Synthesis of 3,4-dihydropyrimidine based on the Biginelli reaction using nanosized catalysts of Ni and Ni@C.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8992",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Gene expression is the most fundamental level at which genotype gives rise to phenotype, which is an obvious, observable, and measurable trait. Phenotype is dependent on genetic makeup of the organism and influenced by environmental conditions. This book explores the significance, mechanism, function, characteristic, determination, and application of gene expression and phenotypic traits.",isbn:"978-1-83880-032-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-031-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-318-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82955",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",numberOfPages:210,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"88ec966a7a8eecaf5cdbdc8b20295737",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",publishedDate:"April 1st 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8992.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8714,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 14th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185559/images/system/185559.jpg",biography:"Yuan-Chuan Chen completed his PhD in Comparative Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), USA and had postdoctoral studies at the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA). His research interests include Pharmacy/Pharmacology, Biochemistry, Microbiology/Virology, Cell/Molecule Biology, Biotechnology/Nanotechnology, Cell/Gene therapy and Policy/Regulation. He has participated in publishing many co-authored articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in the fields of basic science, biomedicine, and related policy/regulation. He is now an assistant professor in Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taiwan. He is also an adjunct member in the biopharmaceutical division of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Taiwan) Revising Committee (9th edition) and has reviewed many materials for Pharmacopoeia revising. His research is focusing on the discovery, production, application, perspectives and challenges of biopharmaceuticals. He is interested in basic research, the development of agricultural/industrial products and human therapeutics using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Additionally, he is specialized in genomic studies including genomic analysis, gene function, and gene expression and control.",institutionString:"Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"280432",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiu-Jau",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"shiu-jau-chen",fullName:"Shiu-Jau Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280432/images/system/280432.jpeg",biography:"Shiu-Jau Chen obtained a medical doctor (MD) degree at National Taiwan University in 1994 and completed his Ph.D. in Anatomy and Cell Biology at National Taiwan University in 2013. Currently, he serves as a director in the department of neurosurgery at Mackay Memorial Hospital and an assistant professor at Mackay Medical College. He is a managing supervisor in Taiwan Society for Neurovascular Surgery and Intervention form 2015 till now. Additionally, he was a managing supervisor in Taiwan Neurospinal Society from 2015/06 to 2017/06. His specialty is neurosurgery and brain disease treatment. His research focuses on the prevention and therapy of narcotic addiction and Parkinson’s disease treatment using cell therapy. He is also interested in studies for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases using the CRISPR/Cas system and cancer therapy using immunotherapy.",institutionString:"Mackay Medical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Mackay Memorial Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"53",title:"Genomics",slug:"genomics"}],chapters:[{id:"69649",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89863",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69649",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"68975",title:"Instability of Sex-Determining Systems in Frogs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89050",slug:"instability-of-sex-determining-systems-in-frogs",totalDownloads:850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"All of the anuran amphibians examined so far have genetic sex-determining systems, which include female heterogametic ZZ/ZW and male heterogametic XX/XY types. For example, the Japanese wrinkled frog Glandirana rugosa has both types. Most of frog species including the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis possess homomorphic sex chromosomes, while most mammalian and avian species have heteromorphic sex chromosomes. Thus, there should be a variety of sex-determining genes and sex chromosomes in frogs, although only X. laevis W-linked gene dm-W has been reported as a sex-determining gene. Interestingly, estrogen or androgen can induce sex reversal in many frog species, suggesting a vital role of sex steroid hormones on sex identity. In other words, frogs in the same order are good examples for the understanding of diversity of sex-determining systems. In this chapter, I summarize the diversity of frog sex-determining systems and discuss why sex-determining genes and systems have been unstable in frogs.",signatures:"Michihiko Ito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68975",authors:[{id:"212370",title:"Dr.",name:"Michihiko",surname:"Ito",slug:"michihiko-ito",fullName:"Michihiko Ito"}],corrections:null},{id:"65501",title:"Comparison of Sex Determination in Vertebrates (Nonmammals)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83831",slug:"comparison-of-sex-determination-in-vertebrates-nonmammals-",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the consideration of sex determination in vertebrate groups of nonmammalians: fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. Attention is drawn to the fact that all these groups of animals, unlike mammals, are implemented hormonal control options for primary sex determination, and there is a possibility of sex reversion. Determination of gonadal development in vertebrates like testis or ovary was initially controlled mainly by sex hormones (fish and amphibians). Later, various sex determining genes were involved in this process. The system was quite plastic and was able to respond to changes in external conditions (reptiles). The appearance of heteromorphic sex chromosomes (birds) has led to the emergence of some specific W chromosomal signal, which provides estrogen control of the development of a heterogametic sex. In mammals, the control of the primary determination of sex (the appearance of the gonad) becomes purely genetic, and the role of sex hormones is reduced to the differentiation of testis or ovaries.",signatures:"Aleksandr F. Smirnov and Antonina V. Trukhina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65501",authors:[{id:"276749",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksander",surname:"Smirnov",slug:"aleksander-smirnov",fullName:"Aleksander Smirnov"},{id:"286055",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonina",surname:"Trukhina",slug:"antonina-trukhina",fullName:"Antonina Trukhina"}],corrections:null},{id:"71044",title:"Specific Features of Sex Determination in Birds on the Example of Gallus gallus domesticus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91178",slug:"specific-features-of-sex-determination-in-birds-on-the-example-of-em-gallus-gallus-em-domesticus",totalDownloads:685,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the consideration of sex determination in birds. The appearance of heteromorphic sex chromosomes (birds) has led to the emergence of some specific W chromosomal signal, which provides estrogen control of the development of a heterogametic sex. At present, two hypotheses about sex determination in birds compete. One of these hypotheses considers the number of Z chromosomes as a key sex-determining factor, while the other hypothesis supposes the presence in W chromosome of the key gene controlling ovarian development or suppressing the appearance of testes. Into the modern scheme of the genetic control of sex determination in birds (practically within the hypothesis of dose compensation), an epigenetic mechanism was added. The appearance of gonads in birds is most likely determined by sex hormones and to the greatest extent by estrogen under the control of W chromosome. It is desirable to pay attention to noncoding RNAs, their connection with the W chromosome and their role in bird sex determination.",signatures:"Aleksandr Fedorovich Smirnov and Antonina Vladimirovna Trukhina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71044",authors:[{id:"276749",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksander",surname:"Smirnov",slug:"aleksander-smirnov",fullName:"Aleksander Smirnov"},{id:"286055",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonina",surname:"Trukhina",slug:"antonina-trukhina",fullName:"Antonina Trukhina"}],corrections:null},{id:"71335",title:"Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Krüppel-Like Transcription Factors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91652",slug:"transcriptional-and-epigenetic-regulation-of-kr-ppel-like-transcription-factors",totalDownloads:841,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Krüppel-like factors (KLFs) are a family of zinc finger transcription factors (ZF-TF) that are now known to be involved in complex biological processes including cancer, proliferation, and cardiovascular disease as well as developmental processes. KLFs first gained notoriety when it became known that they are crucial for promoting and maintenance of stem cell pluripotency. Over the past 20 years since the discovery of Krüppel-like factor 1 (KLF1), this transcription factor family has grown to include 18 members and 7 closely related members of the specificity protein 1 (Sp1) family. In the present study, we review the mechanisms related to regulation of KLFs by direct promoter activation or repression. We will also review and discuss some mechanisms of posttranslational modifications that could affect KLF function. We seek to understand how these transcriptional regulators are themselves regulated and how that regulation could become aberrant during various disease processes.",signatures:"Morgan Salmon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71335",authors:[{id:"307253",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Morgan",surname:"Salmon",slug:"morgan-salmon",fullName:"Morgan Salmon"}],corrections:null},{id:"69394",title:"Circular RNAs and Its Biological Functions in Health and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88764",slug:"circular-rnas-and-its-biological-functions-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Circular RNAs (circRNAs) belong to the family of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) that, unlike linear RNAs, are characterized by a covalently closed circular RNA structure lacking 5′ cap and 3′ poly-adenylated tails. circRNAs have a role in epigenetic regulation of downstream targets. circRNAs play a crucial role in regulating gene and protein expressions by acting as a microRNA (miRNA) sponge and RNA binding protein (RBP) sponge and interact with proteins to affect cell behavior. circRNA expression profiles differ between physiological and pathological states. Moreover, the expression patterns of circRNAs exhibit differences in a tissue-specific manner. Although investigations on circRNAs have been exploding nowadays, yet only a limited number of circRNAs are identified. Furthermore, further researches are needed to shed light on their functions and targets. Therefore, circRNAs are becoming vital as potential biomarkers that may be used for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In this chapter, we review the current advancement of cirRNAs with regard to their biogenesis, biological functions, gene regulatory mechanisms, and implications in human diseases and summarize the recent studies on circRNAs as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers based on existing knowledge.",signatures:"Atiye Seda Yar Saglam, Ebru Alp and Hacer Ilke Onen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69394",authors:[{id:"65630",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Atiye Seda",surname:"Yar Saglam",slug:"atiye-seda-yar-saglam",fullName:"Atiye Seda Yar Saglam"},{id:"66797",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",surname:"Alp",slug:"ebru-alp",fullName:"Ebru Alp"},{id:"118060",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilke",surname:"Onen",slug:"ilke-onen",fullName:"Ilke Onen"}],corrections:null},{id:"71071",title:"Evaluation of the Synergistic Effect of Amikacin with Cefotaxime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Its Biofilm Genes Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91146",slug:"evaluation-of-the-synergistic-effect-of-amikacin-with-cefotaxime-against-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-and-",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A total of 100 broiler chickens were examined for the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by standard microbiological techniques. Susceptibility pattern for amikacin and cefotaxime was performed by Kirby-Bauer and microdilution assays. Then, checkerboard titration in trays was applied and FIC was measured to identify the type of interaction between the two antibiotics. The ability of isolates to form in vitro biofilm was detected by two methods, one qualitative (CRA) and the other quantitative (MTP), followed by investigating the effect of each antibiotic alone and in combination on the expression of biofilm genes. The overall isolation percentage of P. aeruginosa was 21%. Resistance to each antibiotic was more than 50%; the range of cefotaxime MIC was 8–512 μg/ml, while amikacin MIC range was 1–64 μg/ml. The FIC index established a synergistic association between tested two drugs in 17 (81%) of isolates and the remaining represent partially synergism. The qualitative technique showed that only 66.6% of the isolates were considered biofilm producers, while the quantitative technique showed that 90.4% of the isolates were biofilm producers. Further to RT-PCR investigation, significant repression against biofilm-forming genes (filC, pelA, and pslA) was observed for the combination of antibiotics when compared with monotherapy.",signatures:"Azza S. El-Demerdash and Neveen R. Bakry",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71071",authors:[{id:"314300",title:"Dr.",name:"Azza",surname:"El-Demerdash",slug:"azza-el-demerdash",fullName:"Azza El-Demerdash"},{id:"316523",title:"Dr.",name:"Neveen",surname:"Bakery",slug:"neveen-bakery",fullName:"Neveen Bakery"}],corrections:null},{id:"68939",title:"Gene Expression Profile of HDF in SMG Partially Overlaps with That in the NASA Twins Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88957",slug:"gene-expression-profile-of-hdf-in-smg-partially-overlaps-with-that-in-the-nasa-twins-study",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microgravity research is an important field in biomedical sciences not only due to our interest in exploring and living in space, but also because of the insights it gives on earthbound health conditions. Using a human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cell line cultured in simulated microgravity (SMG) in combination with high throughput cDNA microarrays and quantitative Northern analysis, 271 differentially regulated genes were identified and 72% of these genes were also reported in the high throughput gene expression data of the recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Twins Study. The identification of the large number of overlapping microgravity sensitive genes between the skin fibroblast in microgravity and astronaut’s peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) indicated that microgravity alone, without space radiation, was able to elicit an adaptive response involving a set of about 200 genes. Further analysis of the overlapping genes with the same direction of regulation (86 genes) and opposite direction of regulation (108 genes) revealed important pathways and cellular processes in the microgravity adaptation responses.",signatures:"Jade Q. Clement",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68939",authors:[{id:"75025",title:"Dr.",name:"Jade",surname:"Clement",slug:"jade-clement",fullName:"Jade Clement"}],corrections:null},{id:"69254",title:"Environmental Factors Affecting the Expression of Bilateral-Symmetrical Traits in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89460",slug:"environmental-factors-affecting-the-expression-of-bilateral-symmetrical-traits-in-plants",totalDownloads:643,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the problem of asymmetry of bilateral traits in plants. Three types of bilateral asymmetry are found in the leaf blade, of interest to ecologists and evolutionists. A brief review of the methods used in testing bilateral asymmetry and developmental stability discusses their role in the development of homeostasis and ontogenesis. Intra- and interspecific differences are considered on the example of woody plants under the influence of factors influencing the expression of bilaterally symmetry. The influence of stress on the manifestation of asymmetric traits is considered. Apparently, the climate and topography of the area play a more important role, determining the plastic and fluctuating variability. The relationship of plasticity, evolutionary canalization, and development stability is considered on the example of woody and cultivated plants. Plasticity and fluctuation variability are in a relationship coordinated by climatic conditions, primarily lighting and temperature. This, in turn, determines the mechanisms of gene regulatory networks. Thus, phenogenetics, which studies the patterns and mechanisms of gene expression and ontogenesis, is based on the data from field botanical studies of plant shape and asymmetry. Epigenetic and population studies of phenotypic variations play a role in standardizing and finding suitable plant species and varieties.",signatures:"Sergey Baranov, Igor Vinokurov and Lubov Fedorova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69254",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69254",authors:[{id:"308314",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Baranov",slug:"sergey-baranov",fullName:"Sergey Baranov"}],corrections:null},{id:"68366",title:"Sellafield, Seascale, and Scandinavia: A Legacy of Radioactive Contamination with Future Implications for Gene Evolution in Affected Ecosystems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88505",slug:"sellafield-seascale-and-scandinavia-a-legacy-of-radioactive-contamination-with-future-implications-f",totalDownloads:752,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Radioactive waste from nuclear installations and nuclear reprocessing plants, nuclear accidents, and radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing constitute a serious problem facing future generations. Marine algae and phytoplanktons accumulate radionuclides from their surroundings and are used as bioindicators of radioactive pollution in the environment. In Northern Europe, the affected marine systems include the Irish Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the North Sea. The main sources of this radioactive contamination are global fallout from nuclear weapons tests, river transport from Siberia, and marine transport of discharges from Sellafield and Chernobyl. An increased leukemia incidence has been observed in young children at Seascale near Sellafield, and an elevated incidence of leukemia has been recorded among young people (0–24 years) in the French canton of Beaumont-Hague close to the Cap de la Hague nuclear reprocessing facility. In Scandinavia, scientists suspect that people in parts of Sweden are still dying from cancer caused by radiation from the Chernobyl accident. Moreover, the Baltic Sea is contaminated with man-made plutonium radionuclides from nuclear reprocessing. However, some experts are able to dismiss the above relationships due to important uncertainties over the estimation of radiation doses from environmental discharges based on a mutational theory of carcinogenesis. Consequently, it appears to be of paramount importance to reevaluate the current methods for cancer risk assessment in the case of radiation exposure within the context of an apoptotic model of carcinogenesis that could explain such a discrepancy. According to this new model, subtle differences in gene expression in response to a carcinogen can initiate cell death or apoptosis and act as a trigger for carcinogenesis. Simultaneously, future implications for human gene evolution are unavoidable.",signatures:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68366",authors:[{id:"232234",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal"},{id:"309464",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8891",title:"Gene Editing",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f0d7de56709fc0558c0bb8212a0d03",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6582",title:"Chromatin and Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"afa23decc7c15bdf48cfeebb5f0c38fb",slug:"chromatin-and-epigenetics",bookSignature:"Colin Logie and Tobias Aurelius Knoch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212809",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Colin",surname:"Logie",slug:"colin-logie",fullName:"Colin Logie"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"68430",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias Aurelius",middleName:null,surname:"Knoch",slug:"tobias-aurelius-knoch",fullName:"Tobias Aurelius Knoch",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68430/images/system/68430.png",biography:"Born in the Rhein-Neckar region Mannheim/Heidelberg, Germany, Dr. Knoch studied Physics, Mathematics, and Biology at the University of Heidelberg. In 1998, he graduated in (bio-)physics with 'Three-Dimensional Organization of Chromosomes domains in Simulation and Experiment”, followed by his dissertation 'Approaching the Three-Dimensional Organization of the Human Genome' both at the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, in 2002. In 2002/2004 Dr. Knoch founded his group Biophysical Genomics located at the Kirchhoff Institute for Physics, University of Heidelberg, and until today at the Cell Biology Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. His work is focusing on the determination and understanding of genome organization from the DNA sequence level to the entire nuclear morphology. Therefore, approaches from theoretical physics have been combined with molecular biology in highly interdisciplinary projects ranging from advanced DNA sequence analyses, parallel high-performance computer modelling of genomic architectures, and new image analysis methods, to advanced fluorescence in situ hybridization and high-resolution chromatin conformation interaction genome mapping. Major achievements have been: an artefact-free in vivo labelling method of nuclear chromatin, the first system-biological genome browser (GLOBE 3D Genome Browser), the set-up of one of the largest desktop computing grids, and last but not least the final determination of the general structural organization of higher mammalian genomes leading to a consistent systems genomics view of genomes from genotype to phenotype. All this has resulted in patents, publications, the foundation/coordination of international interdisciplinary cooperative networks, and consortia. He also (co-)founded many initiatives improving institutional/university study and management performance including the science outreach to the public and industry. Besides, he also conducts environmental and human ecology research, has achieved law-changing contributions in the human-rights sector, is an increasingly recognized artist in the fine arts, and last but not least has founded and is running two companies in the renewable energy production and development sector. His achievements have resulted in prestigious scholarships, awards, and prices as early as 1983.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Erasmus University Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10741",title:"Synthetic Genomics",subtitle:"From BioBricks to Synthetic Genomes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb1cebd0b9c4e7e87427003ff7196f57",slug:"synthetic-genomics-from-biobricks-to-synthetic-genomes",bookSignature:"Miguel Fernández-Niño and Luis H. 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The ability of machines to demonstrate advanced skills in predicting outcomes even when they are not explicitly programmed, taking decisions, adapting to new environments, learning, perceiving, and processing written or spoken languages, along with other skills, makes this discipline of paramount importance in today’s world. As computer-related technologies are more and more widely used, many problems have emerged in areas such as big data, spam detection, image and video processing, and many others. However, when traditional methods are used to solve many of these complicated issues, the degree of finding the solution or an acceptable approach is unsatisfactory in many scenarios. For these reasons, Swarm intelligence (SI) and Bio-inspired computation have been gaining a lot of attention for many years. Swarm intelligence refers to the ability that arises from the interaction of simple units capable of processing information based on collective animal behavior such as school of fish, flocks of birds, etc. There are various models that follow this concept with different logical approaches, although having in common the interaction of their processing units. This book aims to include research on applications, as well as new techniques, challenges, and opportunities in this fascinating area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",keywords:"Swarm Intelligence, Evolutionary Algorithm, Metaheuristicsm, Swarm Optimization, Ant Colony, Artificial Immune System, Evolutionary Computation, Decision Making, Evolving System, Artificial Intelligence, Bio-Inspired Computation, Hiper-Heuristics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez is the appointed president of the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), as well as a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Many attempts have been made to develop processes and techniques that can synthesize nanoparticles with specific functional properties [4, 5, 6]. Dry methods such as the levitational gas condensation (LGC) process have been developed to obtain high-purity nanopowders while suppressing the agglomeration of the produced particles [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The catalytic effects of nanopowders are influenced not only by the reduced size of the particles but also by their increased surface area [16, 17]. The surface of metal oxides exhibits nonstoichiometry, resulting from oxygen defect structures [17]. Particles prepared by the LGC process show enhanced catalytic activities due to the high level of defects on their surface structure. In this chapter, the synthesis processes and resulting properties of various nanoparticles prepared by LGC are introduced. The sections are focused on three aspects:
Levitational gas condensation (LGC): The unique instrument used for the synthesis of the nanoparticles is introduced in this section [18, 19, 20].
Magnetic metal and carbon-encapsulated metal nanoparticles: The produced magnetic metal (Ni and Fe) and carbon-encapsulated metal (Ni@C and Fe@C) nanoparticles showed a noncollinear magnetic structure between the core and surface layer of the particles. The morphologies and the dispersion stability kinetics in the solvents are introduced. Also, the carbon-encapsulated metal nanoparticles were successfully applied as a catalyst for the multicomponent Biginelli reaction [7, 9, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
Nonmagnetic metal and metal oxides: Cu oxides, Bi, and NiO nanopowders prepared by LGC are introduced. Cu oxide and NiO alloy nanopowders are widely applied as heterogeneous catalysts in oxidizing processes used in organic synthesis. Nanopowders of bismuth (Bi) with its low melting temperature were applied as a sensor electrode for detecting heavy metals in water [9, 14, 17, 24, 25].
The LGC method is a kind of gas-phased method in which an electric current is flowed to two inductor coils, which are each wound opposite directions. The electric current following in different direction in each coil induces a magnetic field and creates a magnetic moment, which opposes gravity on the inside lower part of the coil [11, 18]. To synthesize a nanopowder, a melted metal is continuously evaporated and condensed in the levitated condition, suspended in the magnetic field. This method is shown in Figure 1(a). In this study, we modified the inductor with a downward spiral type of coil, so that the levitation region produced by the magnetic field would be more stable for the melted droplet by generating an equivalent magnetic flux density, as shown in Figure 1(b).
(a) The mechanism of forming nanoparticles and the contour maps of magnetic flux density depending on shape of inductors for a cylinder type and (b) a spiral type and its strength at in-plane (a~b) and vertical (c~d) direction [
The total LGC system is illustrated in Figure 2. The nanoparticles formed at the surface of the liquid droplet are then flowed to a filter by the gas stream using a vacuum pump:
The concept of system for LGC.
Metallic atoms were evaporated from an overheated surface and condensed by cold inert gas and then collected from the filter. To stabilize the powder surface and prohibit oxidation, the powders were passivated with thin oxide layers. The LGC apparatus consists of a high-frequency induction generator, levitation and evaporation chamber, and oxygen concentration control unit. The operating values used for the induction generator were 6, 5, 4.5, and 3 kW for the Ni, Fe, Cu, and Ag, respectively [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. These values depended on the melting temperature as well as the magnetic permeability of the metals. The melting temperature of iron (1535°C) is higher than that of Ni (1450°C). However, the high magnetic permeability of Ni affects the magnetic force and levitation of the melted droplets. Accordingly, the input power for Ni needs to be increased up to 6 kW, the maximum power for the inductor. Preparing pure Ti nanopowders using the LGC is impossible. To do so, the temperature of the inductor must be increased up to 2000°C; however, the starting materials have to be very thin and strongly passivated by a layer of titanium oxide. The seed materials need to be fully melted before levitation, because only liquid seeds can be suspended in the inductor, due to their lower density. However, it takes too long time to melt the Ti seed to produce liquid droplet for levitation.
We also supplied the starting materials for the melted liquid droplet during synthesis. We utilized a metal wire feed system, which is very convenient for fabricating nanopowder continuously. The amount of material fed over time can be controlled. The average size of the nanopowder is increased with increasing feed speed because of the increased amount of material introduced to the liquid droplet. The optimal feeding speed is between 10 and 30 mm/s during fabrication. If the feeding speed is very slow, below 10 mm/s, the size of the liquid droplets decreased, and they disappear. In contrast, if the feeing speed is increased to over 30 mm/s, the prepared powders have a wire shape because the particles are connected with each other. By adding oxygen to the inert gas, metal oxide particles or metal particles oxidized on the surface may be obtained. Figure 3 shows metal and metal oxide particles prepared by LGC. The gas condensation (GC) method was used to obtain nanocrystalline powders of pure metal and nano-oxides with different compositions. Oxide nanopowders, such as Fe3O4, γ-Fe2O3, and Cu2O, were produced by the LGC of metal wires at elevated pressure in an (Ar + O2) atmosphere [8, 16].
TEM images for metals and ceramic nanopowders.
High-purity Ni@C and Fe@C nanopowders were synthesized using the LGC method. The LGC apparatus consisted of a high-frequency induction generator, operating at 6 kW for Ni and 5 kW for Fe, a reaction chamber for the levitated liquid seed, and a unit to control the methane (CH4) concentration. The starting materials were Ni and Fe wires with a diameter of 4 mm. The Ni and Fe wires were fed into a melted droplet using the wire feeding system at a feeding rate of 2 mm/min. An ingot of 85 mg, which was used as the seed material for the levitation and the evaporation reactions, was melted by using electric induction. The pressure of the mixed Ar and CH4 gas in the chamber was 100 Torr. CH4 was 10% of the mixture gas. The inductor was heated up to a temperature of 2000°C, and the metallic atoms were evaporated from the overheated surface of the liquid droplet and condensed by cold inert gas and then collected into the filter. At the same time, the molecular CH introduced into the chamber was converted to atomic C and H with high activity under high temperature. The highly active C atoms react with the Ni and Fe atoms, and the H atoms are converted to H molecules. The newly created H gas is vented out of the reaction chamber by continuous vacuum operation. The results indicated that all of the as-made materials were composed of nanocapsules with uniform particle size at and below 10 nm. The nanocapsules consisted of outer multi-shells of carbon [26, 27, 28].
For most metals, the optimal design of the material heating method allows a metal drop to be heated and kept in a noncontact condition in the evaporation zone by high-frequency magnetic field. However, this method does not ensure the optimal heating of light-volatile metals such as Zn, Sn, and Bi. Therefore, another material evaporation method using a refractory crucible was applied, for heating and evaporation. This method is generally suitable for evaporating materials with high vapor pressures at moderate temperature. Figure 4 shows a simple diagram of the device for obtaining light-volatile metal nanopowders. The apparatus consists of a high-frequency induction generator operating at 2.5 kW, a levitation and evaporation chamber, and an oxygen concentration control unit [11]. The wire feeding velocity (VZn) and mixed Ar and O2 gas pressure in the chamber were 50 mm/min and 100 Torr, respectively. The mechanism of ZnO formation using the LGC method was analyzed. First, a liquid droplet, which is levitated against gravity by the magnetic force due to the coupled induction coils, is heated up to the temperature of 1560°C at 2.5 kW. Then Zn clusters are evaporated from the overheated surface of the liquid droplet and condensed by cold inert gas and collected into the filter. At the same time, molecular O2 introduced into the chamber is converted to atomic O with high activity under high temperature. The highly active O atoms can diffuse into the Zn clusters and react with the Zn atoms. A large amount of the Zn phase was observed at and below an oxygen flow rate of VO2 = 0.05 ℓ/min, whereas mixtures of ZnO and small amounts of the Zn phase were observed under O2 flow rates in the range from VO2 = 0.11ℓ/min to VO2 = 0.21 ℓ/min. However, at and above 0.21 ℓ/min of O2 flow rate, levitation was impossible. Some metals, such as Bi and Sn, have insufficient tensile strength to prepare wire. In these cases, the micron-sized powders were used as the parent materials. The powder starting materials were supplied by a powder feeding (PF) system. A detailed explanation of the PF is provided in Section 2.3.
High-resolution TEM images of carbon encapsulated (a) Ni and (b) Fe.
Bi powders were prepared using metal bismuth powder as the starting material [28]. The powder was supplied by the feeding system into a graphite crucible at a rate of 20 mg/min. The crucible was heated by induction currents up to T = 700–900°C. Bi particles entering the crucible were evaporated within 1–2 sec and carried by argon flow from the hot zone. The argon flow rate was varied in the range of 80–170 ℓ/h, at pressures in the range of 70–300 torr. The dependence of the mean sizes of the bismuth particles on gas pressure at a flow rate of 80 ℓ/h was 25, 70, and 120 nm for 70, 150, and 300 torr, respectively. Thus, the optimal conditions for obtaining Bi powder were realized at an argon pressure of 70 torr and a rate of 80 ℓ/h. A simple diagram of the process for forming nanoparticles from light-volatile seed in a crucible to produce volatile nanoparticles is represented in Figure 5.
(a) Elementary diagram of the process for forming nanoparticles from light-volatile seed in a crucible and (b) TEM images for the Sn, Bi, and ZnO nanoparticles prepared by LGC using light-volatile seed.
The wire feeding (WF) system was used for synthesizing metal, ceramic, and carbon-encapsulated materials. This system easily supplies seed parent materials continuously. However, it was impossible to synthesize several complicated metal-doped materials such as ferrites, perovskite, garnet, metal-doped ZnO, Ti-Ni, and Al-Ni-Co using the wire feeder in the LGC system, because the parent materials could not be prepared as wire. A newly modified micron powder feeding (MPF) system overcomes this problem of the LGC system [15, 20]. The MPF system can be used for synthesizing brittle metals, alloys, and complex doped materials. Commercial elemental powders of Ti (99.9 at.%, ~500 μm), Ni (99.9 at.%, ~500 μm), and Fe (99.9 at.%, ~ 500 μm) were used as the starting powders for the synthesis of Ti-Ni alloy and Ni-ferrite nanopowder, using the LGC. The Ti and Ni powders were mixed by pestle and mortar to achieve the desired equi-atomic composition and were then incorporated into the micron powder feeding system, which consisted of a rotating part to supply the Ti and Ni micron powders to the melted droplet and a vibrating part for mixing the powder. The Ti and Ni micron powders were fed into the powder feeding system at a feeding rate of 38 mg/min. An 83 mg Ti-Ni alloy ingot, which was used as the seed material for the levitation and evaporation reactions, was melted by an electric induction heating with an applied power of 6 kW at an argon gas pressure of 100 torr. The evaporated powders were filtered and finally passivated by partial oxidation. The starting materials were the mixed micron powders of Ni and Fe, which has a size ranging from 100 to 500 μm. The amount of micron powder fed into the liquid seed droplet was controlled at 80 mg/min. The mixed Ar and O2 gas pressure in the chamber was 100 torr [15, 20] (Figure 6).
(a) Micron powder feeding (MPF) system and (b) wire feeding (WF) system in the LGC instrument. TEM images for (c) Ti-Ni alloys and (d) NiFe2O4.
Magnetic nanoparticles have attracted much attention because of their use in nano-fluids for biomedical application, thermally conductive fluids, various catalysts, etc. However, metallic nano-fluids end to be inherently vulnerable to oxidation, dissolution, and agglomeration during synthesis. In particular, agglomeration of the particles in a solvent is a serious problem when preparing nano-fluids. To overcome these problems, encapsulating the particles in a protective shell has been recommended to improve the chemical stability of the metal nanoparticles and their dispersion stability in the solvent. It is also worth noting that after encapsulation with a carbon coating layer, these materials are not prone to agglomeration because the coating reduces their magnetic interaction. In addition, the surface diffusion processes can preserve the chemical and structural properties of the nanopowder for a long time in many chemically aggressive conditions. A graphitic carbon shell in particular is regarded as an ideal coating since it is light and shows high stability in both chemical and physical environments [29, 30, 31].
The contents of the Ni and Ni@C nanoparticles synthesized by LGC using the micron powder feeding system were confirmed by XRD pattern. The XRD results for Ni and Ni@C showed the lattice parameters and the positions of the main peaks of the Ni powders. A small amount of NiO phase and amorphous graphitic layers was found in the XRD patterns and in the TEM images as mentioned in Section 1 [18]. The diffraction peaks at 44.4°, 51.8°, and 76.3° are due to the (1 1 1), (2 0 0), and (2 2 0) planes of fcc-Ni, respectively. The Ni powders synthesized by the LGC method showed low saturation magnetization. These results were attributed to the spin-canting effect and oxide phase on the surface [32]. The magnetic properties would be weak due to the antiferromagnetic NiO phase on the powder surface. The saturation magnetization was Ms. = 42 emu/g, as shown in Figure 7(a). The slightly shifted hysteresis loop for the Ni sample can be explained by exchange bias between the ferromagnetic core of Ni and the antiferromagnetic surface of the NiO. The initial magnetization curve is not explained by the size effect. In previous studies, the virgin magnetization curve slightly spills over the limited hysteresis loop at 655 Oe. We assume that this effect is enhanced when the size of the particles is reduced, as suggested in a previous study. With decreasing particle size, the defects and the different magnetic structure on the surface of the particles are increased. The nature of this irreversibility in high magnetic fields follows a physical model and can be explained by a spin-glass or spin-canting behavior. The hysteresis loop of the as-made M@C materials in magnetic fields up to 2 T reveals their intrinsic magnetic behavior, indicated by the magnetization (M), the remanent magnetization (Mr), and the coercive force (Hc) of the M@C samples. The saturation magnetization demonstrates that the carbon-coated Ni nanocrystallites exhibited a superparamagnetic behavior at room temperature, which is related to the demagnetization effect arising from the additional energy of the magnetic fields outside the graphitic carbon encapsulation as shown in Figure 7(b). The coercive force (Hc) and magnetization (M) were 76.6 Oe and 19.6 emu/g, respectively. The ratio of remanence to the saturation magnetization (Mr/M) was 0.04. The low magnetization compared with the Ni nanoparticles without the carbon shell is due to the coexistence of nonmagnetic carbon and the large percentage of surface spin due to the disordered magnetization orientation of the nanoparticles. The magnetic properties are influenced by both the particle size and the surface properties of the particle [33, 34].
M-H loops for (a) Ni and (b) carbon-encapsulated Ni measured at 20°C.
A typical hysteresis loop of the Fe nanopowder at room temperature shows a saturation magnetization of Ms = 157 emu/g and coercivity of Hc = 836 Oe as shown in Figure 8(a). An estimated single domain size of 14 nm for spherical iron particles with no shape anisotropy is reported. The size of the iron nanopowder is large enough to show very large value of coercivity. The hysteresis loops of the as-made Fe@Cs in magnetic fields up to 1 T reveal their intrinsic magnetic behavior, as shown in Figure 8(b).
M-H loops for (a)
The hysteresis loops indicate that the carbon-coated Fe nanocrystallites exhibit superparamagnetic behavior at 50 and 300 K. The magnetization was not saturated in the applied fields up to 1 T, as shown in Figure 6(b). In the nanoparticles, one can observe superparamagnetic behavior, which is related to the demagnetization effect arising from the additional energy of the magnetic fields outside the graphitic carbon encapsulation. The coercive force (Hc) and the magnetization (M) at 50 K were 130 Oe and 69.6 (emu/g), respectively. In a previous study, the Mössbauer spectrum for Fe@C nanopowder was measured at room temperature. The relative fraction of the α-Fe, Fe3C, and γ-FeC phases was determined to be about 27.6, 26.3, and 46.1%, respectively. The low magnetization compared with metal nanoparticles without a carbon shell was due to the coexistence of nonmagnetic carbon and the large percentage of surface spins due to the disordered magnetization orientation of the nanoparticles. The magnetic performance of the Ni@C and Fe@C samples was demonstrated in a liquid phase (in ethanol and polyethylene glycol) by placing a magnet bar near the glass bottle. The carbon-encapsulated magnetic metals moved under the magnetic force. This suggests that Ni@C and Fe@C materials would be ideal adsorbents and catalyst supports because they are magnetically separable [35].
To evaluate the dispersion stability and agglomeration phenomena of the carbon-encapsulated Ni and Fe nanoparticles in solvents of ethanol and ethylene glycol (EG), their time-dependent sedimentation behavior was investigated using transmission profile measurements obtained with a Turbiscan Lab [36, 37, 38]. The transmission profiles were taken every 1 h for 60 h when the suspending medium was ethanol. It was found that the transmission intensity decreased at the sample top owing to clarification and increased at the sample bottom due to sedimentation. A very stable Ni@C dispersion was observed without showing any clarification or sedimentation in EG. In contrast, a progressive fall signal was observed as a function of time in the middle region of Ni nanoparticles which had an average particle size of 20 nm. This can be explained by flocculation-induced particle growth. Figure 9(a) shows the Turbiscan screen data taken every 1 h for 3 days. The time-dependent transmission rates on the top, middle, and bottom show the same tendencies. The clarification in the top region and the progressive fall in the middle region of the ΔT signal were not observed in all suspensions. These imply that flocculation due to a coalescing reaction between the nanoparticles was insignificant. A very stable Fe@C dispersion, without any clarification on the top layer or sedimentation on the bottom layer, was observed in ethanol and EG. The viscosity of the solvent affected the dispersion stability kinetics. The dispersion stability of the solvents increased in the following order: water, ethanol, and ethylene glycol (or poly ethylene glycol). Figure 9(b) shows the effect of the solvent on the dispersion stability, as measured by using Turbiscan Lab, as well as the calculated mean value of the kinetics for each transmission (ΔT) profile as a function of time. The suspensions prepared in water displayed a rapid change in the mean ΔT values. As a result, sedimentation of the Fe@C nanoparticles in suspensions of water commenced as soon as the suspension was prepared. For the suspensions prepared in ethanol and EG, the variation in the mean ΔT was much less. However, this value increased continuously. Visual inspection confirmed that the suspension was stable, but sedimentation slowly occurred. However, coalescence between the Fe@C nanoparticles rarely occurred in the suspension because the carbon shell layer prevented agglomeration of the particles. The variation in the mean ΔT for the suspension prepared in EG was the smallest. The mean value of ΔBS increased when the particles were smaller than the wavelength of the incident light (880 nm). The tendency of ΔBS was similar to those of ΔT. From these results, for three kinds of solvent, we determined EG to be the most suitable solvent [38, 39].
Variations in the mean ΔT for the (a) Ni and Ni@C suspensions and (b) Fe and Fe@C suspensions prepared in various solvents (ethanol and ethylene glycol).
In this study, we introduce the catalytic effects of the Ni and Ni@C nanopowders observed during the synthesis of S-enantiomer from 3,4-dihydropyrimidine (DHPM). The synthesis of 4-Aryl-substituted DHPM compounds by the Biginelli reaction has attracted great attention in synthetic organic chemistry due to their pharmacological and therapeutic properties such as antibacterial and antihypertensive activity as well as their behavior as calcium channel blockers. Given the versatile biological activity of DHPM, development of an alternative synthetic methodology is of paramount importance [40, 41, 42]. This has led to the development of several new synthesis strategies involving combinations of Lewis acids and transition metal salts such as mainly homogeneous catalysts, which give high yields. However, in spite of their potential utility, many of these methods involve expensive reagents, long reaction times, high temperatures, and stoichiometric amounts of catalysts and result in unsatisfactory yields. Therefore, discovering a new, inexpensive catalyst for the Biginelli-type reaction under neutral and mild conditions is of prime importance. The starting materials used in this study were ethyl acetoacetate (I) (0.25 mmol), benzaldehyde (II) (0.25 mmol), and urea (III) (0.3 mmol). First, the benzaldehyde (II) (0.25 mmol), urea (III) (0.3 mmol), 0.1 g of catalyst (Ni or Ni@C), and chiral modifier of L-proline (0.025 mmol) were mixed and react in ethanol (50 ml) at 70°C for 2 hours. In the second step, ethyl acetoacetate (I) (0.25 mmol) was added and reacted under microwave for 3h. The ratio of the s-enantiomer in the as-prepared sample was characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a chiral column (Chiralcel OD-H) [13].
Vigorous agitation appeared to be an extremely important factor influencing stereo selectivity. The results of stereo selectivity are represented in Table 1. The simultaneous use of a heterogeneous catalyst along with the chiral modifier allowed the ratio between stereoisomer in the Biginelli reaction to be changed in some experiments in favor of the S-enantiomer, with an excess of about 19.6%. The best results were obtained when using carbon-encapsulated Ni nanoparticles as the catalyst, L-proline as the chiral modifier, and methanol as the solvent. The catalytic reaction with Ni@C showed higher stereo selectivity than with Ni. The carbon shell influences the catalytic effect during synthesis [43].
Catalysts | Yield (%) Racemic | HPLC | Δ (ee. %) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
S-enantiomer | R-enantiomer | |||
Ni | 47 | 53.2 | 45.8 | 7.4 |
Ni@C | 70 | 59.8 | 40.2 | 19.6 |
Synthesis of 3,4-dihydropyrimidine based on the Biginelli reaction using nanosized catalysts of Ni and Ni@C.
Cu oxides are widely applied in various organic syntheses such as reduction and oxidation processes, various condensation processes, for the syntheses of complex compounds, etc. The surface of the nanocrystalline Cu oxide includes a defect structure, resulting in nonstoichiometry. Such materials in themselves have the advantages of both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. The aim of our investigation was the development of an effective catalytic and reaction systems based on nanocrystalline Cu oxides, with high reactivity at ambient temperature. To test the catalytic reaction, both the reaction of the liquid-phase oxidation of 2,3,5-trimethyl-1,4-hydroquinone (TMHQ) and the catalase activity were chosen. The oxidation of TMHQ is an intermediate stage of the hydroxylation of 2,3,6-trimethyl phenol in the synthesis of tocopherol. The process of TMHQ oxidation was carried out in a thermostatically controlled chamber, under agitation in a mixed water and methanol solution (1:1 in volume) at 50 ± 0.2°C. The rate of air supply was 6.2 ℓ/h. The reaction was carried out using the parent material (0.66 mmol) and the nanopowders (1 mmol). To compare the catalytic properties of the Cu oxides, powders with various sizes were synthesized. The size control of the powder was carried out by altering the feeding velocity of the Cu wire from 20 to 80 mm/min. Phase control of the Cu, Cu2O, and CuO was carried out by controlling the pressure of the inert gas. In Table 2, the crystallite conditions of the copper oxides are displayed. The dehydrogenation (oxidation) of the TMHQ in solution was to practically form 2,3,5-trimethyl-1,4-quinone (TMQ) (selectivity on TMQ > 99.5%). The kinetic curves of TMHQ oxidation in the presence of the nanocrystalline Cu oxide particles (Samples 1, 2, and 3) are given in Figure 10. Samples containing mainly pure Cu (Cu 78%, Сu2O 22%, sample a) in the structure showed rare catalytic reaction. Catalytic activity depended on both the average particle size and the oxide phase such as the concentration of Cu2O in the nanopowders. Sample 1 with mainly Cu2O phase and an average size of 90 nm performed as catalyst with theoretical yield. Samples 2 and 3 with an average size of 35 nm showed significantly active effect. These samples contained a small quantity of CuO, not exceeding 0.15 mol fraction. The results of the oxidation of TMHQ are represented in Table 2. The catalytic yield of Sample 1 compared with Samples 2 and 3 was relatively very low. The Samples 2 and 3 with the same range of particle sizes included different ratios of Cu and Cu oxide phase. The yield of TMHQ oxidation depended on the particle size and amount of the Сu2O phase. Obviously, oxidation of the parent material substantially occurred under the action of the fixed oxygen, which was activated in the matrix of nanopowders [44, 45, 46].
Average particle size (nm) | Conditions for synthesis: feeding speed, draft velocity ( | Phase composition, wt. % | Oxidized yield of TMHQ | H2O2 conversion | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cu2O | CuO | |||||
a | 20 | Slow feeding (20~30 mm/s) 0.0 ≤ VO2≤ 0.05, 80 torr | 78 | 22 | — | No reaction | 10.2 |
1 | 90 | Fast feeding (60 mm/min) VO2 = 0.2, 120 torr | 4 | 96 | — | Initial | 60.1 |
2 | 35 | Slow feeding(20~30 mm/min) VO2 = 0.2, 100 torr | — | 100 | — | Active | 99.8 |
3 | 35 | Slow feeding (20~30 mm/min) 0.1 ≤ VO2≤ 0.15, 100 torr | 10 | 85 | 5 | Active | 82.3 |
The concentration of Cu oxide nanopowders, the reaction yields for dehydrogenation of TMHQ, and hydrogen peroxide (catalase activity).
Kinetic curves for the dehydrogenation of TMHQ using Cu oxide catalysts with average particle size of 35 and 90 nm.
The catalase activity is an informative parameter about the catalytic properties of the materials in the redox process. It was simulated by measuring the ability of the catalase in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to isolate molecular oxygen. Decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide was carried out in a thermostatically isolated chemical reactor (10 ml). A mixture of water and methanol (1:1 in volume) was agitated with a stirring rod at 50 ± 0.2°C. The reaction was carried out with hydrogen peroxide (1.7 mmol) and nanopowder (2 mg). The catalytic activity of the Co, Mn, Fe, and Cu hydroxides was also estimated by catalase activity. The aim of this work was to solve a scientific problem related to the chemical intoxication mechanisms of water phenol solutions and its derivatives during their cleaning. The data in Table 2 show the results PF the catalase activities for the same nano-Cu oxide samples. The reaction of Sample 2 with a size of 35 nm, containing mainly Cu2O, showed much higher activity than Sample 1 with a size of 90 nm and the same oxide phase. The size of the particles was the most significant factor. The particle size affects the surface state. The specific surface areas of Samples 1, 2, and 3 were 17, 35, and 38 m2/g, respectively. The specific surface area is related to the particular manufacturing method. The LGC method produces nano-scaled powders with high specific surface area [47].
The photocatalytic activity of the ZnO was evaluated based on the photodegradation of phenol aqueous solutions under different irradiation conditions. For experiments under UV-visible light, 100 mL of 50 ppm phenol in aqueous solution with 0.5 g catalytic powders was loaded in a glass container and stirred with a magnetic stirrer a under irradiation form, a Hg-Xe lamp. Total organic carbon (TOC) values as a function of time were measured after filtration under reduced pressure. Figure 11 shows the photo mineralization of phenol with UV-visible light (solar simulator) in the presence of ZnO. Obviously, when ZnO is added to the phenol, the total organic carbon (TOC) value was reduced to 60% [48, 49, 50, 51].
Photo mineralization of phenol with sunlight (TOC: total organic carbon content at times) in the presence of ZnO (Hg-Xe lamp with a wavelength of 200 ∼ 2500 nm and 1 kW of power).
The anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) method is a powerful electrochemical technique for trace metal analysis. The traditional electrodes for ASV measurements are mercury-drop electrode and a mercury-film electrode, due to high sensitivity of the mercury [52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. However, mercury is very toxic. The toxicity of the mercury has led its usage to be completely banned in some countries. In this study, we focused on searching for alternative environment-friendly electrode materials. The Bi-film electrode has been considered replacing the mercury-film electrode due to its nontoxicity. The properties of Bi materials show not only excellent resolution of neighboring peaks but also insensitivity to the dissolved oxygen in the solution. However, there are still some problems to use the electrode such as a low detection limit comparing to mercury electrode and complication of preparing electrode including processes of additional washing or polishing of the carbon surface and dissolving Bi ions into the solution for the pre-deposition of the Bi on the film electrode. In order to overcome the above weaknesses of the Bi-film electrode, a Bi nanopowder-labeled electrode with a larger electrochemical active surface area was fabricated [57, 58, 59]. In this study, the nano-Bi-fixed electrode sensor and a nanosized Bi-binding technology were developed to improve the electrochemical characteristics of Bi for detecting heavy metals. For this purpose, the Bi nanopowder was synthesized using the LGC method and was then coated on a conductive carbon layer using a Nafion solution. Figure 12 illustrates the attached Bi working electrode and the analysis system setup for measuring Zn, Cd, Pb, and Ta [14, 24, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62].
Illustration for working electrode and total system for electrochemical analyses.
The working electrode was prepared using conductive carbon ink (DongYoung Chemical Co., LTD, in South Korea) painted flexible polyester film by a semiautomatic screen printing instrument. Then the prepared carbon ink with a thickness of 80 μm on painted thick film was partially covered by an insulating layer. Bi nanopowders were well dispersed into 20 ml of distilled water using an ultrasonic treatment. A Nafion solution (Fluka) was added in to the Bi-dispersed suspension for strong chemical bonding between nanopowder and the carbon paste. Finally, the Bi nanopowder-dispersed suspension was dropped onto the working area and dried in the air at room temperature. As the concentration of Nafion in suspension was increased, the value of pH was decreased due to the strong acidity of the Nafion.
When the Bi nanoparticles were dispersed in distilled water without Nafion, the zeta potential showed a positive value [14]. However, as Nafion was added in the suspension, the zeta potential changed to a negative value. The amount of Nafion should be optimized to be 200 μℓ for dispersion stability and the phase stability of Bi nanoparticles. The sensor electrodes were prepared using the screen-printed carbon surface with the Bi nanoparticles strongly attached by Nafion. A platinum wire and a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) were used as a counter electrode and a reference electrode, respectively. The supporting electrolyte was a 0.1 M NaAc and 0.025 M HCl solution of pH 5.0. The prepared nanoparticles are confirmed by XRD as shown in Figure 13(a). Also, the screen-printed Bi nanoparticles dispersed in Nafion on the electrode could be observed by TEM, as shown in Figure 13(b).
XRD pattern for (a) Bi nanopowders and (b) SEM image for screen-printed Bi.
Figure 14 shows results of the anodic stripping voltammograms (ASV) using the Bi nanopowder-attached electrode for measuring various concentrations of Cd and Pb ions in solution. The ASV showed well-defined peaks at −0.85 V and −0.65 V corresponding to the oxidation of Cd and Pb, respectively. Figure 15 demonstrates the dependence of the stripping peak current density Ip on the Cd and Pb concentrations over a range of 3~30 ppb (deposition potential = −1.35 V and deposition time = 3 min). From the linearity between the metal concentration and the peak current, the values of the sensitivity of the nano-Bi-fixed electrodes were determined to be 9.01 ± 0.012 and 7.15 ± 0.007 μA/ppb·cm2 for Cd and Pb, respectively. The estimated detection limits of the nano-Bi-fixed electrode were 0.31 and 0.42 ppb for Cd and Pb, respectively, on the basis of the signal-to-noise characteristics (S/N = 3) under a 10 min accumulation. These values are much lower than the domestic and the international content limits of Cd and Pb ions in drinking water, which are listed in Table 3, indicating the excellent detection of the Bi nanopowder-fixed electrode. Consequently, the low toxicity of the Bi nanopowder-fixed electrode with high sensitivity about heavy metals promises the development of an attractive sensor for monitoring toxic chemical species in environmental matrices with a clean methodology [62].
Square wave anodic stripping voltammograms experimentally measured on the nano-Bi-fixed electrode for various concentrations of Zn, Cd, and Pb ions.
Dependence of the stripping peak current density Ip on the Cd and Pb concentrations over the range of 3 ~ 30 ppb (deposition potential = −1.35 V; deposition time = 3 min).
Heavy metal | unit | Korea | IBWA | FDA | WHO/FAO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cd Pb | ppb ppb | 5 50 | 5 5 | 5 5 | 3 10 |
Domestic and international content limits of cd and Pb ions in drinking water.
Nickel oxide powders were obtained by the gas condensation method in an argon-oxygen mixture flow. The argon flow rate was 130 ℓ/h, oxygen concentration 8.5 vol %, pressure equal to 90 torr, and Ni feed rate 1.8 g/h. XRD analysis showed the following phase composition: NiO 90.7%, Ni 9.3%, and mean size of nickel oxide particles 13 nm. According to the electron microscopy, the particles proved to have a nearly uniaxial shape. The nickel phase detected by the XRD method appears to result from the incomplete oxidation of some particles, and it is located in the center of the particles, while the outer layers must certainly be in an oxidized state (Figures 16 and 17).
TEM image of NiO nanopowder.
Chromatogram of a racemic mixture of (a) DHPM, enriched with S-enantiomer by 15.4%. The product was obtained in the presence of L-proline and NiO nanopowder mic mixture of (b) DHP, enriched with S-enantiomer by 3.4%.
The NiO nanoparticles were applied for the synthesis of both dihydropyridine (DHP) and dihydropyrimidine (DHPM) as mentioned in Section 3.3. The most plausible pathway for DHP prepared by the Hantzsch reaction has been shown to involve the interaction of benzaldehyde with one molecule of β-dicarbonyl compound 1 to give chalcone 3, while another molecule of β-dicarbonyl compound 1 is transformed into enamine 2. In route A, enamine 2 is condensed with an aldehyde and ethyl acetoacetate 1 in the reflux in a suitable solvent (methanol or ethanol) [63, 64, 65]. Route B involves the reaction of chalcone 3 with enamine 2, and it seems to give better yields of products and easier purification. In the presence of aqueous ammonia, compound 3 undergoes a partial decomposition into benzaldehyde and diketone 1, thus giving a rise to the formation of symmetrical analogues nitrendipine 16a, b. When the Hantzsch reaction is carried out at 22–25°C in the presence of L-proline and nanosized NiO, the ratio of enantiomers of nitrendipine is changed in favor of the S-enantiomer by 3.4%.
The Biginelli reaction for synthesizing DHPM was carried out in the presence of L-proline and nanosized NiO (obtained by the Institute of Metal Physics) to change the ratio of enantiomers of 3S in Section 2.3 is changed in favor of S-enantiomer by 15.4%. Our future plans involve studying the factors that affect enantiofacial discrimination for the Hantzsch and Biginelli reaction, such as the nature of nanosized metal oxides or chiral modifiers, reaction time, temperature, and solvent. We also plan to synthesize new nanosized metals and their oxides, as well as chiral modifiers.
Ceramics, such as NiO, ZnO, and Cu2O, magnetic nanoparticles, including γ-Fe2O3, Fe3O4, and NiFe2O4, and metals, such as Cu, Ni, Zn, Sn, Ag, Au, Bi, and carbon-encapsulated metals (Ni and Fe), were synthesized by levitational gas condensation (LGC) method using wire feeding (WF) and micron powder feeding (MPF) systems. The magnetic properties have been characterized using a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The size and shape of the nanopowders were investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The surface effect influenced the magnetic behaviors of nanopowders. Bi metals were dispersed in Nafion. The Bi particles could be applied as sensor electrode instead of mercury-based electrolyte. The particle size of carbon-coated metal with diameters in the range of up to 10 m was smaller than those of metals without a carbon shell. The dispersion stability kinetics of carbon-coated nanopowders showed good dispersion. The best results were obtained when using carbon-encapsulated Ni nanoparticles as a catalyst, L-proline as a chiral modifier, and methanol as a solvent. The catalytic reaction of Ni@C showed enhanced stereoselectivity. Also, the simultaneous use of the heterogeneous catalyst and chiral modifier may lead to an increase in the selectivity of the Biginelli reaction. Nanoparticles prepared using LGC showed significantly enhanced catalytic activities during chemical reaction due to the high level of defects on their surface structure.
The respiratory system consists of a series of organs responsible for performing a set of physical and chemical processes that aim to absorb the air oxygen (O2), essential for the oxidative phenomena that occur in the tissues, and the elimination of products resulting from these same oxidative phenomena, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) [1]. The airways begin in the nares or external nasal openings and end at the level of the terminal bronchi, already within the lungs. These airways include an upper respiratory tract (nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, nasopharynx, and larynx) and a lower respiratory tract (trachea and lung). This classification will be used to describe the respiratory disorders in this paper.
The development of effective health plans and the optimization of the use of drugs require an accurate diagnosis that assures that the treatment is addressed against the cause responsible for the pathological process. In this sense, diagnostic imaging is a useful tool based on noninvasive techniques that provide images for the correct diagnosis of the different disorders. Although there are a wide variety of diagnostic imaging techniques appropriate for the diagnosis of respiratory disorders, this article focusses only on infrared thermography and computed tomography. Others such as radiography or ultrasound are not described here because there is an extensive series of published papers on these techniques.
Infrared thermography is an innovative noninvasive tool that allows the remote measurement of the surface temperature of an animal. A thermal imaging camera captures and records the measurement and creates a color thermal image, where each color corresponds to a specified temperature [2]. A computer program, associated with the camera, allows measuring the temperature of each point in the image and thus compares the different areas. There are different patterns of colors that can be chosen; in our case we will use the pattern that associates cold temperatures with blue, turning to green, yellow, orange, red, and white as the temperature of the area rises. Colors are not directly associated with the degrees of temperature; simply, the coldest area of the image is related to the blue color and the hottest area to the white color, whatever those temperatures are.
These properties make it especially useful for diagnosing upper respiratory tract diseases, where the internal temperature of the affected structures in the nasal cavities and sinuses comes to modify the surface temperature of the face. The generated image allows comparison of the left and right side of the animal, detecting which side is affected and if it produces changes in the ventilation of the nostrils. In winter, the cold air that the sheep breathes cools down the nostrils, and the diagnosis of the different disorders that hinder the passage of air is straightforward; however, with external high temperatures, closer to body temperature, it is more difficult to detect these changes. Nevertheless, the immediacy and the current low prices of the thermal cameras make the use of thermography suitable as one of the first tests to be carried out to diagnose upper respiratory tract diseases in sheep.
Computed tomography, also known as CT scanner, is also based on the variable absorption of X-rays by different tissues. However, CT provides a different form of imaging known as cross-sectional imaging. Therefore, this system provides images that are similar to anatomical sections of the structure of the animal studied. Different computer programs associated with the scanner allow obtaining axial, sagittal, and coronal sections. Also, it is possible to make color three-dimensional reconstructions of the studied area and to be able to introduce or remove different densities, which is equivalent to being able to observe different structures. In the case of the respiratory system, these programs allow us to eliminate all the structures and only leave the image of the surface of the airways, which is equivalent to having the negative image of the respiratory tree. Currently, CT scanner is only used with research purposes or for complex diagnosis in sheep; however, it is very valuable to understand the different respiratory diseases and their pathogenesis and evolution.
This article shows comparative images obtained by CT scan and thermography with those taken later at the necropsies of the animals. More than 80 respiratory clinical cases affecting adult sheep received at the Ruminant Clinical Service of the Veterinary Faculty of Zaragoza (SCRUM) have been studied using CT scan and thermography as imaging diagnostic tools. Subsequently, a
To capture the images shown in this article, the used devices were the following:
Thermographic camera: FLIR E63900, T198547. Images were performed at the Ruminant Clinical Service of the Veterinary Faculty of Zaragoza, Spain.
Computed axial tomography: General Electric Healthcare. The CT scan model is: CT Brivo 325, General Electric. Images were performed at the Centro Clinico Veterinario of Zaragoza, Spain. The RadiAnt DICOM Viewer 4.6.9 program was used to analyze the images.
The upper airways provide an intricate space for filtration, tempering, and humidification of inspired air. There are a whole series of structures that can be affected by different pathological disorders. Dorsal, ventral, and medium turbinates and ethmoidal labyrinth are easily examined through thermography, this being of great relevance because there are several diseases that settle in these structures hindering or obstructing the passage of air.
Before starting with the description of the diseases that affect the upper respiratory tract, thermography and CT scan of these structures in a healthy animal will be shown. Therefore, the comparison between healthy and affected animals can be more easily understood.
In Figure 1, a zenith view of the head of a healthy sheep can be observed with air passing through the nostrils, cold in winter (Figure 1a) and warm in summer (Figure 1b). Figure 2 shows a cross section of the head at the level of the second molar, where the internal structure of the ventral and dorsal turbinates can be seen both at necropsy (Figure 2a) and with tomographic images with and without an Airways filter (Figure 2b and c). In Figure 3a sagittal cut of the head avoiding the nasal septum with the structures of all turbinates can be seen (Figure 3a–c). The spatial placement of the different airways within the bone structure of the skull is appreciated.
Zenith view of the head of a healthy ewe. (a) Picture of the ewe’s head and its thermographic image with symmetrical cooling of the nostrils with cold external temperature (cold colors = blue and green). (b) Ewe’s head picture and its thermography with symmetrical cooling of the nostrils with warm external temperature (warm colors = yellow and light green).
Nasal cavity of a healthy ewe. (a) Axial section of the head at the level of the second molar (dt dorsal turbinate, vt ventral turbinate, ns nasal septum). (b) CT axial view at maxillary sinus level (dt dorsal turbinate, vt ventral turbinate, ns nasal septum). (c) CT axial 3D view with airways filter. Surfaces view delimiting the air ducts or nasal meatus (cnm—common nasal meatus, dnm—dorsal nasal meatus, mnm—medium nasal meatus, vnm—ventral nasal meatus).
CT 3D sagittal views of a healthy ewe. (a) Sagittal cut of the head avoiding the nasal septum. The structures of all turbinates (dt dorsal turbinate, mt medium turbinate, vt ventral turbinate, and el ethmoidal labyrinth) are highlighted. (b) The same cut as 3a with airways filter to show the areas with air (blue). (c) Sagittal section with filter for airways (blue) and bone (green). The spatial placement of the different airways within the bone structure of the skull is appreciated.
Paranasal sinuses (maxillary, frontal, and lacrimal) and nasal septum have less diagnostic importance due to their low frequency of injury. Figure 4 shows an axial section of the head at the level of the ethmoidal turbinate where the lacrimal paranasal sinuses can be seen (Figure 4a and b). Sporadically, alterations of the pharynx and larynx are diagnosed.
Ethmoidal turbinate of a healthy ewe. (a) CT axial view of the head at ethmoidal turbinate level. (b) CT axial 3D view with airways filter. View of the aerial surfaces of the ethmoidal sinuses (es) and the paranasal lacrimal sinus (pls).
Below we will explain the different disorders that affect the upper respiratory tract in sheep and how imaging techniques can help in their diagnosis.
Chronic proliferative rhinitis (CPR) is an upper respiratory tract disease of sheep associated with
SED is a saprophytic microorganism in sheep; however, when this bacterium becomes intracellular, it produces an intense inflammatory reaction in the ventral turbinate, giving rise to the classical clinical signs of the disease [5]. This fatal prognosis disease causes loss of weight, no fever, snoring, seromucous nasal secretion, and nasal deformation. It can be unilateral or bilateral and regional lymph nodes are usually enlarged. Over time, these signs get worse, and, sometimes, it is possible to see inflammatory proliferative tissue at the nares [4, 5, 7]. Further, the inadequate flow of air in affected animals provides a better situation for opportunistic bacteria that lead to secondary pulmonary diseases that usually are responsible for the final death of the animals [5].
At
Chronic proliferative rhinitis. (a) Sagittal cut of the head avoiding nasal septum. Enlarged ventral turbinate (vt) is appreciated. (b) Thermography of the right size of a CPR-affected sheep with a relevant increase in temperature in the swollen area.
Thermographic images of CPR cases detect high temperatures (white and red colors) in the nostril area corresponding to the swollen ventral turbinate, and the difficulty of ventilation of the nasal cavity can also be observed (Figure 5b).
Computed tomography enables to obtain a clear image of the damaged tissue and the different stages of development of the disease (Figure 6). It also shows the increase in size of swollen turbinates and the bone destruction in more advanced cases. Axial slides show uni- or bilateral lesions, while sagittal slides detect affected turbinates, generally the ventral and less frequently the dorsal (Figure 6a–d).
Chronic proliferative rhinitis. (a) CT axial view of the head with bilateral CPR, predominantly on the right side. Gray masses (*) are the swollen turbinates. (b) CT sagittal view of the head in right nasal turbinate. Ventral turbinate (vt) increased in size is appreciated. (c) CT axial 3D view with airways filter. Black spaces of the nasal cavity (+) are swollen, airless masses. (d) CT sagittal 3D view with airways filter. The large black surface (+) represents the swollen mass of CPR.
Enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma (ENA) is a contagious tumor of the ethmoid turbinate mucosa caused by a betaretrovirus known as enzootic nasal tumor virus 1 (ENTV-1), which only affects sheep [9]. Goats can also be affected by an enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma which is caused by an enzootic nasal tumor virus of goats (ENTV-2) [9, 10]. It is a contagious chronic disease of the upper airways that has been described in farms all over the world, except in New Zealand and Australia [9].
ENA prevalence in the affected flock is variable, ranging from 0.1 to 15% [9]. Preferentially, the virus affects young adults, and several cases are usually observed in the same flock. No genetic, breed, or sex predisposition has been observed [9, 11, 12, 13].
The most recognizable clinical sign of ENA is the unilateral serous nasal discharge that leads to a “washed nose” appearance, which is caused by the depilation of the area due to the continuous discharge. In advanced cases, the disease shows characteristic clinical signs such as snoring, coughing, and head shaking together with exophthalmos and softening and deformation of the skull bones (mainly frontal and maxillary) that can lead to the presentation of a skin fistula. Body condition is gradually lost, and animals eventually die due to bacterial complication of the tumor which ends with pneumonia or septicemia [9].
At necropsy, tumors are found in the nasal cavity arising from the ethmoidal mucosa and effacing the normal architecture of the ethmoidal conchae. Tumors are soft, gray, or reddish-white in color with a fine granular surface and covered with mucus (Figure 7a).
Enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma (ENA). (a)
In ENA cases, the thermography shows reddish or even white colors in the posterior segment of the nose, matching the hottest areas (white color) with the ethmoidal bone, where the ENA is located (Figure 7b). The nasal cavity presents also a red color because, due to the obstruction provoked by the tumor, air cooling the area cannot pass through the nose. In the case of fistulizing and pouring liquid through the hole, the wet area can present colder tones (green, yellow) due to the evaporation of this liquid.
The CT scan of ENA cases shows the destruction of the ethmoidal bone, the lithic curse of the nasal bone, and the soft tissues growing, sometimes with polyps in the distal part of the lesion (Figure 8), even before the nasal bone is destroyed and the face deformed (Figure 7c).
Enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma. CT axial and sagittal view of an ENA in the right side of the skull (red circles).
Oestrosis is a worldwide cavitary myiasis caused by the larvae of the fly
Oestrosis is a collective disease with a high prevalence in which clinical signs have a seasonal variation, being more severe during hot and dry periods [15, 17]. The larvae produce chronic inflammatory rhinitis, and the affected animals present mucus, purulent, or even hemorrhagic nasal discharge [16, 18, 19]. Inspiratory dyspnea, frequent sneezing, head shaking, and emaciation are clinical signs that often accompany the mucopurulent nasal discharge [14, 15].
For the diagnosis of this disease, thermal images are not used unless the parasitation is very severe. CT images are only useful in the final stage of the larvae (L3). Tomographic pictures show the secretions, the swollen tissues of the turbinates, and even the segments of the larvae (Figure 9a–c), but its clinical use is not justified in this disease.
Oestrosis. (a) CT axial view of a sheep head affected by oestrosis. A larva cut crosswise between the ventral and dorsal turbinate is shown. Another small larva in the dorsal turbinate and mucus in the common nasal meatus is appreciated (red circle). (b) CT sagittal view with the presence of a crosswise cut larva in the cranial area of the ventral turbinate (red circle). (c) CT 3D view with airways filter. This technique shows the larvae-occupied areas and the mucus as black airless areas (white arrows).
As in other body areas, bacterial abscesses can be found inside the nasal cavity, causing distress and respiratory disorders [20, 21, 22]. These abscesses can even lead to facial deformation and fistulization (Figure 10a).
Intranasal abscess. (a)
In thermographic images high temperatures (red and white colors) can be observed on the affected area (Figure 10b). Although the thermal camera will only provide useful images if the abscess is attached to the surface or if bone rarefaction has occurred. Nevertheless, CT delivers valuable images of abscess location, size, and content; likewise, the damage to the different surrounding tissues and the invasion to the nearby areas can be observed (Figure 11).
Intranasal abscess. (a) CT sagittal 3D view of a head with an intranasal abscess located in the nasal septum. An abscess full of air in the upper area and pus in the lower area is shown (red circle). (b) CT axial view of the same abscess (white arrow). (c) CT 3D view with airways filter. This technique shows a flat-bottomed bubble generated by emptying the part of the pus from the abscess through the fistula (white arrow).
Generally, primary sinusitis is caused by an upper respiratory tract infection of the paranasal sinuses, and secondary sinusitis is caused by a tooth root infection [23]; however, frontal sinusitis can be caused by an upper respiratory tract infection or by the breaking of a horn or an inappropriate dehorning [24, 25].
There is a close relationship of the maxillary posterior teeth to the maxillary sinus, so a periapical dental infection or the breaking of a tooth can cause a secondary infection of this sinus [26]. Also, inflammation and swelling in the nasal mucosa from a viral or bacterial infection could obstruct the nasomaxillary opening, blocking sinus drainage and predisposing to a sinusitis [23].
In sheep, there are a huge range of possible etiologies that can cause sinusitis: mycosis, such as those produced by
The thermographic camera captures the focal heat that reaches the outside (Figure 12), since the sinuses are close to the surface of the animal’s face. Using CT scan, the modification of the different structures, dental problems, or horn disorders can be studied (Figure 13).
Maxillary sinusitis. (a) Bone rarefaction without fistulization (black arrow). (b) Thermography. Warmer area (white) compared to a normal point in the center of the image (white cross).
Maxillary sinusitis. (a) CT axial view with purulent material accumulation in palatine and maxillary sinus (*) which causes ventral turbinate and face deformation. No tooth pathology was found. (b) CT 3D view. Bone rarefaction without fistulization (white arrow).
The respiratory processes of the pharynx and larynx are scarcely diagnosed in sheep. Cases of pharyngeal abscess [22] or sarcocystis infestation in the larynx, causing laryngeal hemiplegia [30], have been reported but always as individual cases of very low prevalence. Further, laryngeal chondritis has been widely described in Texel and Southdown breeds in the UK and leads to breathing problems, with swelling and discharges in the larynx [31], but it has never been diagnosed in Spanish breeds.
Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is a common disease in sheep affecting lymph nodes. If
Thermographic and tomographic images will not have a fixed pattern, depending on the affected structures. CT images contribute to clarify how the abscess is and in what structure the pressure causing respiratory distress is being produced (Figure 14).
Eight centimeter diameter larynx abscess caused by
The trachea is a non-collapsible and about 25 cm long tube formed by incomplete 48–60 cartilaginous rings in the sheep and the goat (Figure 15). In sheep, the cross-sectional outline of the trachea differs from one region to another. In the larynx region, the outline is round, but with a low dorsal crest, whereas the middle-third of the trachea is U-shaped, as in the goat.
CT 3D view with airways filter. Trachea of a healthy animal with a depression caused by a tracheotomy (white arrow) performed a few hours before the CT scan and a small trace of extravasated air (yellow arrow).
The lungs are the respiratory organs responsible for performing several functions; the gas exchange is the most important. They are also accountable for the elimination of foreign bodies carried by air through the mucociliary clearance and alveolar macrophages, and finally, the lungs also perform metabolic and endocrine functions, activating the inactive prohormones or protecting the organism from potentially toxic vasoactive substances [32]. Each lung occupies a pleural cavity (pleural sacs), and between them lays the mediastinum, a complex area that divides the thorax into two symmetrical halves [33]. In sheep, respiratory diseases are the main described disorders, producing high morbidity and mortality [34].
In a healthy sheep, the lungs take the shape of a half cone, with an apex at the upper part and an oblique base applied against the diaphragm (diaphragmatic face) (Figure 16a). Their lobulation does not exactly coincide with the large appreciable fissures in the pulmonary surface and follows the division of the trachea in the lobular bronchi. Both lungs have a cranial lobe (apical) and a caudal lobe (diaphragmatic), respectively, ventilated by a cranial and caudal bronchus. In addition, the right lung has a middle lobe and an accessory lobe, ventilated each with its corresponding bronchus. The right cranial bronchus in ruminants rises directly from the trachea, and the accessory lobe is mainly attached to the middle lobe rather than to the caudal lobe as in other mammals [35]. Dorsal and ventral CT 3D images with Airways filter and dorsal and ventral view of a silicon mold of the lung are shown in Figure 16b–e.
(a) Healthy lung. (b and d) Dorsal and ventral CT 3D images with airways filter. (c and e) Dorsal and ventral view of a silicon mold of the lung.
The main lower respiratory tract disorders will be detailed here below taking into account the tomographic support in its diagnosis.
In intensive and semi-intensive production systems, tracheal crushing (Figure 17a) is a common disorder [35]. It seems clearly influenced by age, and recent surveys associate these lesions with management patterns when feeding animals. It is supposed that the type of feeders used during the periods of confinement can result in a key point to avoid this injury [35]. Some works relate this disorder to a worsening of animal welfare [36]. In addition, it has also been observed that these animals that presented tracheal crushing had a greater predisposition to suffer lower respiratory tract diseases [37].
Tracheal crushing. (a) Necropsy shows the trachea with different flattened rings. (b) CT 3D view with bones and skin 3 filter. Tracheal lumen view with obvious deformations. (c) CT sagittal view. Severe deformation of tracheal rings (yellow line area). (d) CT axial view. Crushed tracheal ring with deformation in ventral area (white arrow).
CT images allow assessing the lumen of the trachea and locating the injured tracheal rings, visualizing the internal surface of this airway (Figure 17b–d).
Verminous pneumonia is caused by the mechanical and irritant action of parasitic nematodes, belonging to the order of Strongylida. Sheep is host to several lungworm nematode species of the families Dictyocaulidae (Trichostrongyloidea) and Protostrongylidae (Metastrongyloidea) that induce verminous pneumonia, also called dictyocaulosis and protostrongylidosis.
Although, in endemic areas, lambs may show cough and unthriftiness during the first grazing season, in adults, clinical signs of pneumonia or other respiratory symptoms have rarely been observed, being pathological findings identified only at necropsy. Thus, two different types of subpleural nodules can be found: the verminous nodules containing a single worm that may be calcified and the breeding nodules, ranging from less than 1 mm to several centimeters in diameter, non-calcified, and containing mature reproducing adults and larvae. These nodules can be macroscopically observed as hard, slightly prominent, and greenish-gray due to the infiltration of eosinophils [39] (Figure 18a).
Verminous pneumonia. (a) Pathological findings of a lung affected with verminous pneumonia, especially appreciated on the right side (yellow arrows). (b) CT sagittal view of the right lung with higher density whitish nodules in the dorsal area (yellow arrows). (c) CT 3D sagittal view of the right lung. The gaps in the dorsal area correspond to the consolidated areas of the lung (yellow arrows). (d) CT 3D sagittal view with airways filter. Black areas (yellow arrows) show the location of the nodules.
In the case of dictyocaulosis, computed tomography images show an increased thickness of the caudal and diaphragmatic areas of the lung, whereas in protostrongylidosis, nodular pneumonic areas located in the dorsal part of the lung can be observed (Figure 18b–d).
The lungs are continuously exposed to air that contains dust, bacteria, fungi, viruses, and various noxious agents [40, 41], favoring the development of different diseases, including abscesses. These abscesses are often caused following previous lung damage, secondary to other lung injuries, or may follow an embolic spread from another focus of infection [42].
Abscess is a necrotizing lesion characterized by a pus-filled cavity that is encapsulated by fibrous tissue [43] that can be located anywhere in the lung, such as pleura and lung parenchyma (Figure 19a), or even in regional lymph nodes, as mediastinal lymph nodes.
Lung abscess. (a)
There are a great variety of bacteria that can cause lung abscesses, such as
Computed tomography provides a specific image of the abscesses, their location (Figure 19b and c), and injured tissues involved in the disease (Figure 19d) as well as non-air flow pulmonary parenchyma. Frequently, an enhanced area around the abscess and mineralization within the abscess due to caseous necrosis, especially in the case of
As ovine respiratory complex (ORC) in lambs, in adults, ORC is a complex disease involving a range of host-pathogen-environment interactions, where host immunological and physiological mechanisms interact with multiple etiological agents including bacteria, plus environmental factors or stressors [46]. There are three clinical presentation forms of the disease: hyperacute or peracute, characterized by sudden deaths due to septicemia; acute and subacute forms, with the classical clinical signs of a pneumonic process, whose severity will vary depending on the degree of lung consolidation; and chronic pneumonia with mild or unapparent clinical signs and fibrous tissue increasing the severity of consolidation [46].
Several infectious agents have been associated with ORC:
Computed tomography images reveal a good view of the injured areas. Collapsed lung areas are more opaque and whitish, while healthy tissue remains the typical gray color of a lung full of air. It is interesting to highlight that air usually remains inside the thickest bronchia even when they are surrounded by pneumonic tissue (Figure 20a and b) and that the affected tissue usually occupies the cranioventral parts of the lung (Figure 20c and d). With the computer programme associated with the CT scanner, it is possible to measure the affected area of the lung, and based on this measurement, the progression of the disease can be followed.
Ovine respiratory complex. (a) CT axial view. Consolidation (red-dashed line) on the ventral area is appreciated, but the air remains inside the thickest bronchia (black arrow). (b) CT 3D view with airways filter. It is appreciated how the air disappears in the affected lobes, but it is kept inside the main bronchi (white arrow). (c) CT sagittal view of the right lung with iodine contrast. The peripheral area next to the heart (h) is affected and no air is found (white). (d) CT 3D image with iodine contrast and bones and skin 3 filter. It is appreciated that the air (blue) does not reach the cranioventral thoracic area (*). (h): Heart in red with its vessels.
Gangrenous pneumonia is a pulmonary infection commonly caused by inhalation of foreign materials, which produce inflammation and necrosis of the lung parenchyma. This is the reason why this pneumonia is also known as foreign body pneumonia, aspiration pneumonia, or necrotizing pneumonia [46, 49]. The aspirated material is usually inspired into the anteroventral lobes of the lung where it produces a moderate to severe, peracute or subacute, necrotizing bronchopneumonia, depending on the composition of the inhaled material, the microorganisms involved, and the host response [46].
Aspiration of foreign material into the lung can be due to a range of causes such as rumen content during choking or when the animal is under general anesthesia, the presence of a megaesophagus, after an inappropriately oral administration of treatments, or even as a result of another respiratory disorder that hinders breathing [20, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52].
Foreign bodies carry environmental bacteria that, when they reach the lungs, produce pulmonary necrosis foci with an accumulation of a foul-smelling exudate that sometimes could also be present in the main bronchus and trachea (Figure 21a), which generates a bad smell of exhaled air that is a clear clinical sign of these diseases [46].
Gangrenous pneumonia. (a) Pathological findings of a necrotizing bronchopneumonia and enlargement of the mediastinal lymph node (*). (b) CT axial view. Caverns full of air and purulent or necrotic material, more abundant on the right lung, and typical concentric layers of caseous lymphadenitis in the mediastinal lymph node (*). (c) CT sagittal view of the right lung where the big caverns are shown. (d) CT 3D view with airways filter. Air in the dorsal area and inside the multiple caverns is appreciated, with no air in the consolidated ventral area.
Computed tomography images show necrotic tissue (dark or black) with diffused edges. In the injured area, necrotic content caves are present (Figure 21b and c), which can reach a large size, disappearing the lung structure as the size of the necrotic areas progresses (Figure 21d).
Pulmonary affection is the most severe and widespread disease form caused by small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) in sheep. Although lentiviral infection can produce different clinical presentations in sheep and goats, in this article, only pulmonary lentivirus infection will be discussed.
This disease, formerly referred to as Maedi-Visna disease, is widespread in most of the countries in the world [53, 54] and generally affects adult animals. The respiratory form appears in an insidious and prolonged way, and animals show dyspnea, an increased respiratory rate, weakness, and loss of weight. If the case is uncomplicated, no cough, nasal discharge, or fever is observed. Pathological findings show an increased-size lung, both in volume and weight, and a general grayish discoloration with a myriad of gray dots in the pleural surface (Figure 22a). Mediastinal lymph nodes are increased in size, surpassing the limit of the diaphragmatic lobes [55].
Pulmonary lentivirus infection. (a) Increased-size lung with a general grayish discoloration and a myriad of gray dots in pleural surface. (b) CT axial view. Homogeneous light gray pulmonary parenchyma. (c) CT sagittal view of the right lung with the same homogeneous light gray parenchyma. (d) CT 3D view with airways filter. Less air is seen throughout the lung, except in the cranial and caudal area.
The widespread interstitial pneumonia caused by Maedi-Visna virus (VMV) creates enormous in vivo diagnostic difficulties due to the absence of clear clinical signs and the only presence of diffuse dyspnea that can be very confusing. For this reason, imaging techniques will be very useful tools for diagnosing this disease.
Computed tomography scanner provides a detailed image of the lesion, highlighting the increased opacity in all the parenchyma associated with the interstitial pneumonia caused by VMV (Figure 22b and c). The Airways filter allows us to see a lung with little amount of air in a generalized way (Figure 22d).
Pulmonary lentivirus infection is the disease generally associated with chronic, progressive, and diffuse interstitial pneumonia, as it is confirmed by most of the cases found in our daily clinical work; however, there are other interstitial pneumonias affecting adult sheep, such as those caused by
The clinical case presented in this section is of a zonal pattern, and, once the histopathology and microbiology was carried out, it was associated with the presence of
Interstitial pneumonia associated with
CT scan showed lighter areas in its axial and sagittal section, located mainly in the ventral zone, and darker areas in the dorsal zone, with an intermediate area of combination of both (Figure 23b and c). CT 3D view with Airways filter showed an almost total lack of air in the dorsal area of the lung (Figure 23d).
Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA) is a contagious lung neoplasm of sheep caused by Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JRSV). This disease has been reported in many of the sheep-rearing countries worldwide, being an important economic problem in the affected regions [56, 57, 58].
JSRV induces neoplastic transformation of alveolar and bronchiolar secretory epithelial cells of the distal respiratory tract, developing a tumor that can grow to occupy a significant portion of the lung [58, 59, 60].
OPA is considered as an “iceberg disease” because in OPA endemic-affected herds, the majority of animals of the flock are infected (up to 80%), but only a minority develops tumors during its productive life [58, 61, 62]. There are two pathologic forms of OPA currently recognized: classical and atypical [59].
The affected animals initially show less activity and delay in walking of the flock, followed by progressive respiratory distress, with an evidence of dyspnea and moist respiratory sounds, such as crackles and snoring, caused by the accumulation of fluid in the respiratory airways, which worsen with the increasing size of the lesions. In the final stages of the disease, variable amounts of frothy seromucous fluid are discharged from the nostrils when the sheep head is lowered [58, 59, 63]. At necropsy, neoplastic lesions are diffuse or nodular and gray or purple in color and have an increased consistency [58] (Figure 24a).
Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma. (a) Grayish cranioventral areas and satellite nodules of the tumor. (b) CT axial view. Grayish pulmonary parenchyma with white spots (metastasis) in the dorsal area and homogeneous clear white in the ventral area (main tumor) are shown. (c) CT sagittal view of the same lung with the same pattern as (b). (d) CT 3D view with airways filter. Air is appreciated in the back-caudal area, decreasing towards cranial and disappearing into the cranioventral area where main tumor mass is located. Multiple air rings can be seen surrounding the foci of metastasis.
Computed tomography scan delivers a clear image of the primary tumor and of the satellite nodules that are generated in the metastasis phase (Figure 24b and c). Serial scanners over time allow obtaining information on the evolution of the tumor or the possible regression after its experimental treatment.
The 3D view with Airways filter shows a total absence of air in the tumor mass and, dorsally, foci of different sizes (metastasis) also without air. These lesions are usually seen surrounded by a halo with more air than normal (Figure 24d).
Lung atelectasis can occur due to compression of lung tissue, absorption of alveolar air, or impaired pulmonary surfactant production or function [64]. Atelectasis by compression is what interests us from the point of view of imaging diagnosis, because with this technology, we can diagnose the cause of compression and the place where the pressures occur.
Compression atelectasis is secondary to increased pressure exerted on the lung causing the alveoli to collapse [64], and some disorders that can cause this compression atelectasis are tumors, such as mediastinal lymphosarcomas as described in horses [65] or mediastinal thymoma as described in goats [66]. The case here presented in Figure 25 is a large thymoma diagnosed in an adult ewe (Figure 25a). CT views show how the heart was displaced by the tumor to the back right side and atelectatic areas with less air near the dorsal costal wall (Figure 25b–d).
Compression atelectasis. (a) Large-size thymoma (*) causing lung atelectasis, especially in the right side (white arrow). (b) CT axial view. The heart has been displaced by the tumor to the back right side (h). Near the costal wall, atelectatic areas with less air can be seen (white arrows). (c) CT 3D sagittal view, right side. Thymoma (t and yellow line) and heart (h and red line) are shown. (d) CT 3D view with bones and skin 2 filter. Air is appreciated in the back-caudal area, behind the heart (yellow triangle).
Likewise, abscesses or pyogranulomas located in mediastinal lymph nodes or thoracic cavity, such as those of caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) caused by
Compression atelectasis. (a) Caseous lymphadenitis affecting mediastinal lymph node causing lung atelectasis in mediastinal and costal side (yellow arrows). (b) Lung atelectasis (a) in contact area with affected lymph nodes. (c) CT 3D view where the location and size of the affected lymph nodes can be seen (red circle). (d) CT coronal view, where it highlighted (white arrow) a small area of atelectasis without air.
CT scan is a very suitable tool to find the cause, the situation, and the size of compression; however, it is difficult to visualize the thin layer of atelectatic tissue that can be produced next to the pressing mass or in the projection on the rib area.
The health of a flock is based on a proper diagnosis of the main disorders that affect the farm. Imaging tools have improved the diagnostic process and are essential today.
Thermography has become a useful and inexpensive tool for approaching the diagnosis of upper respiratory tract diseases. However, the use of computed tomography is more expensive and specific, reserving for the detection of important herd problems that justify its expense. It is also necessary in the investigation and monitoring of processes or treatments that have not been proven. This tool helps in an interesting way to understand the pathogenesis and lesional location since we can study the different structures and the interrelation between them in the original position.
The diagnosis of respiratory disorders in ruminants has evolved significantly thanks to the application of different imaging diagnostic techniques, detecting some diseases that until recently were little known.
We would like to thank the collaboration of veterinarians and farmers who send their interesting clinical cases to the Ruminant Clinical Service of the Veterinary Hospital (SCRUM). In addition, we would like to acknowledge the use of Servicio General de Apoyo a la Investigación-SAI, Universidad de Zaragoza.
This study was supported by the Aragón Government and the European Social Fund (Construyendo Aragón 2016–2020).
The authors have nothing to disclose.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. 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Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. It finds that political added value of mega-events empowers Shanghai to advance its urban agenda and the role of urban planner is vital to deliver a sustainable mega-event.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Lingyue Li",authors:[{id:"247599",title:"Dr.",name:"Xx",middleName:null,surname:"Xx",slug:"xx-xx",fullName:"Xx Xx"}]},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Urban environments continue to expand and mutate, both in terms of size of urban area and number of people commuting daily as well as the number of options for personal mobility. City layouts and infrastructure also change constantly, subject to both short-term and long-term imperatives. 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The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. 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To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. Interviewees in the city center stated that street traffic noise was the main source of annoyance, while the residents of the residential area stated that the main source of discomfort was air traffic noise.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Elaine Carvalho da Paz, Thomas Jeferson Vieira and Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin",authors:[{id:"66572",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta",middleName:null,surname:"Zannin",slug:"paulo-henrique-trombetta-zannin",fullName:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin"},{id:"257807",title:"MSc.",name:"Elaine Carvalho",middleName:null,surname:"Da Paz",slug:"elaine-carvalho-da-paz",fullName:"Elaine Carvalho Da Paz"},{id:"257814",title:"Mrs.",name:"Thomas Jeferson",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"thomas-jeferson-vieira",fullName:"Thomas Jeferson Vieira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"477",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11580",title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",hash:"1806716f60b9be14fc05682c4a912b41",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"March 23rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11579",title:"Animal Welfare - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11579.jpg",hash:"12e4f41264cbe99028655e5463fa941a",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"51520",title:"Dr.",name:"Shao-Wen",surname:"Hung",slug:"shao-wen-hung",fullName:"Shao-Wen Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",hash:"3731c009f474c6ed4293f348ca7b27ac",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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