale. Denmark was the pioneer in the development of wind energetics in Europe as they started to construct the first wind farms at the end of the 1980s (Štekl et al., 1993).
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Wind energetics uses inexhaustible kinetic energy of the wind, totally for free, and thus it is not subject to inflation. In this manner, it reduces the dependence on the import of raw materials for power generation, namely from regions characteristic for their political instability. The principle of inexhaustibility of the wind gains on importance when compared with the brown coal reserves in the Czech Republic (CR). Adhering to the territorial environmental limits set by 1991 government decree, between 2040 and 2050 the extraction of brown coal shall drop below the level of the coal fired power plant needs (Štekl, 2008).
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Wind energetics is most environmentally friendly, which is currently extraordinarily important in the climate protection by means of reducing the production of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (Cetkovský et al., 2010).
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Another argument in favour of wind farms is the fact that the energy return on energy invested is much faster in wind farms than in case of nuclear or coal fired power plants. The time when a WF generates the same amount energy as expended to construct it ranges from 6 to 12 months at the WF lifespan of 20 years (Mathew, 2006).
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Building a WF strains the site in a minimum manner and, roughly, it is a question of one month. Dismantling of the structure takes 2-3 days and the structure hardly leaves any traces in the ground. Wind farms are excellent examples of multifunctional utilization of areas, which means that they permit utilization of agricultural land almost in the original extent both for plant growing as well as for pasturage.
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Thanks to reducing specific costs of a generated kWh from wind it may be expected that in the next few years the price of electric power generated from wind and brown coal shall level off (Mathew, 2006).
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2.2. Utilization of wind power within the Czech Republic in the past
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The first mention of a windmill in Europe comes from 833. Historical sources relate the construction of the first windmill within the territory of the Czech Republic to the year of 1277, namely in the garden of the Strahov Monastery in Prague. The oldest reference from Moravia and Silesia comes from the Opava region and dates back to 1340. Before the 17th century the mentions of windmills are sporadic. In the 18th century the development of wind millery was stimulated by a court decree on the establishment of windmills of 1784, which pursued the objective for each community to have a windmill. As a result, there were thirty windmills registered in Moravia and Silesia. The boom of wind millery in Bohemia is connected with the first half or the first two thirds of the 19th century (Pokorný, 1973). In total, 198 localities with windmills were documented in Bohemia then. In Moravia and Silesia the boom occurred later, namely in the second half or last third of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Within Moravia and Silesia there is a documented existence of 681 windmills (Burian, 1965). In total, within the territory of the CR there was a proven existence of 879 windmills (Cetkovský et al., 2010).
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2.3. Development of wind energetics world-wide and in the Czech Republic
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Along with cumulative problems in connection with fossil fuel utilization and environmental protection, wind energetics is getting into the forefront of interest and a formerly marginal and low prospective branch is gradually becoming one of the major trends of the world-wide power engineering.
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There are registered attempts of wind exploitation for power generation from the very beginning of electroenergetics as such. However, a more systematic development in the sphere of wind energy may be dated approximately into the second half of the 1970s. Oil shocks at that time brought attention to limited classical sources of energy and led to a search for alternatives, wind energy being one of those. As in the nature of new technologies, the beginnings were not easy and for a long time wind energy appeared as interesting but expensive, and not a very utilizable option in a wider scale.
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Nevertheless, development continued especially after a strong impulse from California which introduced a temporary generous support for wind energy in the 1980s. From today’s point of view of miniature wind farms this era is responsible for the famous arrays in the Californian passes of Tehachapi or Altamont. The technology was in its infancy then and not all the attempts brought success. However, the “Californian boom” contributed to testing various technological concepts and an elimination of diverse development dead ends.
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The following years were characteristic for a slow but more organized development under a systematic support, particularly from the part of Denmark and, to a smaller extent, some other European countries (particularly Denmark much benefited from the support and, as a result, it has currently become a technological leader in the field and wind energetics represents a considerable contribution within the national economy). The basic technological principle of wind farms does not change much nowadays, but it is their reliability, efficiency and last but not least their size that grow gradually. This jointly contributes to lower costs per unit of energy produced and permits a meaningful construction of wind farms also outside prominent localities on the sea coast (Cetkovský et al., 2010).
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A country which also takes advantage of the opportunity apart from Denmark is Germany. In connection with introducing favourable and transparent conditions for wind energy purchase and granting permissions for wind farm constructions there was an unprecedented development in the construction of wind farms, which started approximately in the mid 1990s and peaked in the early 21st century. At that time wind energetics turned out to be a considerably inexpensive method how to generate clean energy from home sources and not a mere inconvenient “alternative” technology.
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Figure 1.
Participation of the individual countries on the total wind farm output (left) and on the increase in the installed power capacity (right) in 2008 (according to GWEC - Global Wind Energy Council data)
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Globally, the present times may be seen as a vast boom in the construction of wind farms. This trend is given by having perfected the technology compared to the past (lower break-down rate and noisiness of the wind farms, higher outputs), a significant drop in their cost and higher interest in the exploitation of wind energy due to high and unstable oil prices as well as growing urgency of environmental issues and forthcoming climatic changes.
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While the first surge of wind farm erection concerned a rather narrow number of countries with Denmark and Germany leading the list (including Spain since 2000), since 2005 there has been a massive expansion of wind energetics across the continents. Recently, wind energy has been systematically supported in the USA and China and nowadays also in a number of European countries (e.g. France, Great Britain, Portugal, Italy) as well as in extra-European countries (traditionally India, followed by Canada, Japan, etc.). The United States along with China have become leaders as for the countries with newly installed power capacities, even if much smaller Germany and Spain (behind the USA) still maintain strong positions as for the so far installed power capacity thanks to their head start.
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Overall, in 2008 the world-wide installed capacity of wind farms reached the level of 120 GW, out of which 26 GW were gained last year (for a better idea: the total installed capacity of all the power plants in the Czech Republic is about 17.5 GW). The appreciable significance of wind energetics is documented by the fact that within the European Union energy from wind covered 4.2 % of electric energy consumption in 2008 and that year wind farms achieved the highest increase ever in the installed capacity among all the energetic sources.
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As for the future development, a decrease in constructions may be expected in the regions where power energetics broke through as first, i.e. particularly in Germany and Spain. The construction of wind farms is slowly facing a shortage of suitable inland localities and power system limits as for the generated power transmission. However, an intense development will continue in other European countries, particularly in the extra-European ones and globally the existing record growth of wind energetics is likely to be beaten. In the near future, we should also live to see a more extensive construction of off-shore wind farms, mainly in the area of the North Sea. It is in case of the “off-shore” wind farms where major technological innovations may be expected and in all probability, for example, floating wind farms to be erected in deep waters or huge off-shore wind farms with an output of over 10 MW may even be anticipated (Cetkovský et al., 2010).
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The Czech Republic cannot be included among advanced states as for wind energy exploitation even if the historical development may suggest otherwise. The fact that a lot of attention was paid to wind energetics in the Czech Republic in the past is evidenced by a book by František Kašpar (Kašpar, 1948). The modern development of wind energetics proceeded in two stages in the Czech Republic. The first stage is related to the period of 1990-1995. Then 24 wind turbines were constructed with a total installed nominal output of 8.22 MW. Before 2001 the wind energy purchase prices fluctuated from 0.9 to 1.13 CZK/kWh, which did not make a profit-making operation of WF possible.
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The second stage of the development of wind energetics was started by the Energy Regulatory Office price decision for 2002, and gradually also for 2003, which set the minimum purchase price of power generated from wind for the amount of 3 000 CZK/MWh. This price went gradually down to 2 340 CZK/MWh in 2009 and to 2230 CZK/MWh in 2010 and nowadays, but still permits a profit-making construction and operation of wind farm projects.
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Since then, the construction of wind farms has been rising slowly. Currently, there are wind farms predominantly in the region of the Ore Mountains (Krušné hory), less in the Drahany Upland (Drahanská vrchovina) or in the Nízký Jeseník Mountains (Czech Republic). The individual wind farms or small wind farms are operated also in other parts of the Czech Republic. The largest wind farm in the CR was erected in 2007 near Měděnec and the water reservoir of Přísečnice in the Ore Mountains. In total, there are nowadays 24 wind turbines of a total output of 49.5 MW, which thus account for more than a third of the overall wind farm output in the CR. The construction of this wind farm resulted in a rather sharp increase in the installed capacity in 2007 (Cetkovský et al., 2010).
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In 2008 an increase in the installed capacity was not that significant, namely due to prolonged delivery dates of wind turbines, blocking the capacities to supply the output into the electric network (wind farm projects and projects of other types of renewable energy sources) and growing obstructions from the part of certain state administration authorities.
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By the end of 2008 there were 111 wind turbines in operation in the Czech Republic of an overall output of 145 MW. In 2008 wind participated by 0.29 % on the power generation in the CR. The capacity factor (efficiency) of the majority of the wind farms ranges from 20 to 25 %; rarely, however, wind farms in exposed sites achieve much higher values.
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The future development of wind energetics in the Czech Republic is unclear. On one hand, there is a favourable purchase price in favour of constructing wind farms and in many localities of the Czech Republic there are quite good wind conditions. On the other hand, the construction is rather slowed down by a complicated and non-transparent permission-granting process and inconsistent public administration’s attitude. The most probable scenario for the next few years is a further but slow increase in new wind farms with annual output increases at the level of about 50 MW (in 2010 mere 20 MW – Lapčík, 2010). However, the real development shall predominantly depend on the support from the part of the political representation which is rather unenthusiastic despite the international agreements and national joint responsibility for a dismal development of the earth’s climate. The Czech Republic’s wind energy interests are defended by the Czech Wind Energy Association, a voluntary organization of physical and legal entities who are active in the field of wind energy exploitation or are interested in the issue.
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3. Technology of wind turbines and their development
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A wind turbine is a machine that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electric energy. In dependence on the rotor diameter, defining an area S swept by the rotating blades, the machines are divided into small, medium-sized and large wind turbines (WT).
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Among small wind turbines (SWT) there are turbines with a nominal output below 60 kW and blade diameter up to 16 m. The most significant category is small SWT with a nominal output below 10 kW, which dominate in producers’ catalogues. This group may be divided into two subgroups (Štekl, 2007).
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They are micro-sources of a rough output up to 2 or 2.5 kW, the assortment of which is the widest as for the producers. They are small WT with a blade diameter from 0.5 to 3 m, which are solely designed for charging batteries. Such accumulated energy may be used to power communication systems, radio and televisions receivers, fridges and other electrical appliances and light. Small WT have come much useful on sea yachts as energy sources for radio stations, navigation systems, maintaining capacities of starter batteries and lighting. Such devices usually operate with a direct current 12 ÷ 24 V.
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The second subgroup of the SWT category are machines with a nominal output from 2.5 to 10 kW. These are turbines with a blade diameter from 3 to 8 m, which similarly to the machines of the previous group operate in the stand-alone regime (are not connected to the grid). Such machines have a usual output voltage of 48 to 220 V and they are offered for the house heating or moderate heating purposes, water heating or to drive engines. A published analysis back in 2002 (Štekl, 2002) proved that power generation by such sources for the needs of houses or small farms, which may be connected to the power grid, is not profitable. From the economic point of view, they are justifiable only in places without a possible connection to the grid and a minimum mean annual wind rate of 4.5 m/s at the altitude of 10 m. Power generation by SWT in order to sell energy to power distributors is not economical due to significantly higher specific costs (by as much as several tens of percents).
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Thanks to the growing dimensions of new wind turbine blades, the former category of large WT split into two categories, namely medium sized wind turbines with a blade diameter from 16 to 45 m and a nominal output ranging from 60 ÷ 750 kW and large wind turbines with a blade diameter from 45 to 128 m and a nominal output of the turbines from 750 to 6 400 kW. The largest WTs with a nominal output over 3 000 kW are mostly facilities designed for offshore operations. Producers sporadically offer WT with a nominal output up to 300 kW or WT with outputs ranging 300 ÷ 750 kW. The widest line of products concerns the output ranges from 1 500 to 3 000 kW. Keeping to this fact, the highest number of WT is in this category (40 %) out of all the constructed WT in Germany before 2005 generating 66 % of the German annual WF energy production. The mean output of all the WF constructed before 2005 in Germany was 1723 kW (Ender, 2006).
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3.1. Technical solution of wind turbines
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3.1.1. Wind turbine rotors
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Apart from the meteorological parameters, the output gained from the flowing air depends on the WT rotor swept area and power ratio value (See the Chapter 3.2). Therefore, rotors are the cardinal components of a WT and they have experienced a surprising development for the past 30 years, as for their size, aerodynamic characteristics and operation regimes. For example, back in 2004 there were 90% of WT with a rotor diameter below 60 m in Germany. A lot produced wind turbines used to be three-bladed, mostly with a “pitch” system rotor regulation and a variable number of revolutions. Growing dimensions of the rotors lay high demands on the construction and used materials in order to ensure reliability of operation. Large blades suffer from considerable loads, e.g. at the moment when a large mass of the blades is halted rearranging the blades into a so-called flag position. Apart from small-scale turbulence, possibly huge vertical wind speed gradients, which may in extreme cases reach up to 10 m/s per 100 m, have a negative impact on the lifespan of the material of large blades (Štekl, 2007).
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To prevent an increase in the wind speed, which leads to a rise in output, from causing any damage to the generator, a suitable method must be used how to limit the output supplied by the rotor. There are various methods of the rotor output regulation, which are characteristic for the individual types of WT. In principle, there are three methods of control:
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regulation when the rotor blades with a constant angle of blades setting cause flow separation, the so-called “stall“ regulation,
regulation by pitching the rotor blades into larger angles and reducing the lift force and output, the so-called “pitch“ regulation,
regulation by setting the rotor blades into smaller angles and thus reducing the lift force, increasing the resistance and causing a drop in output, the so-called “active stall“ regulation.
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The turbines regulated by the “stall“ regime are simpler in their construction than the turbines with “pitch“ regulation, as they do not have a technical system changing the rotor blades setting. When compared to “pitch“ regulated wind turbines, technically the “stall“ regulation of output has the advantages below:
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simple construction,
undemanding maintenance with respect to a lower number of mobile parts,
high reliability of the output regulation.
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What is a disadvantage of the regulation method is the fact that the rotor output falls at high speeds, and thus its efficiency decreases too, which happens in case when the wind energy is at its top. Another drawback of the method is the necessary fine adjusting of the blades frequently after the pilot operation in the given locality. Another disadvantage of the rotor is its inability to start on itself, which is secured by an electric motor. Currently, producers offer the “stall“ regulation regime in WT of a nominal output roughly below 1 000 kW, and exceptionally with larger ones.
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The “pitch“ regulation represents an active system which works with an input signal about the generator’s output. Always when the generator’s nominal output is exceeded, the rotor blades change the stagger angle towards the flow, which causes a reduction in the drive and aerodynamic forces as well as it limits the utilization of the turbine output. For all the wind speeds over the “nominal“ speed which is vital to achieve the nominal output, the angle of attack is set so that the turbine provided the required output. Wind turbines with the “pitch“ regulation are more sophisticated than the “stall“ regulation turbines as the rotor blades setting changes continuously. The “pitch“ regulation has the following advantages:
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it permits an active output control within the overall wind speed range,
when compared to the “stall“ regulation, it provides a higher production of energy under the same conditions,
a simple start of the turbine’s rotor changing the setting of the angle of attack,
it does not require any strong brakes for a sudden halt of the rotor,
it limits the rotor blade load at higher wind speeds over the ”nominal speed“,
a favourable position of the rotor blades with respect to a low load in case of extreme wind speeds.
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The drawback of this type of regulation is a more complicated and significantly more expensive rotor shafts which must carry enormous force exerted on the blades and, at the same time, ensure a possible pitching of the blade around the blade’s linear axis.
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In the initial regimes, the regulation “active stall“ is identical to the previous type of regulation, i.e. the “pitch“ one. It differs in the last regime when maintaining the constant output is not achieved by increasing the blade setting angle but decreasing this angle. In such a regime it is the case of separation control on the blades, thus “active stall“. The advantage of this type of regulation, compared to the previous one, is lower sensitivity to the surface pollution on the blade’s leading edges (insects).
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3.1.2. Wind turbines with/without a gearbox
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Besides the traditional technology with a mechanic gearbox ensuring a transmission of a rotor’s low speed into much faster rotation speed of conventional generators, wind turbines without a gearbox are also produced. So far both types of wind turbines have been successful in the international market. Enercon is one of the leaders in the gearbox-free technology. Both the types have their advantages and disadvantages. A decision whether to make wind turbines with or without a gearbox is often a matter of philosophy from the part of the individual producers, while it is the brand’s tradition, development targets and economic analyses that play an important role too.
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The gearbox free solution is based on the exploitation of multi-pole low-speed generators. However, they have rather big dimensions, which may cause problems during transport, especially in the megawatt class. On the other hand, there are a significantly lower number of the machine components. There is no need for a large gearbox, connecting parts, there is a fewer number of rotating elements, simpler nacelle and, after all, the maintenance is easier as well. Both in “stall“ as well as in power controlled “pitch“ regulation and in power controlled system of gondola turning no hydraulic oils are required, which is a great advantage both for the operation and maintenance. An argument that special generators made only for wind farms in small series are expensive when compared to classical generators is out of place. Along with higher outputs and dimensions of wind turbines, the classical generators and gearboxes are manufactured in small numbers too, which means that a lower price with respect to mass production is not probable.
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Traditional constructions of wind turbines are grounded in the use of a drive shaft, bearings, gears and couplings. Technically, all the components are common machinery components that may be supplied by specialized producers. This way it is possible to guarantee a high quality of products at low costs and a possible replacement of a component supplier in order to improve the quality or lower the price. Thanks to the current manufacturing standards of gearboxes, the noise caused by a gearbox does not give cause to construct wind turbines without one. Nowadays, gearboxes are able to last twenty years, while lubricating oil need not be changed that often. The overall machine unit of the gondola is divided into compact components which enable for an easy transport and assembly on site even in the megawatt class.
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3.1.3. Wind turbine towers
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As clear from company catalogues, the most widespread wind turbine towers are slightly conical steel tubes. Along with a rise in the turbine outputs, towers are becoming higher, as high as 100 to 120 m. Therefore, certain suppliers offer concrete towers for heights over 100 m (e.g. Enercon 4.5 MW near Magdeburg, Germany) and towers in the form of a lattice construction (Štekl, 2007). Lattice towers are perceived adversely due to their “non-aesthetic” appearance and many environmentalists have stigmatized them for damaging the face of the landscape. Other oppose the criticism and say that when compared with the tube towers, the lattice towers have the following advantages in the landscape:
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transparentness, which means that the lattice towers better blend in the landscape, particularly looking from a greater distance,
minute reflexion of incident light,
suitable planting into a specific face of the landscape, e.g. forest landscape,
incorporation into the landscape with already erected structures of such a character (e.g. line masts).
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Another advantage of the lattice towers when compared to the tube ones is a lower consumption of steel, which means that at identical costs the produced lattice tower is 20 % higher than the tube one. For instance, the company of Nordex offers a steel tower of 100 m at 319 t and a lattice tower of 105 m at 185 t. The company of Fuhrländer even offers a lattice tower which is 160 m high (weight of 350 t). The assembly of a lattice tower and the transport of its components is simpler, which constitutes a great plus in the construction of wind farms in the mountainous conditions. Having finished the lattice tower by zinc coating a 40-year lifespan is guaranteed, which means no painting the steel tube towers is required.
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3.1.4. Wind turbine Vestas V90 – 2.0 MW
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Another example is a wind turbine by Vestas Wind Systems A/S, type Vestas V90 – 2.0 MW, which is a characteristic representative of the wind turbine group with a gearbox (from the rotor the mechanical energy is carried by the main shaft via a gear unit onto the generator). Such wind turbines are produced in a mass scale and at present are erected both in the EU countries as well as outside the EU (in the USA, Mexico, Australia, etc.). It must be pointed out that as for the basic parameters, wind turbines with a gearbox from other producers do not much differ from the Vestas machines, which still belong to the most experienced producers in the field.
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Figure 2.
Wind turbine power curve (Vestas V90)
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A Vestas V90-2.0 MW wind turbine has a 45 m long rotor blade (rotor diameter is 90 m – See Figures 3 and 4). It is a slow-circulating machine with revolutions from 9 ÷ 14.9 rev/min. The cut-in wind speed is 2.5 m/s, the wind nominal speed is 13 m/s (See Fig. 2), and the cut-out (maximum) wind speed is 21 m/s. Exceeding this speed the machine automatically brakes and shuts down.
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The wind turbine is regulated by pitching the blades (“pitch“ regulation) by means of an OptiTip® device by Vestas with an active steering the rotor up the wind. By means of OptiTip® the rotor blade setting angles are under permanent control and thus the blade setting angle is always adjusted to the prevailing wind conditions. In this manner, power generation is optimized and noise is minimized.
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The rotor blades (Fig. 4, Lapčík, 2009) are made from epoxy resin reinforced by glass fibre (laminate). Each rotor blade is made up from two halves glued together by a carrier profile. Special steel anchoring fills join the rotor blades to a rotor blade bearing. If required, a technology with heated rotor blades may be supplied.
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The main machine room and rotor shaft segments are in Figure 6. From the rotor the mechanical energy is carried by the main shaft via a gear unit onto the generator. The gearbox is combined with a planet gear and spur bearing. The output transfer from the gearbox onto the generator is carried out by means of a composite coupling that does not require any maintenance. The generator is special as it is quadripolar, asynchronous and with an advanced rotor.
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Braking the wind turbine is conducted via arranging the rotor blades into a so-called flag position. The parking disk brake is situated on the high-speed power shaft.
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All the wind turbine functions are controlled by control units based on a microprocessor base. This operation control system is placed in the nacelle. Changes in the rotor blade setting angle are activated via a torque arm by a hydraulic system which allows the rotor blades rotate axially by 95°.
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Figure 3.
Wind turbine of Vestas company – an overall view
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Four power driven gearboxes are responsible for positioning the nacelle up the wind turning the pinions that reach into the dents of a yaw bearing placed on the top of the tower. The bearing system of positioning up the wind is a sliding bearing system with a built-in friction and self-locking function.
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The nacelle cover (Fig. 6) made of plastic reinforced by glass fibre protects all the components inside the nacelle from rain, snow, dust, solar radiation, etc. The gondola is accessible through a central aperture from the tower. Inside the nacelle there is a jib crane for maintenance.
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Figure 4.
View of a rotor blades, nacelle and upper section of the Vestas wind turbine tower
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There has been a significant development in the wind turbine towers, which have grown from the original 20 m to 100 or 120 m, or higher in extreme cases. The most widespread are poles in the form of slightly conical steel tubes. Currently, at the heights over 100 m the poles are usually made of concrete or combine steel and concrete. A possible option are lattice construction poles which are advantageous both as for their price and construction. However, they are refused by a group of “environmentalists” who feel that the towers damage the face of the landscape.
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A conical steel tubular tower (Vestas) is either 105 metres or 80 metres high (Fig. 3 and 4). The diameter of the ground flange is 4.15 m (Fig. 5), the top flange diameter is 2.3 m. It is supplied with a finish in a green-grey colour. The tower is anchored into the foundation in the form of a ferroconcrete plate of about 16 metre diameter, height of 1.9 m (on a footing bottom in the depth of 3 m). The foundation is placed below the ground surface and topped with a one-metre-thick layer of ground.
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The total weight of the technological part of the wind turbine (without the foundation) is 331 tons (gondola 68 t, rotor 38 t, tower 225 t).
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The wind turbine is constructed for the temperatures ranging from -20 °C to +55 °C. Special measures must be taken beyond the afore mentioned temperature range.
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Beside the wind turbine there is a container concrete transformer station (in the majority of cases there is one transformer station for three machines). The transformer is oil, two-winding in a container version. The transfer is from 690 V to 34 kV and the nominal output is 1.6 MVA. Nowadays most of producers place the transformer station directly inside the wind turbine tower.
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Figure 5.
View of the anchorage of the wind turbine pole into the anchor plate (Lapčík, 2008)
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3.2. Calculation of wind turbine output
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The term of wind power density P is understood as the capacity which could be obtained at hundred-percent exploitation of the kinetic energy of the wind flowing by an area per unit perpendicularly to the flow direction. It may be determined according to the relation
cp … power coefficient (-) which is dependent on the extent to which the rotor decreases the speed of the flowing air; the power coefficient has a theoretical maximum cpmax = 0.593, really is value to 0,5.
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Figure 6.
View of the wind turbine nacelle: 1 – hub controller, 2 – “pitch” control cylinders, 3 – blade hub, 4 – gearbox, 5 – generator, 6 – high voltage transformer, 7 – hydraulic unit (Vestas, 2009)
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The dependence of power in the wind on the air density in the real atmosphere is expressed by a function of the altitude and further on, it is a function of an aperiodic alternation of warm and cold air masses (Štekl, 2007). Roughly, if we take as a basis a wind turbine output at the sea level, the output will be lower by 5 % at the altitude of 500 m, at the altitude of 800 m by 7 % and at the altitude of 1200 m by 11 %.
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The output produced by a wind turbine is indicated by a power curve (See Fig. 2 above), which is a basic indication of each wind turbine type.
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It is apparent from the relations above that the wind turbine output depends on wind speed in an extraordinarily sensitive manner. It is clear that evaluating the wind potential, errors in wind speed determination may thus project into the result in a negative way.
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Pursuant to the law, the power grid operator is obligated to take electric power generated by a wind turbine at a rate set by the Energy Regulatory Office price decision. According to this price decision for wind farms put in operation after 1st January 2010, the purchase price of power supplied to the network is 2.23 CZK/kWh and for wind farms put in operation after 1st January 2009 it was 2.34 CZK/kWh. In 2008 it was 2.55 CZK/kWh, in 2007 2.62 CZK/kWh and in 2006 it was 2.67 CZK/kWh.
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In 2008 the new wind turbines in Germany belonged to Enercon 52 %, Vestas 32 %, REpower 6 %, Fuhrlander 5 %, Nordex 2 % and other companies are represented by three percents (Ender, 2009).
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The technology of wind turbines has experienced an extraordinary progress since 1980, a beginning of the modern wind energetics in Europe. The development has been manifested by:
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increasing the WT output per unit due to a growth in rotor diameter,
increasing the WT tower height and reducing the adverse influence of the earth surface roughness,
higher quality WT demonstrated by lower break-down rates, noisiness and demands of operation,
lower specific costs of the generated power.
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4. Environmental impacts of wind farms
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Assessing the environmental impacts of wind energetics projects the following factors must be taken mainly into consideration (Lapčík, 2008, 2009):
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noise,
impacts on the face of the landscape,
impacts on the migration routes and bird nesting, impacts on the fauna, flora and ecosystems,
stroboscopic effect,
impacts on the soil, surface water and ground water,
other impacts.
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4.1. Noise
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Operating a wind farm two types of noise arise. It is a mechanical noise, the source of which is a machine room (a generator including a ventilator, gearbox, rotation mechanisms or a brake). The amount of noise emitted into the environment depends on the construction quality of the individual components (e.g. gearwheels) of the overall machine as well as on the placement and enclosure of the overall machinery. All the stated parameters of the currently lot produced wind turbines are optimized. Except for small deviations when turning the gondola, the noise is stable.
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Certain noise impacts result from the blades passing the wind turbine tower. In the past, pole vibrations appeared in some wind turbines, which has been overcome by modern technologies (Štekl, 2007). Next, it is an aerodynamic noise that arises due to the interaction of flowing air and the rotor airfoil and whirl winds relaxing behind the blade edges. Its frequency spectrum is very balanced and falls with a rise in frequency. Aerodynamic noise is reduced by the state-of-the-art constructions of rotor blades or rotor types when at the expense of a slight fall in the generator’s output the noise levels are reduced.
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The noise spreads from the point source in dependence on the direction and speed of air flows, in dependence on the intensity of vertical mixing of air (below the temperature inversion the transfer of noise is prevented in the vertical direction), on the shape of the earth surface and on the existence of obstacles to the noise spread. The noise spreading from the point source subdues along with the distance. A simplified version deals with a drop in the acoustic pressure along with a distance logarithm as a wind speed function. Mostly, this simplified version of the calculation (i.e. without the influence of the wind rose, relief shape, temperature layers, etc.) is used in model calculations to define an noise field in the surroundings of a wind farm.
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The intensity of the perception caused by noise is greatly influenced by the proportion between its intensity and the intensity of other noises labelled as the background noise. It is known that a noise caused by a viscous and turbulent friction of air and the earth surface reaches high values, especially in the mountain conditions. For instance, during a windstorm human speech becomes difficult to understand under such conditions. In the test polygon in Dlouhá Louka in the Ore Mountains measurements were conducted that showed that at wind speed up to 5 m/s the background noise level was within the limits 30 ÷ 40 dB, but at the wind speed about 6 m/s the background noise was from 33 to 47 dB. At the wind speed over 8 m/s the noise exceeded the value of 45 dB (Štekl, 2007).
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Government Decree 148/2006 Coll. on health protection against negative impacts of noise and vibrations sets the top admissible level of acoustic pressure outdoors at 50 dB during the day (06 ÷ 22 hours) and at 40 dB at night. However, this decree does not consider the circumstances when the background noise exceeds the noise produced by a wind farm.
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Figure 7.
Note: Wind turbine No. 1 (in the top) is shut down at night time. Check point of noise – points No. 1, 2 and 3.
Equivalent levels of noise – night operation of wind farm.
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The own assessment of acoustic situations is carried out by means of a noise study which assesses the noise near the nearest built-up area. It happens that the admissible equivalent noise level is not observed in the loudest night hour in the outside protected area. In such cases, the wind farm regime is required to be limited via reducing the output, which thus results in lowering the acoustic output (e.g. from 109.4 dB to 102.0 dB). In some cases it is though necessary to switch off several machines at night – See Fig. 7 (Lapčík, 2006, 2007, 2009). For example, in Germany it is recommended to construct wind farms more than 300 m from a single residence and more than 500 m from an end of a settlement. Nevertheless, the experience of the monograph author is that the minimum distance of wind farms from any housing development should be 575 to 600 metres.
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\n\t\t\t\t\tTraffic noise arising in the time of construction and operation of a wind farm is time limited and usually negligible. In the time of construction it is important to ensure disposal of the spoil in the volume of about 770 m3, delivery of concrete in the volume of about 490 m3 per one machine and delivery of the own technological facility (Lapčík, 2006, 2007, 2010). In the time of operation, there are only one or two vans per week.
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The impact of traffic noise and its changes in connection with construction and later operation of wind farms mostly shows in the day in the surroundings of the access road to the site. As the points for calculations, for which the calculation of noise from stationary sources is carried out, are often far away from the road, it is important to describe changes in the noise situation in a noise study changing the equivalent noise levels in a standardized distance from roads (e.g. 7.5 m from the axis of the closest lane).
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4.2. Impacts on the face of the landscape
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A term of the face of the landscape has been introduced by Act 114/1992 Coll. on the conservation of nature and landscape. Therein, the face of the landscape is defined (§ 12) as a natural, cultural and historic characteristics of a particular site or region. The face of the landscape is protected against activities degrading its aesthetic and natural value. Interference with the face of the landscape, particularly as for locating and approving structures, may occur only with regard to keeping significant landscape elements, especially protected areas, cultural dominant features of the landscape, harmonic criteria and relations in the landscape.
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Talking of the impacts on the face of the landscape, in case of complying with measures connected with the interests of health protection against unfavourable impacts of noise and the interests of the nature conservation, the impact on the face of the landscape may be defined as a dominant aspect in connection with the assessed type of project.
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There is no doubt that the erection of wind farms embodies a highly visible interference with the face of the landscape. As for the protection of the face of the landscape it is vital to find out if the planned structure does not interfere with any natural park. Stipulated by law, a natural park represents one of the most sensitive areas in the protection of the face of the landscape and a construction of a wind farm should not be implemented there. Natural parks are landscapes with concentrated significant aesthetic and natural values for the conservation of which they have been established (in accordance with § 12 art. 3 of Act 114/1992 Coll. on the conservation of nature and landscape, as amended). It is solely the protection of the face of the landscape which makes the core of their protection.
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Visualization of wind farms is usually processed by means of computer animation and making use of photographs of the existing landscape in order to assess the impacts on the face of the landscape – See Figure 8 (Lapčík, 2009).
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Figure 8.
A view of photo-visualized wind farm
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The site of the face of the landscape affected by the assessed wind farm plans (i.e. an area from where wind farms can be potentially seen) is usually a vast territory. The site of the face of the landscape, i.e. an area which may be visually influenced by the assessed structure, is considered in terms of distance views as far as 2 to 5 km in case of a strong visibility range and as far as 10 km in case of a clear visibility range – by course of a Methodical Direction 8/2005 (Methodical Direction of the Ministry of the Environment No.8, June 2005). Areas which are shaded by forming the georelief are excluded from the ranges.
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There is a frequent question whether it would be possible to generate an identical volume of electric power by wind farms even at possible lowering of their towers and reducing the rotor diameters as in this manner the face of the landscape would be less altered. The calculations may be carried out on the grounds of known relations for the calculation of wind (PS) power (See Chapter 3.2 above).
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The calculation results though imply that shortening the wind turbine pole height from 100 metres to 70 metres (at wind speeds c = 8.5 m/s and c = 6.5 m/s) and using a rotor of 90-metre diameter, the electric power fell from 100 % (pole height of 100 m) to 45 % (pole height of 70 m). Using a rotor of 50-metre diameter (instead of 90 m) the electric power would drop to 31 % (pole height of 100 m) or to 14 % (pole height of 70 m) – (Lapčík, 2006, 2007, 2008).
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It is thus clear that lowering the pole height or reducing the wind turbine rotor diameter there would be a considerable loss in the gained electric power and practically an analogous facility with all its negative environmental impacts would have to be constructed (noise, land required for the machine’s foundations, access roads, energy infrastructure, etc.) as if implementing a wind turbine of 100-metre-high pole and 90-metre rotor diameter. At the same time, the impact on the face of the landscape in smaller machines would be identical. The facilities would only appear to be located further away from the observer than in case of higher facilities (higher pole and wider rotor diameter).
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4.3. Impacts on the migration routes and bird nesting, impacts on the fauna, flora and ecosystems
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The literature does not report any significant negative impacts of wind farms on birds. The results of a wind farm impact research on the avifauna in the Netherlands (Winkelman, 1992) imply that no verifiable impacts on nesting birds or birds perching for food into the vicinity of wind farms have been registered. A long-term observation of 87,000 birds in the vicinity of wind farms show that the majority of birds completely avoided the wind farms (97 %) and only a fraction chose to fly through a rotor. This usually results in a clash with a blade. Despite being hit by the blade there is no inevitable rule of a serious injury or death of the bird. The existence of a pressure field in front of the rotating blade forms a barrier which often repels the birds.
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Experience from the observation of bird behaviour close to wind farms has also been gained in the Czech Republic. For example, in the Ore Mountains in the surroundings of the municipality of Dlouhá Louka a detailed research in nesting bird associations in three most significant biotopes (in the forest, on the meadow and cottage settlement) was carried out in 1993 and 1994, i.e. prior to and after the construction of a wind farm. The results presented in the study document that the operation of the wind farm does not affect nesting of bird associations in a significant manner.
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Based on surveys, possible risks connected with wind farm operation (particularly collisions of birds and bats with the facility) are greater than those related to an operation of other similar structures (high towers, high voltage wires, roads, etc.). Moreover, it may be said that in the majority of cases applying suitable technical solutions there is no reason to expect distinct degradation of the conditions of the site suggested for the construction of wind farms from the environmental point of view.
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Nevertheless, it is convenient for wind farms to be located outside important birds’ migration routes and breeding places. This may be checked preparing a study which assesses impacts of planned wind farms on birds and other vertebrates.
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The wind farm structures are mostly situated outside the component parts of the ecological stability zoning system, outside areas of higher degrees of ecological stability, or outside localities with near nature ecosystems. Also, a possible impact on especially protected areas and biotopes of specially protected animal species is negligible. In order to exclude unfavourable impacts on the flora and fauna it is advisable to process a biological (floristic and faunistic) assessment of the localities in question.
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4.4. Stroboscopic effect
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Stroboscopic effect is a phenomenon when rotating objects lit by a periodically variable light do not seem to be moving. In case of wind farm operation it is a rather a possible effect of gleams and shading by a mobile shade under the sunlight. The gleams of light from the rotor blades may be eliminated by a matte finish of the rotor blades (e.g. in grey colour).
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If a rotor of commonly applied wind turbines rotates within the range of 8 to 17 revolutions per minute, the frequency of gleams is at the level of 0.4 Hz to 0.9 Hz. Safely outside the frequency from 5 to 30 Hz, it is however on a level which could cause the so-called photosensitive epilepsy in sensitive people found near wind farms.
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Shading by a mobile shade may be observed in wind farms at optimal light conditions within 250 to 300 metres from the wind farm. It is practically negligible at further distance. With regard to the fact that the majority of assessed wind turbines are usually located in the distance of 500 metres from any residence, this phenomenon appears as minor.
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4.5. Impacts on the soil, surface water and ground water
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One wind turbine is expected to take up an agricultural land from 0.10 to 0.13 ha, where the own built-up area for the machine is about 200 m2 (Lapčík, 2006, 2007, 2010). Mostly, it is land with predominantly substandard production capacities and limited protection. Having terminated the wind turbine operation, the land is expected to be reclaimed for possible agricultural use. The stabilized access roads can be used as access roads for pieces of land from the adjacent roads.
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The operation of wind turbines does not produce any technological water or sewage. The rainwater from the stabilized access road areas is mostly drained gravitationally into the surroundings and the ditches.
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The impact on the surface and ground water is not expected implementing such projects, but it is important to adhere to all the relevant safety measures. The wind turbine facilities do not influence surface water or the quality, water level or flow directions of the ground water, both during construction and own operation. However, during construction of service roads and the wind turbine facilities it is important to take such measures to prevent changes or worsening of water discharge, the occurrence of the manifestations of erosion or to limit the pollution and soil drag into influent stream beds to minimum in course of construction.
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4.6. Other impacts
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Within the winter operation there may be a situation when ice or ice fragments fall off the blades. New wind turbines are expected to be equipped with signalling which recognizes ice in time or the wind turbine is shut down. Also, technical equipment is expected which is able to prevent the formation of ice in an effective manner (the rotor blades are produced from such materials that prevent clinging of the ice onto the blades).
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A minimum measure in this respect is an installation of panels warning about a possible risk of injury due to falling ice off the rotor blades in a sufficient distance from wind farms (about 250 m).
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5. Conclusion
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In the Czech Republic a big number of wind turbines and wind farms are being prepared to be constructed. Nevertheless, the implementation of the approved structures is progressing rather slowly. The total installed capacity of wind farms in the Czech Republic had been 50 MW by the end of 2006 (Koč, 2007). By the end of December in 2009 the Czech wind farms had a total installed capacity of 192,9 MW, by the end of November in 2009 then a total installed capacity of 212,6 MW.
\n\t\t\t
Wind farms of a total installed capacity higher than 500 kWe or with tower height exceeding 35 meters are classified according to the Appendix 1 to Act 100/2001 Coll., as amended, into the category II (projects requiring rogatory proceedings), article 3.2 (the project is administered by Regional Offices). This implies that the majority of the designed wind farms in the Czech Republic nowadays must undergo rogatory proceedings.
\n\t\t\t
As a rule, a number of studies make parts of the notification processed according to Appendix 3 to the Act. For example, they are a noise study, assessment of impacts on the face of the landscape, assessment of wind turbine impact on birds and other vertebrates, or the project’s impact assessment on Europe’s outstanding localities and birds’ territories according to §45i of Act 114/1992 Coll. on the conservation of nature and landscape, as amended. Certain notifications also contain health risk assessments, which are required by the law processing the documentation according to Appendix 4 to Act 100/2001 Coll. on environmental impact assessment, as amended.
\n\t\t\t
Nevertheless, despite the complications (the notification actually takes the form of documentation) in the majority of cases the process of impact assessment for wind farms is not currently discontinued within the rogatory proceedings (in the so-called shortened proceedings), but it must be continued in the full extent (documentation compilation, opinion elaboration, public hearing), often with repeated supplements to the documentation before the opinion is elaborated.
\n\t\t\t
This is caused by the negative attitude of the regional offices as well as of the public to wind energetics, who mostly hold a negative attitude to this renewable source of energy. Nevertheless, it must be said that the public comments are frequently presented in a very general manner and still certain types of criticisms reappear even if those have already been discussed and disproved.
\n\t\t\t
With regard to the above mentioned public and regional offices’ attitudes to wind farms, the environmental impact assessment process for the facilities is protracted and complicated (in the majority of cases the full assessment process must be taken into account).
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17123.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17123.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17123",totalDownloads:2738,totalViews:694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:28,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 14th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 10th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 14th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17123",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17123",book:{id:"148",slug:"wind-farm-technical-regulations-potential-estimation-and-siting-assessment"},signatures:"Vladimír Lapčík",authors:[{id:"25942",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimír",middleName:"-",surname:"Lapčík",fullName:"Vladimír Lapčík",slug:"vladimir-lapcik",email:"vladimir.lapcik@vsb.cz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. History and development of wind power utilization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Significance of wind energy as a renewable source",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Utilization of wind power within the Czech Republic in the past",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Development of wind energetics world-wide and in the Czech Republic",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Technology of wind turbines and their development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Technical solution of wind turbines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.1. Wind turbine rotors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.2. Wind turbines with/without a gearbox",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.3. Wind turbine towers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.4. Wind turbine Vestas V90 – 2.0 MW",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Calculation of wind turbine output",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Environmental impacts of wind farms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1. Noise",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2. Impacts on the face of the landscape",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.3. Impacts on the migration routes and bird nesting, impacts on the fauna, flora and ecosystems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.4. Stroboscopic effect",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.5. Impacts on the soil, surface water and ground water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.6. Other impacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBurian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1965 Wind Mills in Moravia and Silesia. Proceedings of Homeland Study Institute in Olomouc, 7 79 p. 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(in Czech).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twww.vestas.com\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vladimír Lapčík",address:null,affiliation:'
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Senthil Kumar",slug:"n.-senthil-kumar"}]},{id:"17137",title:"Modeling Wind Speed for Power System Applications",slug:"modeling-wind-speed-for-power-system-applications",signatures:"Noha Abdel-Karim, Marija Ilic and Mitch Small",authors:[{id:"29671",title:"Mrs",name:"Noha",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Karim",fullName:"Noha Abdel-Karim",slug:"noha-abdel-karim"},{id:"84728",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Ilic",fullName:"Marija Ilic",slug:"marija-ilic"},{id:"84729",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitch",middleName:null,surname:"Small",fullName:"Mitch Small",slug:"mitch-small"}]},{id:"17138",title:"Modeling and Simulation of a 12 MW Active-Stall Constant-Speed Wind Farm",slug:"modeling-and-simulation-of-a-12-mw-active-stall-constant-speed-wind-farm",signatures:"Lucian Mihet-Popa and Voicu Groza",authors:[{id:"28225",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Mihet-Popa",fullName:"Lucian Mihet-Popa",slug:"lucian-mihet-popa"},{id:"39716",title:"Prof.",name:"Voicu",middleName:null,surname:"Groza",fullName:"Voicu Groza",slug:"voicu-groza"}]},{id:"17139",title:"Wind Integrated Composite Generation and Transmission System Planning",slug:"wind-integrated-composite-generation-and-transmission-system-planning",signatures:"Yi Gao",authors:[{id:"26412",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Yi Gao",slug:"yi-gao"}]},{id:"17140",title:"Agent-Based Simulation of Wind Farm Generation at Multiple Time Scales",slug:"agent-based-simulation-of-wind-farm-generation-at-multiple-time-scales",signatures:"Enrique Kremers, Jose Maria Gonzalez De Durana, Oscar Barambones, Pablo Viejo and Norbert Lewald",authors:[{id:"25461",title:"Mr",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Kremers",fullName:"Enrique Kremers",slug:"enrique-kremers"},{id:"38739",title:"Dr",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez De Durana",fullName:"Jose Maria Gonzalez De Durana",slug:"jose-maria-gonzalez-de-durana"},{id:"38740",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Barambones",fullName:"Oscar Barambones",slug:"oscar-barambones"},{id:"38741",title:"Mr",name:"Norbert",middleName:null,surname:"Lewald",fullName:"Norbert Lewald",slug:"norbert-lewald"},{id:"81706",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Viejo",fullName:"Pablo Viejo",slug:"pablo-viejo"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"115",title:"Wind Turbines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wind-turbines",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Al-Bahadly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. 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1. Introduction
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External prestressing is a technique originally developed for reinforcing bridge structures and now has applications in architectural structures [1]. It has gone through three stages of development. In the early stage, external tendons were installed with curvature at the bottom and sides of a beam and held by deviators. Prestressing forces were applied by transverse tensioning. In the second stage, external tendons were installed with curvature only at the vertical sides of a beam, and prestressing forces were applied by a tensioning jack. Multiple weaknesses have been identified in this tensioning technique during practical applications. First, prestressing forces had to be applied to an independent working surface, but the working surface was usually obstructed by columns. Second, the friction between a deviator and an external tendon could weaken the effects of prestressing forces. To avoid the aforementioned problem with working surface, external tendons were usually continuously and axially installed along the full length of a beam. However, this would complicate the stress states of the columns and beam-column joints and thereby undermine the structure’s seismic performance [2]. To overcome these disadvantages, retractable web members were introduced to apply prestressing forces in the later stage. Web members can be installed vertically or diagonally, and DWMs are an improvement on vertical web members (patent number: ZL 03134360.0). In DWM prestressing, external tendons are anchored to the upper parts of both beam sides, and retractable DWMs are used to stretch the tendons, which then transfer the prestressing forces to the beam. Compared to the two earlier external prestressing techniques, DWM prestressing has two main advantages: (1) The way in which the prestressing force is applied allows for easier and safer construction and enhances the effects of prestressing forces; (2) As external tendons are not continuously installed along the full beam length and do not span any column, the installation process will neither cause mechanical disturbance to the floor, columns, and other vertical elements nor occupy the space required to reinforce vertical elements; (3) external tendons running through beam ends can increase the shear strength of beam ends [3, 4].
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At present, stress increments in external tendons can be calculated mainly by the reduction factor method, regression analysis of section reinforcement ratio, deformation analysis, and so on. However, there is a lack of unified standard and the standard parameter values for an external tendon in the stiffness of a beam is infinitely great an ultimate state differ between standards from different countries [5, 6, 7, 8]. Based on the assumption of infinite beam stiffness, a study [9] examined the force distribution in an external tendon that was subjected to a uniformly distributed load applied by DWM, with the increase in tendon length being used as the parameter. The relationship between tendon extension and load was derived. When DWM external prestressing is applied to a simply supported beam (SSB), the beam does not have infinite stiffness and tends to deform under the prestressing force [10, 11]. The load on tendons applied by web members was not uniformly distributed. Therefore, the mechanical behavior of a beam reinforced by this technique remains unknown. For this reason, the present study investigated the behavior of a SSB reinforced by external prestressing with three DWMs using a combination of theoretical derivation, numerical analysis, and experimental verification. Three variables, including initial tendon force, tendon cross-sectional area, and initial tendon sag, were considered and the influences of beam-end rotation and beam deflection on tendon force were analyzed. Then the pattern of variation in the RC beam’s structural performance was obtained. The findings of the study are expected to provide a design basis for practical application of this technique and theoretical support for research on the mechanical behavior of a fixed-end beam after reinforcement.
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2. Theoretical analysis
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2.1. Increment in tendon stress
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2.1.1. Fundamental assumptions
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The theoretical analysis was based on the following fundamental assumptions:
An external tendon is an ideally flexible material subjected only to tension, and it deforms only elastically throughout its deformation process;
The web members have infinite stiffness and do not stretch or shrink during beam deformation. They are always perpendicular to the tangents at the connections between web members and tendons. The effect of dead load of web members on tendons is ignored;
The slip between external tendons and web members during beam deformation is negligible and so is the friction between tendons and beam-end anchorage and between web members and beam-bottom anchorage. The shear deformation of the beam, together with its secondary effect, has only negligibly small effects on RC beam.
The load applied to an external tendon by the three DWMs can be treated as a uniformly distributed load.
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2.1.2. Computing model of tendon
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Figure 1 shows the curves describing deformation of an external tendon in a SSB reinforced by DWM prestressing. The dotted line L1 shown in the figure is the elliptic curve describing the deformation of a tendon under a uniformly distributed load provided in [9]. The solid line, L2, is a broken line for a tendon stabilized by three web members; it is a polygon incised in L1.
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Figure 1.
The external cable diagram of deformation.
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2.1.3. Solving for external tendon force
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According to Song Yu [9], the shape function for a tendon under a uniformly distributed load has the following form:
where l and f are the tendon span and sag, respectively, after application of the initial prestressing force.
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Let \n\n\n\nm\n=\n\n\n\n\nl\n2\n\n+\n8\n\nf\n 2\n\n\n\n16\nf\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and compute the derivative of the shape function with respect to \n\nx\n\n. Then performing integration on the arc-length formula will yield the expression for initial tendon length, so:
When the SSB undergoes a beam-end rotation of \n\nθ\n\n under the action of an external load, the resulting span and sag of each tendon can be expressed as follows:
where e is the initial eccentricity of external tendon and \n\ny\n\n is the deflection of the beam under the action of an external load.
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Change in tendon length is associated with tendon span and sag. After the SSB deforms, both the tendon span and sag will change. Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eq. (2) will give the tendon length for a given beam deflection.
where ∆s is tendon extension, \n\nΔ\nF\n\n is the increment in tendon force, E is tendon’s elastic modulus, As is tendon cross-sectional area, s0 is initial tendon length, and pS is the tendon force for a given beam deflection.
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2.2. Calculation of bearing capacity of a RC beam during normal service
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2.2.1. Computing model
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After a SSB is reinforced by DWM external prestressing, the main forces acting on it include constant and live loads (e.g., concentrated force, ki·Q, and uniformly distributed load, q), prestressing force on the beam exerted by tendons, ps, reaction forces from the supports, and concentrated forces exerted on the beam by web members. This analysis focused on two randomly selected concentrated forces. The force analysis and the coordinate system used are presented in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.
Analysis diagram of beam-cable element.
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2.2.2. Load-deformation relationship
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Let EI denote the flexural rigidity of a beam within its elastic range and e be the initial eccentricity of tendon. The force applied by a DWM can be decomposed into two components. This analysis did not consider the effect of the horizontal component on the beam’s mechanical behavior in order to simplify the calculation. The analytical results proved reliable. Normally, the use of n web members will divide a beam into four segments. Thus three web members divide the beam into four segments. Computing the moment at an arbitrary cross-section of the beam gives
where l’ is the length of a DWM, Φ is the angle between the DWM and the y-axis, ki is a load factor, bi is the distance from the concentrated load to the support, r is the angle between the midspan web member and the horizontal plane at its intersection with the tendon, and β is the angle between the DWM and the horizontal plane at its intersection with the tendon.
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By taking the partial derivative of formula (9), we obtain
Eq. (12) describes the relationship between external load and RC beam deflection, which can be used as a theoretical basis for design of SSB reinforced by external prestressing with three web members.
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3. Finite element analysis
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3.1. Constitutive relations
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A model of an RC beam reinforced by external prestressing was constructed by separate modeling using ABAQUS, a software suite for finite element analysis. The concrete was modeled using C3D8R, a linear reduced integration element with eight nodes. The rebars, web members, and external tendons were constructed of T3D2, a three-dimensional, two-node linear truss element. The slip between rebars and concrete was neglected. The constraints between the concrete and reinforcement cage were applied via the Embedded Region command. The constraint relationships between external tendon and concrete beam and between web members and concrete beam were achieved via the Kinematic coupling command. External prestressing force was applied by decreasing the temperature and solved by an implicit solver (Figure 3). The concrete was modeled with the plastic damage constitutive model provided in ABAQUS, the rebars were modeled with the improved rebar model developed by Esmaeily-xiao, and the web members were simulated using an ideally elastic-plastic model. The constitutive relations for the model materials are presented in Figure 4.
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Figure 3.
Finite element model. (a) Concrete, (b) steel reinforcement, (c) web member.
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Figure 4.
The material stress–strain curve.
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3.2. Parameter design
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The beam had dimensions of 3000 × 300 × 180 mm. It was constructed of C25 concrete, three \n\nΦ\n14\n\n rebars in the concrete under tension, two vertical \n\nΦ\n14\n\n rebars in the concrete under compression, \n\nΦ\n6\n\n stirrups @100, and \n\nΦ\n14\n\n web members (threaded). Design levels of the tendon parameters considered are as follows: initial tendon force, Level 3; tendon cross-sectional area, Level 3 (Table 1); and tendon sag, Level 4. Design values of other parameters are given in the first five lines of Table 2. FJGL denotes a control specimen, which was unreinforced. *denotes a specimen to be tested in the experimental verification.
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No.
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Cable diameter (mm)
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Sectional area of cable (mm2)
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Breaking force (kN)
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1
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Ф9
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48
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75
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2
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Ф12
\n
86
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133
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\n
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3
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Ф15
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134
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208
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Table 1.
Design parameters of pre-stressed cables.
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Beam number
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Cable sectional area (mm2)
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Sag of cable (mm)
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Initial
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Comparison of bearing capacity of simulated specimens
Simply supported beam’s design parameters and change of bearing capacity.
Indicates the test specimen to be tested.
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3.3. Numerical results
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3.3.1. Common features
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The load-deflection curve for a RC beam generally splits into four portions. The characteristics of the four portions and the corresponding stages of the beam’s behavior are summarized below:
Elastic deformation. In this stage, the concrete at the beam bottom slightly deflected without fracturing and the corresponding portion of the load-deflection curve is nearly linear;
Yielding. As the load increased, the bottom concrete showed increased deflection as a result of cracking. The rebars in the tensioned region reached the yield point earlier than the external tendons. The corresponding portion of the load-deflection curve contained a noticeable turning point;
Hardening. The neutral axis of a cross-section shifted downward and the external tendons were fully engaged in the work;
Failure. As the load continued increasing, the external prestressing tendon or the concrete under compression would fail after the tendon stress exceeded its ultimate strength or the compressive stress in the concrete exceeded its compressive strength. Their failure modes are different: the tendons failed via brittle fracture, while the concrete failed by ductile fracture.
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3.3.2. Relationship between beam deflection and increment in tendon force
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\n
The greater the initial tendon force, the smaller the maximum tendon deflection (or a tendon’s energy dissipation capacity). Figure 5a shows the tendon force-deflection curves of a tendon with a cross-sectional area of 48 mm2 and sag of 200 mm for different initial tendon forces (20, 40, and 60 kN). It is clear that the maximum tendon deflection at the fracture point gradually decreased. This implies that it is unreasonable to optimize reinforcement design simply by increasing the initial tendon force.
As the tendon cross-sectional area increased, the rate of growth in tendon force increased, and thus the contribution by the tendon became more significant. Conversely, a smaller tendon cross-sectional area is associated with a slower rate of increase in tendon force. Figure 5b illustrates the tendon force-deflection curves for different tendon cross-sectional areas (48, 86, and 134 mm2) when the tendon sag was 200 mm and initial tendon force was 20 kN. This figure demonstrates that a larger tendon cross-sectional area is better in reinforcement design.
The rate of tendon force growth increased with increasing tendon sag. Figure 5c shows the tendon force deflection curves for different tendon sags (200, 300, and 400 mm) when the tendon cross-sectional area was 48 mm2 and initial tendon force was 20 kN. As can be seen in this figure, a large tendon sag can ensure more effective reinforcement.
\n
Figure 5.
Cable internal force deflection curve. (a) The initial tendon force, (b) sectional area of cable, and (c) sag of cable. *The horizontal dotted line represents the tensile force at which the external prestressing tendon begins to fracture.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.3. Effects of different parameters on the load-deflection curve
\n
Initial tendon force, tendon cross-sectional area, and tendon sag have different effects on the load-deflection curve for the RC beam:
Effect of initial tendon force. Figure 6a shows the load-deflection curves for four different initial tendon forces when the tendon cross-sectional area was 48 mm2 and tendon sag was 200 mm. An analysis of the curves reveals that an increase in the initial tendon force can increase the RC beam’s ultimate bearing capacity and reduce the duration of the hardening stage. Decreasing initial tendon force has the opposite effects. As shortened duration of hardening is not expected for structural performance, a greater initial tendon force does not necessarily mean more effective reinforcement. After the initial tendon force exceeded a threshold (53% in this study), the external tendon will yield and fracture in advance and the RC beam becomes more likely to fail by brittle fracture.
Effect of tendon cross-sectional area. When the initial tendon force and tendon sag stay unchanged, there is a positive relationship between tendon cross-sectional area and the structural performance of a balanced-reinforced beam. As the tendon cross-sectional area increased, the structure improved both in yield strength and ultimate strength, and the duration of the hardening stage was extended. Figure 6b shows the load-deflection curves for different tendon cross-sectional areas and constant initial tendon force (20 kN) and tendon sag (200 mm). When the tendon cross-sectional area was 48, 86, and 134 mm2, the RC beam’s yield strength increased by 15, 22, and 30%, respectively, compared with that of the unreinforced beam. The corresponding increases in the beam’s ultimate strength were 16, 37, and 48%. These results demonstrate significant improvement in structural ductility. According to the concept of an over-reinforced beam, there should be an upper limit on tendon cross-sectional area. This needs to be discussed in future research.
Effect of tendon sag. When the initial tendon force and cross-sectional area remain constant, the structural performance of the RC beam tends to vary positively with tendon sag. As the tendon sag increased, the structure showed increases in both yield strength and ultimate strength. Figure 6c illustrates the load-deflection curves for a tendon specimen with initial tendon force of 20 kN and cross-sectional area of 48 mm2. When the tendon sag was 200, 300, and 400 mm, the beam’s yield strength increased 15, 29, and 45%, respectively, after the reinforcement. The corresponding increases in its ultimate strength were 16, 33, and 48%, respectively. These results suggest great effect of sag on the beam’s bearing capacity. When the tendon sag exceeded a threshold (300 mm in this case, equal to beam height), the duration of hardening experienced by the beam was shortened. Further research is needed to verify if this threshold equals beam height in all cases.
\n
Figure 6.
Effect of different factors on strengthening beam. (a) Initial internal force of cable, (b) sectional area of cable, and (c) sag of cable.
\n
\n
3.3.4. Characteristics of plastic zone development
\n
The analysis above shows that the application of DWM external prestressing not only improved the bearing capacity of the SSB but also altered the plastic zone developed in the beam. Figure 7 shows the contours of stress in the plastic zone throughout the deformation processes of the unreinforced beam and the RC beam. When the unreinforced beam was subjected to an external load, a plastic zone arose first in the beam segment in the stage of pure bending. As the load increased, the plastic zone tended to expand toward the two ends symmetrically about the midspan position. The height of the plastic zone at midspan gradually increased and always peaked around the midspan. The plastic zone within the segment in shear bending gradually expanded from the loading point to the supports.
\n
Figure 7.
The plastic strain distribution of beam. (a) FJGL and (b) FGL-3-3.
\n
In the RC beam, the plastic zone in the region corresponding to the pure-bending segment of the unreinforced beam expanded at a slower rate due to the presence of web members. The plastic zone’s height decreased compared to that in the unreinforced beam. Along the beam bottom, it was symmetrically distributed about the midspan web member. As the load increased, the plastic zone slowly extended toward the top and ends and reached the highest point between web members. The plastic zone area was significantly smaller than that observed in the unreinforced beam. A plastic zone developed at the RC beam top, which is characteristic of deformation of continuous beams. This suggests that after reinforcement, the stress in the beam was redistributed and the properties of the material were used to a greater extent.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Tests and results
\n
\n
4.1. Experimental design
\n
Table 1 shows the number of test specimens and their materials. Two parts were prepared for each of the specimens indicated by *. The specimens were divided into three groups. Then “1-” and “2-” were added to the original specimen numbers.
\n
Figure 8 shows the design of the specimens (reinforcement ratio 1.27%). The properties of the rebars, steel wire ropes, and other materials used in the RC beam are presented in Table 3. The concrete strength, at 28 MPa, was measured using rebound hammer.
\n
Figure 8.
Sectional properties of tested beam (the unit used in the figure is mm).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Name
\n
Diameter Φ (mm)
\n
Density ρ (kg/m3)
\n
\n\n\n\nE\ns\n\n\n (N/mm2) × 105
\n
Breaking force(kN)
\n
Tensile strength (N/mm2)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Wire rope
\n
9
\n
/
\n
1.4
\n
75
\n
1550
\n
\n
\n
Wire rope
\n
15
\n
/
\n
1.4
\n
208
\n
1550
\n
\n
\n
Reinforcement
\n
14
\n
7800
\n
1.95
\n
/
\n
400
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Material properties table.
\n
Loading scheme: A three-point bend test was performed on the specimens using a hydraulic servo jack (Figures 9 and 10). Each test process was first controlled by load, which increased 10 kN for each stage. After the load reached 100 kN, displacement control was applied, and the displacement increased 5 mm each stage. The loading time was 3 min and the period of sustained load was 30 min.
\n
Figure 9.
Schematic diagram for loading setup (the unit used in the figure is mm). Notes: (1) fixed hinged support; (2) buttress; (3) test beams; (4) rolling hinged support; (5) backing plate; (6) rolling hinged support; (7) distributive girder; (8) jack; (9) pressure sensor; (10) reaction beam; (11) rolling hinged support; (12) wire rope; and (13) web member.
\n
Figure 10.
Load diagram of testing beam.
\n
Observation scheme: (1) observed variables: load, midspan displacement, beam-end displacement, and stress in concrete, wire ropes, rebars, and web members; (2) observation method: measurements by load transducer, displacement meter, and resistance strain gauge and manual measurement record using coordinate paper (rope length change was measured as strain in rope) and calculation using the Hooke’s law; and (3) test devices: static strain gauge, ruler, and so on [12].
\n
First, the SSB’s mechanical properties before reinforcement were measured, and the results were plotted as load-deflection curves. Stop loading when the maximum fracture width in the concrete in the tensioned region reached 0.2 mm and then unload the specimen. Later, the initial prestressing force was applied to each specimen based on the reinforcement design requirements until the specimen failed.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Experimental results
\n
\n
4.2.1. Load-deflection curve
\n
Figure 11 compares the load-deflection curves for four specimens before and after reinforcement. When the beam deflection reached 4 mm, specimens 1JGL-1-1, 2JGL-1-1, 1JGL-5-2, and 2JGL-5-2, respectively, showed 29, 30, 41, and 43% increases in load compared to those before reinforcement. For a deflection of 7 mm, the load increased 26, 28, 35, and 37%, respectively, compared with those before reinforcement. The experimental results demonstrate that the specimens became stiffer after the reinforcement.
\n
Figure 11.
Comparison of bearing capacity between, before, and after reinforcement.
\n
Figure 12 compares the load-deflection curves for six specimens before and after reinforcement. The fracture strength of specimens 1JGL-1-1, 2JGL-1-1, 1JGL-5-2, and 2JGL-5-2 increased by 21, 26, 38, and 42%, compared to the fracture strength of specimen 2JGL-5-2. Their ultimate strengths were up 13%, 15%, 41%, and 43%, respectively, compared with specimen 2JGL-5-2.
\n
Figure 12.
Comparison of load-deflection curves between reinforced beam and unreinforced beam.
\n
The experimental results show that the reinforcement improved the stiffness of the specimens and resulted in 24 and 40% increases in their fracture strength, 24 and 37% increases in yield strength, and 15 and 42% increases in ultimate strength on average. Specimens with larger tendon cross-sectional areas and sags exhibited better structural performance, consistent with the numerical results.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.2. Failure characteristics
\n
The failure characteristics of the six specimens are presented in Table 4. The unreinforced beams were balanced-reinforced. As they failed when the rebars began yielding, their failure mode was ductile failure. The RC beams were divided into two groups: one group with small tendon cross-sectional areas and small tendon sag, and the group with larger tendon cross-sectional areas and larger tendon sags. The rebars all yielded as the tendons failed. The structure ductility was relatively high in both groups. The former group failed before the external tendons fractured, while the latter group failed before the concrete was crushed. This difference demonstrates that large cross-sectional areas and tendon sags in reinforcement design can deliver better results.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Beam number
\n
Cable diameter (mm)
\n
Sag of cable (mm)
\n
Internal force of cable (kN)
\n
Cracking load (kN)
\n
Ultimate load (kN)
\n
Failure characteristics
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1FJGL
\n
—
\n
/
\n
/
\n
42
\n
124
\n
Ductility
\n
\n
\n
2FJGL
\n
/
\n
/
\n
/
\n
40
\n
115
\n
Ductility
\n
\n
\n
1JGL-1-1
\n
9
\n
200
\n
20
\n
50
\n
136
\n
Broken of cable
\n
\n
\n
2JGL-1-1
\n
9
\n
200
\n
20
\n
53
\n
141
\n
Broken of cable
\n
\n
\n
1JGL-5-2
\n
15
\n
250
\n
30
\n
58
\n
175
\n
Crush
\n
\n
\n
2JGL-5-2
\n
15
\n
250
\n
30
\n
60
\n
180
\n
Crush
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Characteristic load and failure of beam.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.3. Fracture distribution
\n
1-FJGL is an unreinforced beam. When the external load applied to it reached 40 kN, the first fracture arose at midspan. Later, new fractures developed in the pure-bending beam segment at intervals of about 130 mm. A diagonal fracture developed in the shear-bending segment when the external load was 60 kN and continuously propagated upward as the load increased. After the external load exceeded 100 kN, a number of vertical fractures occurred at midspan, resulting in a sharp increase in beam deformation. The load-deflection curve had only one peak, which corresponded to midspan point in the fractured region on the sides of the specimen (Figure 13).
\n
Figure 13.
Beam crack mapping. 1-FJGL, 2JGL-1-1, 2JGL-5-2.
\n
Specimens 2JGL-1-1 and 2JGL-5-2 were loaded until the maximum fracture width reached 0.2 mm. Then they were unloaded and reinforced by a prestressing force. At this point, all fractures in them were closed and the beams formed inverted arches with vertical displacements of 1 mm and 2 mm, respectively.
\n
Specimen 2JGL-5-2. These fracture characteristics of 2JGL-5-2 were similar to those of the previous specimen. Their fracture characteristics differed in two ways: (1) the magnitudes of load at characteristic points were higher than those observed for 2JGL-1-1. For example, the primary fractures opened again when the load was 60 kN and new fractures arose extensively in the shear-bending segment as the load was reached and (2) the four peaks were more obvious in the load-deflection curve for 2JGL-5-2 (See 2JGL-5-2 in Figure 12).
\n
The phenomena described above are consistent with the stress contour plots (Figure 7), demonstrating the reliability of the analytic method.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.4. Ductility of RC beam
\n
Ductility is an important indicator considered in seismic design for beams. It is usually measured by displacement-based ductility coefficient, μ, [13]:
\n
\n\nμ\n=\nΔu\n/\nΔy\n\nE14
\n
where △y is the displacement when the longitudinal rebars in the beam begin yielding and △u is the displacement when the load is decreased to 90% of the maximum load. The ductility coefficients of the test beams are presented in Table 5.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Beam number
\n
Yield step
\n
Ultimate load 90%
\n
Displacement ductility ratio (mm)
\n
\n
\n
Load values (kN)
\n
Displacement (mm)
\n
Load values (kN)
\n
Displacement (mm)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1FJGL
\n
94
\n
13.5
\n
113
\n
93.9
\n
6.9
\n
\n
\n
2FJGL
\n
99
\n
13.2
\n
116
\n
96.2
\n
7.1
\n
\n
\n
1JGL-1-1
\n
117
\n
14.8
\n
125
\n
146.4
\n
9.9
\n
\n
\n
2JGL-1-1
\n
122
\n
14.1
\n
128
\n
136.2
\n
9.6
\n
\n
\n
1JGL-5-2
\n
133
\n
11.3
\n
152
\n
100.2
\n
8.9
\n
\n
\n
2JGL-5-2
\n
132
\n
10.6
\n
162
\n
85.9
\n
8.1
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Ductility coefficient of beam.
\n
Table 5 reveals that the RC beams had much higher ductility than the unreinforced beams. The specimens with small tendon cross-sectional areas and small initial tendon forces exhibited slightly higher ductility than the specimens with larger tendon cross-sectional areas and greater initial tendon forces.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Summary
\n
The analysis performed earlier suggests that after being reinforced by DWM external prestressing, the SSB exhibited slightly increased stiffness, improved fracture strength, yield strength, and ultimate strength and significantly increased ductility. This is because the mechanical behavior of the RC beam was constrained by the external prestressing force.
It took longer times for the primary microfractures in the concrete to become through-going fractures.
The beam formed an inverted arch. When an external load was applied, a part of the load would serve to offset the arch displacement.
At a point during the experiment, reinforcement system composed of the external prestressing tendons, web members, and beam-bottom anchorage created a “net bag,” which enclosed the working segment of the SSB and caused redistribution of stress at cross-section.
Throughout the experiment, the web members served as an elastic support for the beam bottom and resulted in redistribution of internal force in the SSB. The support force provided by the elastic support tended to increase with increasing external load.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Comparison of the theoretical, numerical, and experimental results
\n
Figure 14 compares the theoretical, numerical, and experimental load-deflection curves for specimens JGL-1-1 and JGL-5-2.
\n
Figure 14.
Comparison of theoretical, simulated, and experimental values.
\n
Due to the fundamental assumptions mentioned earlier, the theoretical values for the stage of elastic deformation were slightly smaller than corresponding experimental and numerical values, thus ensuring the safety of the specimens. This demonstrates that the theoretical results can accurately describe the mechanical behavior of the specimens and the calculation method is reliable. For the stage of plastic deformation, the theoretical values were significantly greater than the experimental and numerical values, indicating that the theoretical calculation cannot provide reliable guidance.
\n
The experimental data were highly consistent with the numerical data for both elastic deformation and plastic deformation stages, demonstrating the validity of the numerical method proposed.
\n
Figure 15 compares the structural performance extracted from all experimental curves with the structural performance of the beam models observed in numerical analysis. The findings are as follows:
The specimens reinforced by prestressing had better structural performance than unreinforced beams.
The structural performance curves fit the numerical and experimental data and roughly move in the same manner, thus confirming the numerical results.
\n
Figure 15.
Comparison of simulation value and test value of related specimens. (a) Dip 200 All values contrast and (b) dip 250 All values contrast.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
\n
The load-deflection curve for a RC SSB can be divided into four portions, which correspond to the four deformation stages: elastic deformation, yielding, hardening, and failure. The RC beam specimens failed in two modes: brittle failure of external tendons and ductile failure of concrete in compression.
The application of DWM external prestressing results in redistribution of stress at the cross-section of the RC beam, which allows the materials to make greater contribution and improves the beam’s structural performance.
The theoretical calculation method proposed can deliver reliable results for the stage of elastic deformation and provide a basis for applications in practice.
Small tendon cross-sectional areas and high initial stress are not recommended for reinforcement design.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"concrete structure, simply supported beam, external prestress, tilted belly poles, test",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64154.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64154.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64154",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64154",totalDownloads:968,totalViews:125,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"December 12th 2018",dateFinished:"October 25th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A new reinforcement technology of external prestress based on stretch tilted belly poles has been presented. Taking simply supported beam, which is reinforced by three titled belly poles, as a research object to establish a model of reinforced simply supported beam. Relationship expressions about deflection and internal force increment of external cable or about load and deflection have been deduced. Finite element model is established by ABAQUS. The influence of structure performance of reinforced simply supported beam with cable section, cable sag and initial internal force value was investigated. Three tests are carried out to testify the results of theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. The results show that the redistributions of internal force and sectional stress have occurred, and the stiffness, crack load, ultimate load, and structure ductility are all improved with the increase of three design parameters. For example, the crack load, ultimate load, and structure ductility have increased, respectively, by 24%~40%, 15%~42%, and 14%~40%. High initial internal force, small section, and big cable sag should be avoided, because the probability of brittle failure of structure will increase. The analytical result shows that the reliability of internal increment expression of external cable and carrying capacity expression can be used in the engineering practice.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64154",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64154",signatures:"Teng Wang, Yanmei Ding, Wangchun Zhang and Yu Song",book:{id:"6957",type:"book",title:"New Trends in Structural Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Trends in Structural Engineering",slug:"new-trends-in-structural-engineering",publishedDate:"December 12th 2018",bookSignature:"Hakan Yalciner and Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6957.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-507-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-506-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-745-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"72283",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dr. Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Yalçıner",slug:"dr.-hakan-yalciner",fullName:"Dr. Hakan Yalçıner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Increment in tendon stress",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Fundamental assumptions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2. Computing model of tendon",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Solving for external tendon force",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Calculation of bearing capacity of a RC beam during normal service",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1. Computing model",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2. Load-deformation relationship",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Finite element analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. Constitutive relations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Parameter design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3. Numerical results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.3.1. Common features",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.3.2. Relationship between beam deflection and increment in tendon force",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.3.3. Effects of different parameters on the load-deflection curve",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"3.3.4. Characteristics of plastic zone development",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18",title:"4. Tests and results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.1. Experimental design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.2. Experimental results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.2.1. Load-deflection curve",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.2.3. Fracture distribution",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.3. Summary",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"5. Comparison of the theoretical, numerical, and experimental results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yu S. Engineering Structural Detection and Reinforcement. Beijing: Science Press; 2005. pp. 12-15. (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ting ZY, Jisheng Q, Hengwei H. Survey on research of external pre-stressed concrete beams. Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology (Urban Science Edition). 2002;19(4):86-91. (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Lou TJ, Lopes AV, Lopes SMR. Influence of span-depth ratio on behavior of externally pre-stressed concrete beams. ACI Structural Journal. 2012;109(5):687-695\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Ahmed G, Beeby AW. Factors affecting the external pre-stressing stress in externally strengthened pre-stressed concrete beams. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2005;27(9-10):945-957\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Jinsheng D, Guangda Q. Ultimate stress in external tendons-comments on the existing typical methods. Engineering Mechanics. 2010;27(9):63-68 (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B6",body:'He Z, Zhao L, Wang J. A unified algorithm for calculating stress increment of external tendons based on deflection. China Civil Engineering Journal. 2008;41(9):90-96. (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Ghallab A, Beeby AW. Calculating stress of external pre-stressing tendons. Structures and Buildings. 2004;157(4):263-278\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Wu G, Wu Z, Yang W, Jianbiao J, Yi C. Experimental study on flexural strengthening of RC beams with pre-stressed high strength steel wire ropes. China Civil Engineering Journal. 2007;40(12):28-37 (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Yu S, Wang Y, Aipeng LI. Internal force analysis of external pre-stressed cable of tilted belly poles. Engineering Mechanics. 2011;28(5):143-148. (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Zhu H, Yang Y, Fan W. External Prestressing Bridge Reinforcement Technology Review. International Conference on Engineering Technology and Application (ICETA 2015)\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Astawa MD, Raka IGP, Tavio. Moment Contribution Capacity of Tendon Prestressed Partial on Concrete Beam-column Joint Interior According to Provisions ACI 318-2008 Chapter 21.5.2.5 (c) Due to Cyclic Lateral Loads. The 3rd Bali International Seminar on Science & Technology (BISSTECH 2015)\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Xu L, Xu F, Hao Z, Wenke Q. The design and test study on pre-stressed railway concert beam -bridge strengthened by externally draped CFRP tendon. Engineering Mechanics. 2013;30(2):89-95. (in Chinese)\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Vasudevan G, Kothandaraman S. Experimental investigation on the performance of RC beams strengthened with external bas at soffit. Materials and Structures. 2014;47(10):1617-1631\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Teng Wang",address:"wangteng2035@163.com",affiliation:'
Key Laboratory of Protected Horticulture, Shandong provincial Education Department, China
Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute, Weifang University of Science and Technology, China
Key Laboratory of Protected Horticulture, Shandong provincial Education Department, China
Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute, Weifang University of Science and Technology, China
Western Engineering Research Center of Disaster Mitigation in Civil Engineering of Ministry of Education, Lanzhou University of Technology, China
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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