Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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The aim of systems biology is to integrate in a seamless way all existing knowledge in interconnected disciplines, stretching from modern biomedical research to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. The main integration tool of such complex biomedical systems is via computational and mathematical modeling. In this direction, a series of state-of-the-art computer science techniques are used, namely, data mining and fusion, machine learning, and deep learning all under the prism of big data. All in all, systems biology is at the arrowhead of modern and state-of-the-art biomedical research by attempting to address key biological questions describing holistically complex biological systems.",isbn:"978-1-83880-804-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-803-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-805-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79601",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"systems-biology",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e7735d2fe6193b7b256c7098be4adcf4",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Vlachakis",publishedDate:"June 19th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8646.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6155,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 9th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179110",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:"P.",surname:"Vlachakis",slug:"dimitrios-vlachakis",fullName:"Dimitrios Vlachakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179110/images/system/179110.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Dimitrios Vlachakis is an Assistant Professor at the Genetics Laboratory at the Biotechnology Department of the Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. He leads the Genetics and Computational Biology Group and his main scientific interests revolve around the investigation of genetic polymorfisms, genetic variability in viral strains and the in silico drug design of novel antiviral and anticancer agents. To date, Dr. Vlachakis has published more than 90 original research articles in international peer-reviewed journals with impact factor, 100+ articles in international conference proceedings, 5 monograph ISBN books, 2 scientific patents and has been on the receiving end of numerous grants and awards. Since 2012 Dr. Vlachakis has been serving as the Editor in Chief and Associate Editor of relevant international journals.",institutionString:"Agricultural University of Athens",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Agricultural University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1345",title:"Bioinformatics",slug:"technology-biomedical-engineering-bioinformatics"}],chapters:[{id:"67135",title:"Introductory Chapter: Systems Biology Consolidating State of the Art Genetics and Bioinformatics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86264",slug:"introductory-chapter-systems-biology-consolidating-state-of-the-art-genetics-and-bioinformatics",totalDownloads:797,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Eleni Papakonstantinou, Katerina Pierouli, Elias Eliopoulos and Dimitrios Vlachakis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67135",authors:[{id:"179110",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Vlachakis",slug:"dimitrios-vlachakis",fullName:"Dimitrios Vlachakis"},{id:"291804",title:"Mrs.",name:"Katerina",surname:"Pierouli",slug:"katerina-pierouli",fullName:"Katerina Pierouli"},{id:"291806",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleni",surname:"Papakonstantinou",slug:"eleni-papakonstantinou",fullName:"Eleni Papakonstantinou"},{id:"300155",title:"Prof.",name:"Elias",surname:"Eliopoulos",slug:"elias-eliopoulos",fullName:"Elias Eliopoulos"}],corrections:null},{id:"66484",title:"Integrative Systems Biology Resources and Approaches in Disease Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84834",slug:"integrative-systems-biology-resources-and-approaches-in-disease-analytics",totalDownloads:1052,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, our analytical competences are struggling to keep-up the pace of in-deep analysis of all generated large-scale data resultant of high-throughput omics platforms. While, a substantial effort was spent on methods enhancement regarding technical aspects across many detection omics platforms, the development of integrative down-stream approaches is still challenging. Systems biology has an immense applicability in the biomedical and pharmacological areas since the main goal of those focuses in the translation of measured outputs into potential markers of a Human ailment and/or to provide new compound leads for drug discovery. This approach would become more straightforward and realistic to use in standard analysis workflows if the collation of all available information of every component of a biological system was ensured into a single database framework, instead of search and fetch a single component at time across a scatter of databases resources. Here, we will describe several database resources, standalone and web-based tools applied in disease analytics workflows based in data-driven integration of outputs of multi-omic detection platforms.",signatures:"Marco Fernandes and Holger Husi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66484",authors:[{id:"279569",title:"Dr.",name:"Holger",surname:"Husi",slug:"holger-husi",fullName:"Holger Husi"},{id:"288092",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"marco-fernandes",fullName:"Marco Fernandes"}],corrections:null},{id:"63667",title:"Lentiviral Vectors Come of Age? 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The author reflects on this in the chapter on the state of the art in the manufacture of lentiviral vectors, addressing some current manufacturing processes, their achievements, and the uncertainties in ensuring a validated process capable of releasing consistent vector quality that meets global health authorities’ requirements. In summary, the proposal looks at the goals and challenges that must be addressed in manufacturing lentiviral vectors, in order to satisfy supply in the commercial stage, before we reach the next stage in gene therapy.",signatures:"Juan C. 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ORFV encodes virulence and immunomodulatory factors that interfere with host inflammatory effect and antiviral immune mechanisms and induces a transient and complex cytokine response, initially represented by Th1-related cytokines followed by Th2-related cytokines. The ORFV has evolved several mechanisms to survive in the presence of the immune system, resulting in repeated infections. Currently, ORFV has been developed as vaccines in veterinary field. The unique host immune escape ability obtained by ORFV has made it one of the important candidates for prevention and treatment of various diseases (including chronic viral diseases, tumor, and liver fibrosis).",signatures:"Ruixue Wang and Shuhong Luo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64011",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64011",authors:[{id:"269852",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuhong",surname:"Luo",slug:"shuhong-luo",fullName:"Shuhong Luo"},{id:"269854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruixue",surname:"Wang",slug:"ruixue-wang",fullName:"Ruixue Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"63107",title:"Application of Genomic Data for PCR Screening of Bet v 1 Conserved Sequence in Clinically Relevant Plant Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80312",slug:"application-of-genomic-data-for-pcr-screening-of-bet-v-1-conserved-sequence-in-clinically-relevant-p",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bet v 1 is a highly immunogenic protein, which is the main cause of sensitivity to birch pollen and is described as the main birch allergen. Despite the structural similarity, Bet v 1 homologs show different properties and immunoreactivity. Here, the bioinformatic algorithms were applied for known Bet v 1 homologous nucleic acids sequences to find homology and conserved regions. Genomic sequences of PR proteins of two different fruit species, which allergens belong to PR proteins of the same type as Bet v 1, were selected to design degenerate primers. Subsequently, screening of the presence of Bet v 1 conserved genomic sequence was performed in 45 clinically relevant plant species.",signatures:"Jana Žiarovská and Lucia Zeleňáková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63107",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63107",authors:[{id:"94292",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Zeleňáková",slug:"lucia-zelenakova",fullName:"Lucia Zeleňáková"},{id:"257512",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Žiarovská",slug:"jana-ziarovska",fullName:"Jana Žiarovská"}],corrections:null},{id:"65012",title:"Insight into the Mechanism of Red Alga Reproduction. What Else Is Beyond Cystocarps Development?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83353",slug:"insight-into-the-mechanism-of-red-alga-reproduction-what-else-is-beyond-cystocarps-development-",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Volatile growth regulators play an important role in triggering aspects related to red seaweed reproduction. 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\r\n\tUnderstanding how cells interact with the extracellular environment through exocytosis and endocytosis remains among the most popular subjects in biology and biomedical research. These processes are very complex and necessary for a wide variety of cellular functions, including nutrition, communication, and pathogenesis. Different types of cells (neurons, cancer cells, plants, pathogens, etc) use these mechanisms of cellular transportation to achieve their vital activities. Endocytosis and exocytosis provide a transport system for compounds that require intracellular or extracellular delivery for their mechanism of action. Most recent studies have observed their critical importance in health and disease. Nowadays, these pathways are being studied for biomedical purpose in order to use natural patterns of the cell to design better health and medical applications. This book is focused on the physiological processes involving exocytosis and endocytosis, and the components involved and transported, such as proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, and organelle trafficking. The different techniques used for examining molecular machinery and biological significance of exocytosis and endocytosis in vitro and in vivo as well as their applications are highly relevant.
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Her research mainly focused on the study of the proteomic profile of the extracellular vesicles and the secretome in virulent and avirulent strains of Candida albicans. She continued her scientific career at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, USA, working in yeast genetics and proteomics. Her current research at the Forsyth Institute, USA, is focused on understanding the changes in tooth enamel in healthy and defective teeth to find better diagnostics tools and treatment approaches. 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The characterization was done using the more novel technologies existent in the proteomic field, obtaining a deep overview of how macrophages respond using intracellular but also extracellular signaling (via exosomes) to fight against the fungal infection. During the PhD did 2 scientific visits in the University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Denmark) and in the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research (MIT), Cambridge (Massachusetts, USA). Currently he is a research fellow in Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN) Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore. 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1. Introduction
A fundamental characteristic of biological materials, which influence virtually every aspect of handling, storage, manufacturing and consumption of food products [1], including every aspect of the dehydration process and storage stability of the dried products [2], is their basic hygroscopicity. By this, it is meant that when biological materials are exposed to water vapor of a definite pressure, sorption of the water vapor by the product will occur. This chapter discusses the phenomena at play, their technological applications, factors that influence the characteristics, measurement techniques, models that are commonly used to predict them and models’ predictive performance evaluation procedures.
2. Sorption phenomena in biological materials
Biological materials at constant moisture content and temperature display characteristic vapor pressure and would tend to approach equilibrium with the temperature and vapor pressure of the surrounding gaseous atmosphere. To attain this equilibrium, the material either gains moisture from the environment or loses moisture to the environment depending on whether the vapor pressure of the surrounding is higher or lower than its vapor pressure [3]. The former process is called adsorption and the latter desorption. If the conditions of the surrounding are not changed for a sufficiently long period of time (theoretically for infinitely long time), the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the material and its surrounding is the same is established. At equilibrium, no further change in moisture content of the product occurs, and the moisture content of the material at that point is called equilibrium moisture content (EMC), while the relative humidity is known as equilibrium relative humidity. Water activity (aw) is another term used to denote the ERH in decimal unit. The definition of water activity is based on the concept of thermodynamics and refers to the availability of moisture in biomaterials for physical, chemical and biological changes [4, 5], and it is a property of the material.
2.1 Moisture sorption isotherm
When equilibrium is attained, the moisture content is termed adsorption EMC or desorption EMC depending on whether the equilibrium was reached thorough the adsorption or desorption process. The EMC obtained thorough the desorption process usually lies above the one obtained thorough the adsorption process in the isotherm plots and leads to formation of the hysteresis loop (MSI) when graphically expressed [6]. Brunauer et al. [7] classified moisture sorption isotherms into five general types (Figure 1). The type I is the Langmuir, while the type II is the sigmoid or S-shaped isotherm. The type III is known as the Flory-Huggins isotherm and is usually influence by the presence of solvent or plasticizer such as glycerol above the glass transition temperature, and type IV is due to the presence of swellable hydrophilic solid that influence the moisture sorption process until a maximum site hydration is reached, while the type V is the BET multilayer adsorption isotherm. Moisture sorption isotherms of most foods are nonlinear, generally sigmoidal in shape, and of the type II classification [1, 6].
Figure 1.
Types of moisture sorption isotherm for food. Source: Rizvi [6].
2.2 Applications of moisture sorption isotherm
In drying operation, it is the removal of water which is important, and hence the desorption equilibrium moisture relationship is required to determine the lowest attainable moisture content at the process temperature and relative humidity [8]. Labuza and Hyman [9] applied the changing of water activity of food ingredients and effective diffusivity to control moisture migration in multidomain foods, when temperature changes occur. The moisture sorption isotherms of food and agricultural products are therefore of special interest in the design of storage and preservation processes such as packaging, drying, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life and glass transition and estimation of drying time [10], texture and deteriorative reactions in agricultural and food products. The precise determination of equilibrium moisture contents of dehydrated foods provides valuable information for the accurate computation of thermodynamic energies from existing theories [1].
The adsorption and desorption characteristics of agricultural and food products are affected by numerous factors [11], and these include composition, origin, postharvest history and methodology of measurement. In general, polymers sorb more water than sugars and other soluble components at lower water activities [12]. However, the soluble components sorb more water above certain water activity. The MSIs for the same material from different sources usually differ and are comparable only with qualification. The type of treatments given to the product may change the polar and other groups that bind water, along with changes in the capillary and other configurations of the food structure [13]. Greig [14] showed that the denaturation of native cottage cheese whey had no effect on the sorption isotherm at low water activities but significantly increased sorption at high water activities. Yu et al. [15] studied the moisture sorption characteristics of freeze-dried, osmo-dried, osmo-freeze-dried and osmo-air-dried cherries and blue berries and found that the EMC of osmo-air-dried cherries was generally higher than that of the osmo-freeze-dried and freeze-dried cherries at the lower temperature of 10°C, but at higher temperatures of 25 and 40°C, the difference was not significant. Similar result was reported for blue berries. San Jose et al. [16] showed that the drying method (freeze- and spray-drying) of lactose-hydrolyzed milk did not affect the adsorption isotherms but had profound effect on the desorption isotherms. Tsami et al. [17] investigated the effect of drying method on the sorption characteristics of model fruit powder and reported that freeze-dried gel adsorbed more vapor at 25°C than microwave-dried gel, which had a higher sorption capacity than vacuum- and conventionally dried product. Mittal and Usborne [18] determined the moisture sorption isotherms of meat emulsions and showed that their EMC was affected by the fat-protein ratio. Mazza [19] reported that at 40°C and in the monolayer region of the isotherm, the EMC of precooked dehydrated pea was higher than that of raw pea but that at water activities above 0.5, the sorption capacity of precooked pea was lower than that of raw pea. Aviara [20] noted that chemical modification (cross-linking and hydroxypropylation) of cassava, maize and sorghum starches had profound influence on their moisture adsorption and desorption characteristics. While cross-linking lowered the sorptive capacity of the starches, hydroxypropylation enhanced the ability of the starches to sorb or desorb moisture. Palou et al. [21] studied the moisture sorption characteristics of three cookies and two corn snacks whose main composition difference was in fat and total carbohydrate and found the EMC difference at 5% level of significance. Igbeka et al. [22], Ajibola and Adams [23] and Gevaudan et al. [24] studied the moisture sorption characteristics of cassava and presented data that were fitted by different moisture sorption isotherm models. The variance in EMC may be due to the source of the material, product’s postharvest and sorption history and varietal differences, methodology of measurement, temperature range and limitations imposed by model selection.
Several methods of determining the moisture sorption isotherm of agricultural and food products have been employed by investigators [25]. Gal [26, 27, 28] carried out a thorough review of the methods and pointed out that the basic techniques include the gravimetric, hygrometric, vapor pressure manometric and inverse gas chromatography and special method involving the use of AquaLab.
3.1 Gravimetric method
There are two common gravimetric methods of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products at different temperatures and water activities. One of these methods is the static gravimetric method which involves the placement of the product in an atmosphere with which it then comes into equilibrium (weight loss or gain stops) without mechanical agitation of the air or product. For this method, several weeks may be required for the product to come into equilibrium, and because of the long period of time, mold usually develops on high and intermediate moisture foods at water activities above 0.8. For data obtained at water activities above 0.8 to be reliable, mold growth must be prevented during equilibration. At the point of equilibration, the moisture content is then determined as the EMC. The second one is the dynamic method in which the atmosphere surrounding the product or the product itself is mechanically moved. The dynamic method is quicker but presents the problem of design and instrumentation. The static method has been used extensively and reported to be preferable for obtaining complete sorption isotherms [27]. It has also been recommended as the standard method of determining the moisture sorption isotherms of agricultural and food products [29]. It involves the placement of small sample (10–25 g) of agricultural and food material in vacuum desiccators containing different concentrations of sulfuric acid (Figure 2a) to maintain the relative humidity (water activity) of the surrounding air at different values from 0 to 100% (0.00–1.00) or saturated solution (Figure 2b) of different salts to achieve different values of relative humidity at a specified temperature. Usually a thermostatically controlled water bath or oven (Figure 3) is used to obtain the desired temperature. The water activity of sulfuric acid at different concentrations and temperatures is presented in Table 1, and that of saturated solutions of different salts at various temperatures are presented in Table 2.
Figure 2.
(a) Desiccator containing concentrated sulfuric acid: (1) locking clamp, (2) lid, (3) rubber seal ring, (4) desiccator barrel, (5) sample basket or can, (6) sample basket mounting stand and (7) concentrated sulfuric acid. Source: Spiess and Wolf [29]. (b) Desiccator containing saturated salt solution employed by Kameoka et al. [32] in determining the EMC of brown and rough rice and hull.
Figure 3.
Thermostatically controlled water bath or oven for moisture sorption isotherm determination. Source: Spiess and Wolf [29].
Percent H2SO4
Density at 25°C (g/cm3)
Temperature (°C)
5
10
20
25
30
40
50
5.00
1.0300
0.9803
0.9804
0.9806
0.9807
0.9808
0.9811
0.9814
10.00
1.0640
0.9554
0.9554
0.9558
0.9562
0.9562
0.9565
0.9570
15.00
1.0994
0.9227
0.9230
0.9237
0.9241
0.9245
0.9253
0.9261
20.00
1.1365
0.8771
0.8779
0.8796
0.8802
0.8814
0.8831
0.8848
25.00
1.1750
0.8165
0.8183
0.8218
0.8218
0.8252
0.8285
0.8317
30.00
1.2150
0.7396
0.7429
0.7491
0.7509
0.7549
0.7604
0.7655
35.00
1.2563
0.6464
0.6514
0.6607
0.6651
0.6693
0.6773
0.6846
40.00
1.2991
0.5417
0.5480
0.5599
0.5656
0.5711
0.5816
0.5914
45.00
1.3437
0.4319
0.4389
0.4524
0.4589
0.4653
0.4775
0.4891
50.00
1.3911
0.3238
0.3307
0.3442
0.3509
0.3574
0.3702
0.3827
55.00
1.4412
0.2255
0.2317
0.2440
0.2502
0.2563
0.2685
0.2807
60.00
1.4940
0.1420
0.1471
0.1573
0.1625
0.1677
0.1781
0.1887
65.00
1.5490
0.0785
0.0821
0.0895
0.0933
0.0972
0.1052
0.1135
70.00
1.6059
0.0355
0.0377
0.0422
0.0445
0.0470
0.0521
0.0575
75.00
1.6644
0.0131
0.0142
0.0165
0.0177
0.0190
0.0218
0.0249
80.00
1.7221
0.0035
0.0039
0.0048
0.0053
0.0059
0.0071
0.0085
Table 1.
Water activity of sulfuric acid solution at different concentrations and temperatures.
Acids are not used extensively because of the danger involved in its handling and the changes that can occur in its composition—it is susceptible to dilution or increase in concentration with time due to the release or absorption of water by the product—thereby effecting a change in the air-water activity. Acids also easily corrode and release fume that can be toxic in the food material. Saturated salts are safer to use, and constant humidity can be maintained by leaving excess salt in the solution. That way, the solution is made to remain saturated thoroughout the duration of the experiment in spite of the release or absorption of water by the product. The use of saturated salt solution, however, requires many salts in order to go thorough the relative humidity (water activity) range of 0–100% (0.00–1.00), whereas only one acid could be used for the same purpose.
The static gravimetric method involving the use of saturated salt solutions was applied successfully to the determination of MSIs of Jerusalem artichoke [30]; uncooked meat emulsions [18]; ground and short-time roasted coffee [31]; rice [32]; pigeon pea type-17 [33]; cassava [23]; plantain, winged bean seed and gari [34, 35, 36]; freeze-dried, osmo-freeze-dried and osmo-air-dried cherries and blue berries [15]; vetch seeds [37]; lupine [38]; high oleic sunflower seeds and kernels [39]; quinoa grains [40]; soya bean [41]; red chillies [42]; chickpea flour [43]; black gram nuggets [44]; sorghum malt [45]; IR-8 rice variety [46]; native and chemically modified starches [20]; and castor seeds [47]. Young [48], Oyelade et al. [49, 50], Al-Muhtaseb et al. [51], Bello [52] and Afkawa [53] applied the static gravimetric method involving the use of different concentrations of sulfuric acid in determining the MSIs of Virginia-type peanuts, maize flour, yam flour, potato, high amylopectin and high amylose starch powders, groundnut and neem seeds and shea nut and desert date kernels, respectively. Bosin and Easthouse [54] suggested the dynamic gravimetric method, and Igbeka et al. [22], Roman et al. [25] and Rahman and Al-Belushi [55] utilized it in establishing the MSIs of cassava and potato, apple and freeze-dried garlic powder, respectively.
3.2 Hygrometric method
Electric hygrometers are widely used for obtaining the MSIs of agricultural and food products. There are quite a lot of commercially available and specially designed hygrometers that are in use. The instrument (Figure 4) consists basically of a sensor, sample chamber and potentiometer. The sensor could use a hygroscopic chemical such as lithium chloride or an ion-exchange resin such as sulfonated polysterne; the conductivity of which changes according to the water activity above the sample. The sensor could be a humidity sensor which is based on capacitance changes in a thin film capacitor. Electric hygrometers give rapid, relatively precise results and are easy to operate. The main problems involved with the use of hygrometers are:
Evaluation of the equilibration time between the sample and sensor
Proper temperature control
Need for recalibration for some instrument
Figure 4.
Diagram of moisture sorption isotherm apparatus utilizing the hygrometer. Source: Fasina and Sokhansanj [58].
Crapiste and Rostein [57], Fasina and Sokhansanj [58], Tsami et al. [17] and Arslan and Togrul [59] employed the hygrometric method in studying the moisture sorption behavior of potatoes, alfalfa pellets, model fruit powders and crushed chillies, respectively.
3.3 Vapor pressure manometric (VPM) method
The vapor pressure manometric method involves bringing air to equilibrium with the agricultural or food product at a fixed temperature and moisture content and the relative humidity of the air measured as the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH). In this method, the vapor pressure exerted by the moisture in the product is directly measured. As a result, it is taken as one of the best methods of determining the MSI of food [60]. The equilibrium relative humidity is then obtained from the ratio of the vapor pressure in the sample to that of pure water at the same temperature. A schematic diagram of the apparatus and simplified diagram of the system set-up is shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. The procedure for determining the ERH of agricultural and food products using the method is as follows:
The prepared sample and VPM system are allowed to reach the desired temperature.
About 10–50 g of sample is put in the sample flask, and an equal amount of desiccant (CaSO4, CaCl2) is placed in the desiccant flask and sealed on to the apparatus using high vacuum grease.
Keeping the sample flask isolated, the system is evacuated to less than 200 μmHg (Rizvi, 1986). The cold strap should be filled with nitrogen prior to evacuation of the system to trap any moisture reaching the vacuum pump.
The space in the sample flask is then connected to the evacuated air space by opening the stopcock over the sample V4 (Figure 6), and the system is again evacuated for 1 min.
The stopcock across the manometer V5 is closed causing the oil in the micromanometer to respond to the vapor pressure exerted by the sample. When the oil level reaches a steady value, the difference is recorded as H1.
The stopcock over the sample is then closed, and the desiccant stopcock is opened to connect the system with the desiccant, causing a change in the height of the manometric oil. After the oil reaches a constant height, the micromanometer reading is recorded as H2.
The sample is removed from the system, and the moisture content is determined using a standard method.
With the data obtained, the equilibrium relative humidity is calculated using Eq. (1):
Figure 5.
Schematic diagram of vapor pressure manometric apparatus. Source: Rizvi [6].
Figure 6.
Schematic diagram of vapor pressure manometric system set-up. Source: Ajibola et al. [65].
ERH=H1−H2TsToPsE1
where ERH is the equilibrium relative humidity (%), H1 is the micromanometer reading with sample flask connected to the system (mm of manometric oil), H2 is the micromanometer reading with desiccant flask connected to the system (mm of manometric oil), Ts is the temperature of the environment surrounding the water bath taken as the temperature of sample (K), To is the temperature of the environment surrounding the micromanometer (K) and Ps is the saturated vapor pressure at sample temperature (mm of manometric oil).
The VPM method is rapid and precise but requires the use of vacuum pump, an accurate manometer and closed glass tube system. Proper temperature control is critical to this method, and volatile constituents other than water may contribute to the pressure exerted by the food.
The VPM method has been used to obtain the MSI of cereal grains and rape [61], dry milk [62], sesame seed [63], cowpea [64] and palm kernels [65].
3.4 Inverse gas chromatography
The inverse gas chromatography (IGC) is a rapid and effective system for studying the thermodynamic properties of a solid taken as the stationary phase in relation to a mobile gas phase containing selected solutes such as water. It is particularly suitable for the study of the lower region of water activity and for products with very low equilibrium moisture contents [66, 67]. With IGC the sorbed solute is injected into the carrier gas stream, and its linear transport is retarded owing to interaction with the product under study, which constitutes the stationary phase. Moisture sorption isotherms are then determined using the chromatographic data obtained and the following equations, which relate chromatograph operating parameters and peak data to the sorption isotherm:
a=maIadsmIpicE2
and
p=mahRTIpicWE3
where a is the uptake of sorbed water (g/g stationary phase), ma is the mass of water injected (g), m is the mass of stationary phase (g) and Iads/Ipic is the ratio of the areas (A + B)/B calculated from the chromatogram (Figure 7), p is the partial pressure (atm), h is the peak height (detector units), R is the gas constant (82.0567 cm3 atm mole1 K−l), T is the absolute temperature (K), W is the flow rate of carrier gas (cm3/min) and Ipic is the area B in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Typical gas chromatogram obtained by IGC: 1 = point of injection; 2 = point of emergence of unadsorbed peak (air); 3 = point of emergence of probe peak (water), Ipic = area B; and Iads = area A + B. Source: Manuel Sa and Sereno [67].
It has been used successfully to determine the MSIs of homogeneous solid food ingredients like sucrose, glucose and starch [68] and complex heterogeneous foods like bakery products [69], wheat flour [66] and wheat and soy flour [70].
3.5 AquaLab instrument
AquaLab is the fastest, most accurate and most reliable instrument available for measuring water activity, giving readings in 5 min or less [71]. It is easy to use and provides accurate and timely results. Its readings are reliable, providing ±0.003 aw accuracy. The instrument is easy to clean and checking calibration is simple. The photograph of 4TE model of the equipment is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
4TE model AquaLab moisture content—water activity measuring instrument. Source: METER Group, Inc. [71].
4. Influence of temperature on moisture sorption isotherms
Temperature affects the mobility of water molecules and the dynamic equilibrium between the vapor and the adsorbed gases [13]. If water activity is kept constant, an increase in temperature causes a decrease in the amount of sorbed water [20] (Figure 9). This indicates that the food becomes less hygroscopic. Iglesias and Chirife [72] pointed out that increase of temperature represents a condition unfavorable to water sorption.
Figure 9.
Adsorption EMC of hydroxypropylated cassava starch showing variation of MSI with temperature. Source: Aviara [20].
An exception to this rule is shown by certain sugars and other low molecular weight food constituents, which become more hygroscopic at higher temperature because they dissolve in water. Temperature shifts can have an important practical effect on the chemical and microbiological reactivity related to quality deterioration of a food in a closed container [73]. An increase of temperature at constant moisture content causes increase in water activity (Figure 10). This increases the rate of reactions and leads to deterioration [74, 75, 76]. Weisser [31] studied the effect of temperature on the sorption isotherms of roasted coffee and reported that the product showed consistent separation of the isotherms at different temperatures. However, not all foods exhibit such consistency. In the work reported by Saravacos et al. [12], crossing over occurred at high water activity (aw = 0.78) in the 20 and 30°C adsorption isotherms of sultana raisins and 5, 20 and 45°C adsorption and desorption isotherms of Chilean papaya shown in Figure 11 [77]. Such crossing over has earlier been observed by Saravacos and Stinchfield [78] on model systems of starch-glucose, Audu et al. [79] on sugars, Weisser et al. [80] on sugar and alcohols and Silverman et al. [81] on 20 and 37°C isotherms of precooked bacon. These substances contain large amounts of low molecular weight constituents in a mixture of high molecular weight biopolymers. At lower water activity values, the sorption of water is due mainly to the biopolymers, and an increase of temperature has the normal effect of lowering the isotherms [13]. As water activity is raised beyond the intermediate region, moisture begins to be sorbed primarily by the sugars and other low molecular constituents leading to the swinging up of the isotherm. Dissolution, which is favored by higher temperature, offsets the opposite effect of temperature on higher molecular weight constituents. The net result is an increase of moisture content (crossing over) of the isotherms. This has bearing on the sign and magnitude of the binding energy [13]. The binding energy of sultana raisin decreased as the temperature increased from 22 to 32°C in the low moisture region [12], but the effect of temperature showed a crossing over of the lines at higher moisture contents due to the endothermic dissolution of fruit sugars. Iglesias and Chirife [82] studied the equilibrium moisture contents of air-dried beef and found that the higher the drying temperature, the lower the sorption capacity of the dried beef. Similar results were reported for cookies and corn snacks [21] and apples [25]. Temperature changes also have effects on the water activity of saturated salt solutions, which are used in the determination of sorption isotherms. Labuza et al. [83] used experimental data and thermodynamic analysis to demonstrate that water activity of saturated salt solutions should decrease with increase in temperature.
Figure 10.
Changes in water activity at constant moisture content and in moisture content at constant water activity with changes in temperature. Source: Rizvi [6].
Figure 11.
Moisture desorption isotherms of Chilean papaya showing isotherm crossing at higher water activities with increase in temperature. Source: Vega-Galvez et al. [84].
5. Moisture sorption hysteresis
A product which attains its moisture equilibrium with the surrounding by losing moisture at a given temperature is said to have reached the desorption EMC. When the relatively dry material absorbs moisture from a high humidity environment at the same temperature, it will eventually reach the adsorption EMC. The isotherm plots may indicate a significant difference at certain water activities and temperatures between desorption and adsorption EMC values, with the desorption values being higher than the adsorption counterpart. This difference is called moisture sorption hysteresis [13, 45]. A typical hysteresis loop presented in Figure 12 could occur within the region of monolayer moisture but could begin at a higher water activity and extend down to zero water activity, depending on its class according to Kapsalis [13] classification.
Moisture sorption hysteresis has important theoretical and practical implications in foods. These include the general aspects of the irreversibility of moisture sorption process and the question of validity of thermodynamic parameters derived from a particular arm of the isotherm. Moisture sorption hysteresis has effect on chemical and microbiological deterioration of low and intermediate moisture foods.
5.1 Hysteresis classification
The hysteresis phenomenon in agricultural and food products varies in magnitude, shape and extent, depending on the type of food and temperature [13]. Hysteresis size or magnitude is depicted by the area enclosed by the loop, while the span or extent is denoted by the water activity range covered. Kapsalis [13] grouped moisture sorption hysteresis into three general types as follows:
Type I hysteresis: This type of hysteresis is normally pronounced mainly in the lower moisture content region, below the first inflection point of the isotherm. Although the total hysteresis may be large, no occurrence is normally observed above the 0.65 water activity or in the intermediate moisture range. The type I hysteresis is normally exhibited by high-sugar and high-pectin foods, exemplified by air-dried apple.
Type II: In this type, moderate hysteresis begins at high water activity, in the capillary condensation region, and extends over the rest of the isotherm to zero water activity. In both desorption and adsorption arms, the isotherm’s sigmoidal shape is retained. This type of hysteresis is normally exhibited by high-protein foods exemplified by freeze-dried pork.
Type III: In this type, large hysteresis loop occurs with a maximum at about 0.70 water activity, which is within the capillary condensation region. This type of hysteresis normally occurs in starchy foods such as freeze-dried rice.
5.2 Effect of temperature on hysteresis
Increasing temperature decreases the total hysteresis and limits the span of the loop along the isotherm [84]. Iglesias and Chirife [85] studied the effect of temperature on the magnitude of moisture sorption hysteresis of foods and reported that increasing temperature decreased or eliminated hysteresis for some foods, while for others, the total hysteresis size remained constant, or even increased. In the case where the hysteresis loop decreased, it did so more appreciably at high temperatures. The effect of temperature was found to be more pronounced on the desorption isotherms than the adsorption isotherms.
5.3 Theories of moisture sorption hysteresis
Several theories have been proposed to explain hysteresis phenomena in agricultural and food products. The most prominent of the theories are the ink bottle theory, the incomplete wetting theory, the open-pore theory, the shrinkage theory and the capillary condensation-swelling fatigue theory.
Ink bottle theory: This theory assumes that an agricultural and food product is a porous body having capillaries consisting of narrow, small-diameter necks with large bodies resembling ink bottles (Figure 13). It explains hysteresis on the basis of difference in the radii of the porous sorbent. During desorption, the small radii of necks control the emptying of the capillaries and result in a lowering of the relative humidity above the product; whereas during adsorption, the large area for the bodies needs to be filled, thus requiring higher relative humidity. The explanation can be better understood using the Kelvin equation which states that
Figure 13.
Ink bottle neck theory of moisture sorption hysteresis (left, schematic representation and, right, actual pore). Source: Kapsalis [13].
LnPPo=−2σVcosθRTrmE4
where P is the vapor pressure of liquid over the curved meniscus (Pa), Po is the saturation vapor pressure (Pa) at temperature T (K), σ is the surface tension (N/m), θ is the angle of contact (in complete wetting, θ is 0 and cosθ = 1), V is the molar volume of liquid (m3/mol) and rm is the mean radius of curvature of meniscus.
For desorption, by substituting r1 in Figure 13 for rm in Eq. (4) with cosθ = 1 (complete wetting), Eq. (4) becomes transformed into Eq. (5):
Pd=Poexp−2σVRTr1E5
In adsorption with condensation first taking place in the large diameter cavity, Eq. (4) becomes
Pa=Poexp−2σVRTr2E6
From the above, it follows that for a given amount of water sorbed, the pressure will be higher during adsorption than during desorption.
Incomplete wetting theory: This theory is also dependent on capillary condensation based on Eq. (4), but it notes that due to the presence of impurities, the contact angle of the receding film upon desorption is smaller than that of the advancing film upon adsorption. Therefore, condensation along the adsorption branch of the isotherm will be at a higher vapor pressure resulting in open hysteresis as illustrated in Figure 14. However, in foods the most common type of hysteresis is the closed-end, retraceable loop showing that this theory is limited in its application to foods.
Figure 14.
Incomplete wetting theory of hysteresis (A) contact angle and (B) open hysteresis. Source: Kapsalis [13].
Open-pore theory: this theory extends the ink bottle theory by including considerations of multilayer adsorption. It is based on the difference in vapor pressure between adsorption Pa and desorption Pd as affected by the shape of the meniscus. During adsorption, the meniscus is considered cylindrical and the Cohan equation (not presented here) applies, whereas during desorption, the shape is considered to be hemispherical in which the Kelvin equation is applied. The open-pore theory is illustrated in Figure 15.
Figure 15.
Open-pore theory of hysteresis. Source: Kapsalis [13].
Shrinkage theory: This states that while agricultural and food product is drying out, the force of attraction causes water-holding spaces to shrink (molecular shrinkage). This permanent shrinkage reduces the water-binding polar sites and water-holding capacity of the material; hence less amount of water is absorbed during the adsorption process.
Capillary condensation and swelling fatigue theory: In this theory proposed by Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema [86], the sorption hysteresis is considered linked with condensation and evaporation in irregular voids (capillary condensation) and influence of adsorbed water molecules on such physical properties of agricultural and food products as strength, elasticity, rigidity, swelling and evolution of heat (swelling fatigue). The above combination was simulated by adopting the Cohan theory of capillary condensation with modifications and combining it with the ink bottle theory in the first approximation. The theory presented expressions for calculating the desorption isotherms of biomaterials from corresponding adsorption isotherm using bulk moduli determined as a function of moisture content.
6. Moisture sorption isotherm models
Equations for fitting the moisture sorption isotherms are of special importance in many aspects of crop and food preservation by drying. These include the prediction of the drying times, shelf life of the dried product in a packaging material and the equilibrium conditions after mixing products with varying water activities [87]. Others are the analytical determination of control for undesirable chemical and enzymatic reactions [88] and control of moisture migration in multidomain foods [9]. Moisture sorption isotherm models, therefore, not only constitute an essential part of the overall theory of drying but also provide information directly useful in the accurate and optimum design of drying equipment [1]. They are needed in the evaluation of the thermodynamic functions related to moisture sorption in biological materials [89].
Several theoretical, semi-theoretical and empirical models have been proposed and used by investigators to fit the equilibrium moisture content data of food and agricultural products. Chirife and Iglesias [87] reviewed part of the isotherm equations and presented a discussion of 23 common models, while Van den Berg and Bruin [5] presented a more comprehensive list. Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema [1] developed a generalized moisture sorption isotherm model for biological materials based primarily on the BET and capillary condensation theories and indirectly on Polanyi’s potential theory. This model appears to possess very high versatility but needs to be modified to reduce the number of parameters and incorporate the temperature term. A thorough going and extensive testing of the model on various categories of food is also necessary to confirm its versatility and prove the generalized posture. Ferro Fontan et al. [2] and Chirife et al. [90] presented a new model, which Iglesias and Chirife [91] compared with the GAB model and reported to be an alternative. Chen [92] derived a new moisture sorption isotherm model from a reaction engineering approach. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) [87] and Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) [56, 91, 93] models have been used for estimating the monolayer moisture content of agricultural and food products. Boquet et al. [94] noted that the Hailwood and Horrobin model has a remarkably good ability to fit the experimental data for most food types. A test of the model on moisture sorption data of native cassava and sorghum starches [95] showed that it has good predictive performance with R2 ranging from 0.92 to 0.99. It, however, lacked the temperature term and was modified to incorporate the term. Other commonly used models include modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost, modified Halsey and modified Oswin and the GAB. The modified Henderson [96] and modified Chung-Pfost [97] models have been adopted as the standard equations by the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) for describing the EMC-aw data for cereals and oil seeds [98]. The modified Halsey [85] has been reported as the best model for predicting the EMC-aw relationships of several tropical crops [99] and alongside with the modified Oswin [100] has been shown to describe the EMC-aw data of many seed satisfactorily [101, 102]. The Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model has been recognized as the most satisfactory theoretical isotherm Equation [103, 104, 105, 106] and has been recommended as the standard model for use in food laboratories in Europe [105] (1985) and the USA [107]. The GAB does not incorporate a temperature term; therefore, the determination of the effect of temperature on isotherms using the model usually involves the evaluation of up to six constants. Jayas and Mazza [108], however, developed a modified form of the GAB, which incorporates the temperature term. The MSI models considered in this study were selected from the above list and presented as follows:
where M is the moisture content, (db); Mm is monolayer moisture content, (db); aw is water activity; T is absolute temperature, (K); A, B, C and k are constants; η is primary characteristic parameter of pore structure; ε is secondary characteristic parameter of pore structure; σ is surface tension of sorbate in bulk liquid form, (N/m); Rg is universal gas constant; V is molal volume of sorbate in its bulk liquid condition, (m3/mol); Pm is vapor pressure corresponding to monolayer, (N/m2); Po is saturated vapor pressure, (N/m2); and P is vapor pressure at the condition under which the study is carried out, (N/m2).
7. Isotherm model predictive performance evaluation
Sun and Byrne [109], Sun [110] and Sun [111] evaluated the predictive performance of the moisture sorption isotherm models that have been reported for fitting the EMC and ERH data of rapeseed, rice, other grains and oilseeds and selected the models that gave the best fits.
Coefficient of terms in the moisture sorption isotherm equations is usually determined using nonlinear regression procedure, and the predictive performance of an equation on sorption data is evaluated using such goodness of fit parameters as standard error of estimate (estimate of the residual mean square), residual sum of square, coefficient of determination, mean relative percent error, fraction explained variation and residual plots. Several investigators used these parameters to evaluate the fitting ability of EMC-aw equations. For instance, Ajibola [35, 36, 37], Ajibola and Adams [34], Ajibola [112], Gevaudan et al. [24], Talib et al. [8], Pezzutti and Crapiste [113], Tsami et al. [17] and Ajibola et al. [64] used the standard error of estimate, and Young [48] and Jayas et al. [114] used the residual sum of squares to compare the fitting ability of different models. Boquet et al. [94], Chirife et al. [90], Weisser [31], Saravacos et al. [12], Pollio et al. [115], Iglesias and Chirife [91] and Khalloufi et al. [10] used the mean relative percent deviation (MRE), while Shepherd and Bhardwaj [33], Demertzis et al. [116], Diamante and Munro [117] and Sopade et al. [118] employed coefficient of determination in evaluating the fitting ability of several models. Pappas and Rao [119] used the fraction explained variation, Chen [92] used both coefficient of determination and mean relative percent error and Sun [110] and Sun [111] employed the residual sum of squares, standard error of estimate and mean relative percent error in comparing moisture sorption isotherm models for food. Other combinations of parameters that have been used include standard error of estimate and mean relative percent error [120], coefficient of determination and residual sum of squares [18] and standard error of estimate, mean relative percent deviation and residual plots [15, 41, 65, 101, 102]. A model is considered acceptable for predictive purpose, if the residuals are uniformly scattered around the horizontal value of zero showing no systematic tendency towards a clear pattern [41, 45, 64, 65]. A model is considered better than another if it has lower standard error of estimate and mean relative percent deviation and higher fraction explained variation and coefficient of determination.
Menkov [37] reported that of five moisture sorption isotherm models fitted to the experimental data on the EMC of vetch seeds, the modified Oswin model proved the best for describing the adsorption and desorption branches. Aviara et al. [41] and Oyelade [121] reported that the modified Oswin model gave the best fit to the EMC of soya bean and lafun, respectively. Santalla and Mascheroni [39] in a similar study on the EMC of sunflower seeds and kernels reported that the GAB model gave the best fit to the experimental data. Other crops whose moisture sorption isotherms have recently been studied include quinoa grains [40], crushed chillies [59], amaranth grains [122] and black gram nuggets [44].
7.1 Model parameter evaluation procedures
The procedure followed in evaluating a moisture sorption isotherm model depends on the nature of the model. For the selected models (Eqs. (7)–(16)), the procedures are as follows:
a. BET model: the BET model (Eq. (7)) can be linearized thorough algebraic manipulations to yield Eq. (17):
awM1−aw=1MmC+C−1MmCawE17
A plot of awM1−aw against aw within the water activity range of 0.01–0.5 at each temperature yields a straight line with the slope as C−1MmC and intercept on the y-axis as 1MmC, and from these, the values of Mm and C can be obtained and used as the starting values in nonlinear regression. The nonlinear regression analysis procedure minimizes the sum of deviation in the evaluation of a model using a series of iterative steps. The procedure could require that initial parameter estimates be chosen close to the true values.
b. GAB model: the GAB model (Eq. (8)) can be transformed to a quadratic form by algebraic manipulation to yield Eq. (18):
awM=Aaw2+Baw+CE18
Eq. (18) can be solved by plotting awM against aw at each temperature and fitting a polynomial of the second order to the plots. This will yield the following functions from Eq. (8):
A=kMm1C−1,B=1Mm1−2C,C=1MmCkE19
The values of Mm, C and k obtained at each temperature are then used as the initial values of the parameters in the nonlinear regression procedure of Eq. (8) to evaluate the model.
c. Modified GAB model: the modified GAB model (Eq. (9)) like the original GAB model can be transformed to a quadratic form by algebraic manipulation to yield Eq. (20):
awM=Xaw2+Yaw+ZE20
Plotting awM against aw and fitting a polynomial of the second order to the plot yield the following functions from Eq. (9):
X=BATC−1,Y=1A1−2TC,Z=1ABCE21
The average values of A, B and C are obtained and used as initial parameter estimates in the nonlinear regression analysis to evaluate the model.
d. Hailwood-Horrobin model: The Hailwood-Horrobin model (Eq. (10)) is mathematically similar to the GAB and can after algebraic manipulations be represented in the form
awM=Caw2+Baw+AE22
Plotting awM against aw and fitting a polynomial of the second order to the plot at each temperature yield the values of C,B and A for use as initial parameter estimates in the nonlinear regression procedure for the model evaluation.
e. Modified Hailwood-Horrobin model: this model (Eq. 11) also has mathematical similarity with the GAB. It can be transformed algebraically to yield Eq. (23):
awM=λaw2+μaw+φE23
Plotting awM against aw and fitting a polynomial of the second order to the plot yield the following functions from Eq. (11):
λ=CTn,μ=BTandφ=TAE24
The average values of A, B and C are obtained and used as initial parameter estimates in the nonlinear regression analysis to evaluate the model.
f. Modified Chung-Pfost model: the modified Chung-Pfost model (Eq. (12)) is transformed by algebraic manipulations to yield Eq. (25):
aw=exp−AT+Bexp−CME25
Linearizing Eq. (25) by logarithmic transformation is carried out as follows:
Lnaw=−AT+Bexp−CME26
−Lnaw=AT+Bexp−CME27
Ln−Lnaw=LnAT+B−CME28
A plot of Ln−Lnaw against M at each temperature yields a straight line with slope as -C and intercept on the y-axis asLnAT+B.
With the expression for the slope, further algebraic manipulation is carried out as follows in order to solve for the temperature-related parameters of the model:
expb=AT+B,implying thatT+B=Aexpb=Aexp−bE29
From the above,T=Aexp−b−B.
A plot of T against exp−b yields a straight line with A as slope and intercept on the y-axis as -B.
In the nonlinear regression procedure, the avC as C and A and B are used as the initial parameter estimates in the equation.
g. Modified Halsey model: the modified Halsey model (Eq. (13)) can be transformed by algebraic manipulations to yield Eq. (30):
aw=exp−expA+BTM−CE30
Linearizing Eq. (30) by logarithmic transformation yields
Lnaw=−expA+BTM−CE31
−Lnaw=expA+BTM−CE32
So
Ln−Lnaw=A+BT−CLnME33
A plot of Ln−Lnaw against LnM at each temperature yields a straight line with slope as –C and intercept on the y-axis as A + BT. Using the intercept on y-axis for different temperature plots of the above, the values of the intercepts are then plotted against temperature to yield another straight line with slope as B and intercept on y-axis as A. In the nonlinear regression analysis, the avC as C and A and B values are used as the starting values in parameter estimates for the model.
h. Modified Henderson model: the modified Henderson model (Eq. (14)) is transformed to yield Eq. (34):
aw=1−exp−AT+BMCE34
Eq. (34) is linearized by logarithmic transformation as follows:
1−aw=exp−AT+BMCE35
Ln1−aw=−AT+BMCE36
−Ln1−aw=AT+BMCE37
Ln−Ln1−aw=LnAB+T+CLnME38
A plot of Ln−Ln1−aw against LnM at each temperature yields a straight line with slope a1 = C and intercept on the y-axis b1 = LnAB+T. To solve for the temperature-related parameters, intercept on the y-axis is used.
Therefore,expb1=AT+B=AT+AB.E39
A plot of expb1 against T yields a straight line with slope a2 as A and intercept on y-axis b2 as AB. In the nonlinear regression procedure, avC and A and B are used as initial parameter estimates for the model.
i. Modified Oswin model: the modified Oswin model (Eq. (15)) can be manipulated algebraically to yield Eq. (40):
aw=1A+BTMC+1E40
1aw=A+BTMC+1and1aw−1=A+BTMCE41
Linearizing Eq. (41) by logarithmic transformation yields
CLnA+BT−CLnM=Ln1−awawE42
A plot of Ln1−awaw against LnM at each temperature yields a straight line with slope as –C and intercept on the y-axis as CLnA+BT.
The expression for intercept on the y-axis is solved further to evaluate the temperature-related parameters of the model and yield Eq. (43),
expbc=A+BTE43
A plot of expbc against T yields a straight line with slope as A and intercept on the y-axis as B. In the nonlinear regression procedure, avC as C and A and B are used as the initial parameter estimates in the model evaluation.
j. Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema model: the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema model, which has been postulated to be a generalized model, has the following parameters (unknowns): σ, V, Pm, ρ, ε and η.
Evaluating the model requires a lot of care. The starting values of parameters for application in the nonlinear regression procedure can be obtained as follows:
σ, V, ρ and Po can be obtained at different temperatures from the steam table P can be calculated using the expression P = aw, ε can be taken as having a typical value of 0.1 though its value can be less, Pm is the monolayer value of P and η can be assumed to lie between −1 and +1 in the form of −1 ≤ η ≤ +1 with 0.1 as a typical starting value.
7.2. Moisture sorption isotherm model predictive indicators
After values of model constants have been determined using the nonlinear regression analysis, the suitability of a model for predictive purpose or its goodness of fit is determined using the following indices:
a. Residual plots: these are plots of residuals (difference between measured and predicted values of the EMC) against the measured values.
b. Standard error of estimate given as
SE=∑Y−Y′2df12E44
c. Mean relative percent deviation given as
MRE=100N∑Y−Y′YE45
d. Fraction explained variation given as
FEV=SSMSSTE46
e. Residual sum of squares (RSS) given as
RSS=∑Y−Y′2NE47
f. Coefficient of determination, R2.
where Y is the measured EMC value, Y′ is the EMC value predicted by the model, N is the number of data points, df is the degree of freedom, SSM is the sum of squares due to the model and SST is the total sum of squares.
8. Conclusions
Moisture sorption phenomena govern several technological processes (drying, storage, mixing and packaging to mention a few) involving agricultural and food products. Moisture sorption isotherms of these products are generally of the type II, sigmoidal in shape and temperature dependent. The isotherms can be determined using the static or dynamic gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric, hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic methods. Desorption isotherm path could differ from that of adsorption leading to moisture sorption hysteresis.
Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models include the BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Chung-Pfost, modified Halsey, modified Henderson and modified Oswin models. Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema model which was proposed as a generalized model was considered. While some of the models can be evaluated by fitting polynomial functions of the second order to them and applying nonlinear regression procedure, others can be solved thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation and nonlinear regression. For the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema model, the initial parameter estimates for use in nonlinear regression have to be obtained from the steam table. A model is considered acceptable for predictive purpose, if the residuals are uniformly scattered around the horizontal value of zero showing no systematic tendency towards a clear pattern. Model goodness of fit is determined using standard error of estimate, mean relative percent deviation, fraction explained variation, coefficient of determination and residual sum of squares.
Conflict of interest
This chapter has no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"adsorption, desorption, equilibrium moisture isotherm, moisture sorption isotherm models, moisture sorption isotherm hysteresis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68496.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68496.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68496",totalDownloads:2005,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:93,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 1st 2019",dateReviewed:"June 12th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 11th 2020",dateFinished:"August 7th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68496",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68496",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",email:"nddyaviara@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sorption phenomena in biological materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Moisture sorption isotherm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Applications of moisture sorption isotherm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Factors influencing moisture sorption characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Moisture sorption isotherm measurement techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Gravimetric method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Hygrometric method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Vapor pressure manometric (VPM) method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Inverse gas chromatography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 AquaLab instrument",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Influence of temperature on moisture sorption isotherms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Moisture sorption hysteresis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Hysteresis classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Effect of temperature on hysteresis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 Theories of moisture sorption hysteresis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Moisture sorption isotherm models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Isotherm model predictive performance evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.1 Model parameter evaluation procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.2. 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Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers; 1985. pp. 661-679'},{id:"B106",body:'Multon JL. Interaction between water and the constituents of grains, seeds and by-products. In: Multon JL, editor. Preservation and Storage of Grains, Seeds and Their By-products. New York: Lavoisier Publishing Company; 1988. pp. 89-159'},{id:"B107",body:'Lomauro CJ, Bakshi AS, Labuza TP. Evaluation of food moisture sorption isotherm equations, Parts I and II. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie. 1985;18:111-124'},{id:"B108",body:'Jayas DS, Mazza G. Comparison of five three-parameter equations for the description of adsorption data of oats. Transactions of ASAE. 1993;36(1):119-125'},{id:"B109",body:'Sun DW, Byrne C. Selection of EMC/ERH isotherm equations for rapeseed. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research. 1998;69:307-315'},{id:"B110",body:'Sun DW. Comparison and selection of EMC/ERH isotherm equations for drying and storage of grain and oilseed. Agricultural Engineering International: The CIGR e-Journal. 1999;1(March):1-9'},{id:"B111",body:'Sun DW. Comparison and selection of EMC/ERH isotherm equations for rice. Journal of Stored Products Research. 1999;35:249-264'},{id:"B112",body:'Ajibola OO. Thin layer drying of melon seed. Journal of Food Engineering. 1989;9:305-320'},{id:"B113",body:'Pezzutti A, Crapiste GH. Sorptional equilibrium and drying characteristics of garlic. Journal of Food Engineering. 1997;31:113-123'},{id:"B114",body:'Jayas DS, Kukelko DA, White NDG. Equilibrium moisture-equilibrium relative humidity for Canola meal. Transactions of ASAE. 1988;31(5):1585-1588, 1593'},{id:"B115",body:'Pollio ML, Resnick SL, Chirife J. Water sorption isotherms of soybean varieties grown in Argentina. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 1987;22:335-338'},{id:"B116",body:'Demertzis PG, Riganakos KA, Kontomina MG. Water sorption isotherms of crystalline raffinose by inverse chromatography. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 1989;24:629-636'},{id:"B117",body:'Diamante LM, Munro PA. Water desorption isotherms of two varieties of sweet potato. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 1990;25:140-147'},{id:"B118",body:'Sopade PA, Ajisegiri AS, Abbas AB. Moisture sorption study of some Nigerian grains: Rice, bambara nut and tiger nut. Proceedings of the Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1991;15:158-174'},{id:"B119",body:'Pappas G, Rao VNM. Sorption isotherms of cowpea from 25°C to 70°C. Transactions of ASAE. 1987;30(5):1478-1482'},{id:"B120",body:'Boquet R, Chirife J, Iglesias HA. Equations for fitting water sorption isotherms of foods, Part II: Evaluation of various two-parameter models. Journal of Food Technology. 1978;13:319-327'},{id:"B121",body:'Oyelade OO. Equilibrium moisture content models for lafun. International Journal of Food Engineering. 2008;4(2):4'},{id:"B122",body:'Pagano AM, Mascheroni RH. Sorption isotherms for amaranth grains. Journal of Food Engineering. 2005;67:441-450'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",address:"nddyaviara@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide [1]. Especially, rectal cancer accounts for 30–40% of colorectal cancer, and the treatment strategy is different and more complicated compared to colon cancer because of its anatomical features. Although the treatment outcome of rectal cancer has greatly improved with the development of multimodality treatment including neoadjuvant radiotherapy, cytotoxic chemotherapy, and target agents, surgery remains the mainstay of therapy. Since the concept of total mesorectal excision (TME) was first described by Richard Heald in 1979, this procedure became the gold standard technique for rectal cancer surgery until now [2]. The fundamental principle of TME is en bloc resection of the rectum with its surrounding fatty tissue complex which contains the blood vessels and lymphatics down to the pelvic floor. To achieve complete TME and sphincter preserving surgery in low-lying rectal cancer, knowledge for regarding the pelvic fascia (mesorectal, parietal) and autonomic nerves, a thorough understanding of the pelvic floor anatomy is essential.
2. Pelvic anatomy
2.1 Basic anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum
The rectum is the most distal part of the large intestine that exists from the sacral promontory level to the anorectal ring. The anterior and lateral portion of the upper one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum, and the middle one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum on its anterior portion. The lower one-third cannot be observed in the intraperitoneal space because it is located in the extraperitoneal space. The taenia coli disappears in the rectum, forming one longitudinal muscle layer surrounding the rectum. The length of the rectum is approximately 12-15 cm and has three curvatures, which is related to Houston’s valves. The upper and lower part are convex to the right, and the middle portion is convex to the left. The middle valve is the most prominent and is located approximately equal to the level of peritoneal reflection [3].
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which corresponds to the mesentery of the rectum. Mesorectum contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes, and it is enveloped by thin visceral pelvic fascia [4]. It is developed thickest in the posterolateral side and the anterior part is formed relatively thin. In addition, the volume of the mesorectum decreases as it approaches the pelvic floor, and disappears approximately 2 cm above the levator ani muscle (Figure 1). A number of studies have revealed that the mesorectum is an important structure for tumor spreading, and en bloc resection through sharp dissection of mesorectum is very important in improving treatment outcomes [2, 5, 6].
Figure 1.
Anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum. (a) Structures around the rectum. The rectum is surrounded by mesorectum, and the rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum. (b) Total mesorectal excision (TME). En bloc resection of mesorectum is important.
2.2 Fascia structures around the rectum
Dissecting the correct anatomical plane can lead to good oncological outcomes and preserve the autonomic nerves to prevent postoperative urinary, sexual, and defecatory dysfunction. If pelvic dissection is performed along the exact embryologic fascial plane, the operation can be done without bleeding. To perform precise total mesorectal excision, a thorough understanding of the fascia around the rectum and pelvic cavity is essential. Figure 2 shows the anatomical relationship of the fascia around the rectum.
Figure 2.
Anatomy of fascia around the rectum. The fascia propria of the rectum covers the rectum and mesorectum. The presacral fascia covers the anterior surface of the sacrum. It combines with the fascia propria of the rectum at the S4 level (recto-sacral fascia = Waldeyer’s fascia). Denonvilliers’ fascia is a dense membrane between the rectum and seminal vesicles.
2.2.1 Fascia propria of the rectum and presacral fascia
The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum, also called as mesorectal fascia. The mesorectal fascia corresponds to the visceral fascia of the rectum. Caudally, it ends at the internal sphincter and laterally ends at the internal iliac artery, and is connected to the parietal pelvic fascia [7]. A magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia (Figure 3). During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage to obtain optimal oncologic outcome [6, 8, 9].
Figure 3.
Magnetic resonance image scan. Magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Axial view. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum (mesorectal fascia). (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. Mesorectum, mesorectal fascia, and puborectalis muscle.
The presacral fascia, also called as parietal pelvic fascia, covers the anterior surface of the sacrum and encloses the sacral vessels and nerves. It combines with the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level and became part of the anococcygeal ligament at the level of anorectal junction. The presacral venous plexus is formed by the two lateral sacral veins, the middle sacral vein, and the communicating veins, and it runs underneath the presacral fascia. If the dissection plane is too deep to damage the presacral fascia during the posterior dissection, life-threatening massive bleeding can occur and it often is difficult to control. Therefore, dissection should be done along with the space between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia until the recto-sacral fascia is encountered [10, 11].
2.2.2 Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia)
Recto-sacral fascia, also known as Waldeyer’s fascia, is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. As the posterior dissection proceeds down along the plane between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia, a dense, tough recto-sacral fascia is identified. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and dissected further caudally. This fascia has a different thickness from individuals, it is not visible when it is too thin. Because the presacral artery and venous plexus and autonomic nerves pass behind this fascia, it is important to perform sharp division to avoid excessive bleeding due to presacral vein injury (Figure 4) [8, 12].
Figure 4.
Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia). Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia) is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. It is important to perform sharp dissection [11].
2.2.3 Denonvilliers’ fascia
During the anterior dissection of the rectum, a thin, dense connective tissue layer known as the Denonvilliers’ fascia presents between the seminal vesicles and rectum [13]. The rectum can be separated from the seminal vesicles and prostate by opening this membrane at the level of anterior peritoneal reflection. After incising the fascia and entering the embryologic plane between the rectum and the seminal vesicles, the dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia [14]. It is because there were neurovascular bundles running from the pelvic plexus to the ventral side of the Denonvilliers’ fascia, especially in the directions of 10 and 2 o’clock, and these neurovascular bundles were related to urogenital function (Figure 5) [15]. However, if the deeply infiltrative tumor is located on the anterior wall of the rectum, the dissection should be performed in front of the Denonvilliers’ fascia for curative resection. In females, there is a thin membranous structure that separates the rectum and vagina, which is called the rectovaginal septum. Although Denonvilliers reported that the Denonvilliers’ fascia was not present in females, many researchers considered that the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the Denonvilliers’ fascia in males (Figure 6) [16, 17, 18, 19]. During the anterior dissection of the rectum in female, care must be taken not to perforate the vagina since this septum is very thin.
Figure 5.
Denonvilliers’ fascia. During anterior dissection of the rectum. The dense connective tissue between rectum and seminal vesicles can be seen. The dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia.
Figure 6.
Rectovaginal septum. In female, the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the denonvilliers’ fascia in male.
2.3 Anal canal
The rectum enters the pelvic floor and becomes the anus. The anal canal is defined as from the dentate line to the anal verge by anatomists, but most surgeons consider the anal canal from the anorectal ring to the anal verge [20]. The anorectal ring is where the rectum enters the pelvic floor and is angled by the puborectalis muscle. This ring can be palpated by a meticulous digital rectal exam. The dentate line, which divides the upper two-thirds and lower third of the anal canal, is an anatomically important landmark of the anal canal, and there are 6–14 longitudinal folds on the dentate line known as columns of Morgagni (Figure 7). The upper and lower part of the anal canal differs in venous and lymphatic drainage, innervation, and the epithelial surface based on the dentate line. Above the dentate line, the blood drains into the portal venous system, and lymphatics drains to the superior rectal and iliac lymphatic chains. Below the dentate line, the blood drains into the caval system, and lymphatics drain into the inguinal lymph nodes.
Figure 7.
Anal canal and anal sphincter complex. (a) The dentate line divides the upper two thirds and lower third of the anal canal, and there are longitudinal folds known as columns of Morgagni. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: Subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part [21]. (b) External anal sphincter. Lt. Hemipelvis.
There are two sphincter muscles surrounding the anus, the internal sphincter and the external sphincter. The internal sphincter is connected from the inner circular smooth muscle of the rectum and descends to 1–1.5 cm below the dentate line. Its length is about 2.5–4 cm and the mean thickness is about 0.5 cm. It is an involuntary smooth muscle and plays an important role in the maintenance of fecal incontinence because it contributes a majority of the resting pressure of the anal canal. The outer longitudinal muscle of the rectum conjoins the fibers from the puborectalis muscle and is located between the external and internal sphincter. The external sphincter muscle is a striated muscle surrounding the internal sphincter in the shape of a cylinder, and it extends slightly below the internal sphincter. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part. The subcutaneous external sphincter attaches to the perianal skin encircling the anus. The external anal sphincter is innervated by the rectal branch of the pudendal nerve and is under voluntary control [20, 22, 23]. The intersphincteric groove between the internal and external sphincter is an important landmark in surgery for patients with distal rectal cancer such as intersphincteric resection (ISR) [24].
2.4 Pelvic floor
The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis, and plays an important role in supporting the pelvic organs. In the past, pelvic floor muscles could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of magnetic resonance imaging assessments and improvements in minimally invasive surgery techniques such as laparoscopy and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of this region It is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action through coordinated contraction and relaxation during defecation [25]. The pubococcygeus is located in the most anterior portion of the levator ani muscles, and from both pubic bone to the coccyx. The iliococcygeus is the posterior part of the levator ani muscle and extends from the ischial spine to the anococcygeal raphe and coccyx. The puborectalis muscle, which is located below the pubococcygeus, forms a U-shaped ring around the rectum and makes an anorectal angle to prevent fecal incontinence. The coccygeus muscle, which is also a part of the pelvic floor, is located posterior portion of the levator ani muscle and reinforces the posterior pelvic floor (Figure 8) [20]. The pelvic floor has two hiatuses: the urogenital hiatus and the rectal hiatus. The rectal hiatus is located in the posterior of the pelvic floor through which the anal canal passes. The perineal body, a pyramidal fibromuscular mass, is located between the urogenital hiatus and the anal canal, strengthens the pelvic floor [26]. During distal rectal cancer surgery for sphincter preservation such as ISR, the intersphincteric space between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall should be identified, and the dissection continues down to the deep part of the anal canal through the intersphincteric space (Figure 9) [24]. On the other hand, during an abdominoperineal resection, the levator ani muscles must be cut [27].
Figure 8.
Anatomy of the pelvic floor. (a) Inferior view. The levator ani muscle consists of pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle [21]. (b) Pelvic floor muscles and anal sphincter complex [20].
Figure 9.
Levator ani muscles and intersphincteric space. (a) Puborectalis and pubococcygeus muscle. (b) Intersphincteric space between rectum and puborectalis muscle.
2.4.1 Anococcygeal ligaments
The anococcygeal ligament is a fibrous membrane, which extends between the coccyx and the margin of the anal canal. In an anatomical study, the anococcygeal ligament was divided into two layers. The ventral layer of the ligament was loose and rich in small and fragile vessels and extended from the presacral fascia to the conjoint longitudinal muscle layer of the anal canal. The dorsal layer of the ligament was thin and dense and extended between the coccyx and external anal sphincter (Figure 10) [28]. To fully mobilize the rectum from the pelvic floor at the final stage of total mesorectal excision, the anococcygeal ligament must be divided. If the anococcygeal ligament cannot be seen in the final step, it can be visualized after the mesorectum is completely mobilized from the pelvic floor.
Figure 10.
Anococcygeal ligament. (a) Anococcygeal ligament and pelvic floor. During posterior dissection of the rectum. (b) Anococcygeal ligament during cadeveric dissection. Lt. hemipelvis.
2.5 Surgical plane for very low-lying rectal cancer
In case of very low-lying rectal cancer, several surgical options can be considered (Figure 11). If the tumor did not invade the anal sphincter complex, the ultra-low anterior resection with coloanal anastomosis could be considered. If the tumors are located close to the dentate line, the intersphincteric resection (ISR) could be considered. The ISR is the partial or complete resection of the internal anal sphincter along the intersphincteric plane. However, if the tumor invades the external sphincter complex, the abdominoperineal resection (APR) should be performed. For invasive low rectal cancer which invades the levator ani muscle, extralevator APR (ELAPE) should be considered to achieve adequate resection margin. The ELAPE is the cylindrical anorectal excision and removes more tissue around the tumor including levator ani muscle (Figure 12). This procedure has the advantage of reducing the risk of tumor perforation during operation and acquiring sufficient safety resection margin, but there is still controversy about the long-term oncologic outcome [29]. In addition, the postoperative complications can be increased due to the wide resection range.
Figure 11.
Low-lying rectal cancer. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. The low-lying rectal cancer invades internal anal sphincter. (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Sagittal view.
In terms of quality of life, the importance of not only oncological outcomes but also functional outcomes such as urinary function, sexual function, and defecatory function after rectal cancer surgery have been emphasized. Urinary dysfunction after rectal surgery occurs in approximately 27%, and it includes difficulty emptying the bladder and incontinence [30, 31]. Sexual dysfunction for males consists of erectile dysfunction, absence of ejaculation, or retrograde ejaculation. For females, it causes sexual dysfunction such as impaired ability to achieve orgasm, decreased vaginal secretion, or dyspareunia [15]. The major cause of postoperative urogenital dysfunction is autonomic nerve damage that occurs during surgery. As minimally invasive surgery such as laparoscopy and robotic approach develops, meticulous nerve preserving surgery became possible with good visualization of the pelvic autonomic nerves [32, 33, 34]. To preserve the postoperative urogenital function, a thorough understanding of the anatomy of the pelvic autonomic nerve is crucial.
2.6.1 Superior hypogastric plexus and hypogastric nerves
The superior hypogastric plexus, which is a collection of sympathetic nerve bundles arising from T10-L3, forms a dense nerve plexus at the anterior area to the body of L5 and bifurcates into hypogastric nerves at the level of the sacral promontory (Figure 13). The superior hypogastric plexus runs around the inferior mesenteric artery. Therefore, this nerve can be damaged during dissection around the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery, and it results in retrograde ejaculation, urinary incontinence [35]. The hypogastric nerve crosses the left common iliac artery at the level of the first sacrum and descends to the pelvic cavity along the lateral pelvic wall.
Figure 13.
Hypogastric nerves. The hypogastric nerves run from the superior hypogastric plexus and descend to the pelvic cavity and meet the pelvic splanchnic nerves.
2.6.2 Pelvic splanchnic nerves
The pelvic splanchnic nerves are considered to be parasympathetic nerves that arise from the second to fourth sacral spinal nerves. These nerves enter the pelvis through the sacral foramen, posterior to the parietal fascia that covers the piriformis muscle and crosses the retrorectal space, to enter the visceral compartment through the visceral fascia about 4 cm from the midline. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum (Figure 14). These nerves regulate the emptying of the urinary bladder and influence erectile functions and motility of the rectum. Therefore, damage to these nerves causes erectile dysfunction and decreased blood flow to the vagina and vulva, which can reduce vaginal lubrication.
Figure 14.
Pelvic splanchnic nerves. The pelvic splanchnic nerves arise from the S2 to S4 spinal nerves. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum.
2.6.3 Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus
The pelvic splanchnic nerves meet the hypogastric nerves and form the inferior hypogastric plexus at the lateral pelvic wall. It lies outside the fascia propria in the superficial layer of the parietal fascia. The inferior hypogastric plexus can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall close to the prostate and seminal vesicles. Because the inferior hypogastric plexus consists of both sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent fibers, any damage to this plexus may cause severe disturbances in urogenital and sexual function including erection and ejaculation. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle at 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock direction (Figure 15). These neurovascular bundles run through the posterolateral border of the prostate and continue to the periprostatic plexus, which supplies to the prostate, seminal vesicles, corpi cavernosi, and the vas deferens [15, 36]. Injury to the neurovascular bundles during anterior dissection may cause urinary and sexual dysfunction. Meticulous dissection is required because nerve damage may occur when surgery is performed along the wrong plane or excessive traction is performed.
Figure 15.
Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus. The inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus is a network of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers arising from the hypogastric nerves and the pelvic splanchnic nerves. It can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle on both sides.
3. Conclusion
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the mesorectal fascia. During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage. The mesorectal fascia conjoins with the recto-sacral fascia, which extends forward from the presacral fascia at the level of S4, and descends to the pelvic floor. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and sharp dissection should be performed to prevent severe bleeding due to injury to the presacral plexus. During the anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to recognize Denonvillers’ fascia located between the rectum and seminal vesicles, and dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia. The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis and is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action during defecation. To reach the deep part of the anal canal, the dissection should be performed between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall. During the whole process of TME, surgeons should take care to identify and preserve the autonomic nerve in order to avoid postoperative urogenital dysfunction. Care should be taken not to damage the superior hypogastric nerve during IMA ligation, and not to damage the pelvic plexus during posterolateral pelvic dissection. In addition, during anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to perform meticulous dissection so as not to injure small numerous neurovascular bundles running in the 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock directions of the seminal vesicle. Based on a sufficient understanding of pelvic anatomy, precise surgical techniques using advanced surgical tools will give favorable oncologic and functional outcomes for rectal cancer patients.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
None.
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Accurate TME along the embryologic plane not only reduces local recurrence rate but also preserves urinary and sexual function by minimizing nerve damage. In the past, pelvic floor muscles and autonomic nerves could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of imaging studies and improvements of minimally invasive surgical techniques such as laparoscopic and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of the pelvic region. In this chapter, we will provide accurate anatomy of the rectum and the anal canal, pelvic fascia, and the pelvic autonomic nerve. 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DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000000323'},{id:"B5",body:'Bokey EL, Öjerskog B, Chapuis PH, Dent OF, Newland RC, Sinclair G. Local recurrence after curative excision of the rectum for cancer without adjuvant therapy: role of total anatomical dissection. British Journal of Surgery. 1999;86:1164-1170. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.1999.01216.x'},{id:"B6",body:'Silva-Velazco J, Stocchi L, Valente MA, Church JM, Liska D, Gorgun E, et al. The relationship between mesorectal grading and oncological outcome in rectal adenocarcinoma. Colorectal Disease. 2019;21:315-325. DOI: 10.1111/codi.14535'},{id:"B7",body:'Stelzner S, Heinze T, Nikolouzakis TK, Torge Mees S, Witzigmann H, Wedel T. Perirectal fascial anatomy: New insights into an old problem. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2021;64:91-102. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0000000000001778'},{id:"B8",body:'Kim NK, Kim HS, Alessa M, Torky R. 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Essential anatomy of the anorectum for colorectal surgeons focused on the gross anatomy and histologic findings. Annals of Coloproctology. 2018;34:59-71. DOI: 10.3393/ac.2017.12.15'},{id:"B21",body:'Richard L. Drake, A. Wayne Vogl and Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray\'s Atlas of Anatomy, 5, 213-292'},{id:"B22",body:'Kim NK, Sugihara K, Liang J-T. Surgical treatment of colorectal cancer: Asian perspectives on optimization and standardization; : Springer Singapore 2018. 414 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-5143-2'},{id:"B23",body:'Fritsch H, Brenner E, Lienemann A, Ludwikowski B. Anal sphincter complex: reinterpreted morphology and its clinical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2002;45:188-194. DOI: 10.1007/s10350-004-6144-x'},{id:"B24",body:'Rullier E, Zerbib F, Laurent C, Bonnel C, Caudry M, Saric J, et al. Intersphincteric resection with excision of internal anal sphincter for conservative treatment of very low rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 1999;42:1168-1175. DOI: 10.1007/Bf02238569'},{id:"B25",body:'Eickmeyer SM. Anatomy and physiology of the pelvic floor. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 2017;28:455-460. DOI: 10.1016/j.pmr.2017.03.003'},{id:"B26",body:'Siccardi MA, Bordoni B. Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis, Perineal Body [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537345/ [Accessed: 2021-04-01]'},{id:"B27",body:'Stelzner S, Holm T, Moran BJ, Heald RJ, Witzigmann H, Zorenkov D, et al. Deep pelvic anatomy revisited for a description of crucial steps in extralevator abdominoperineal excision for rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:947-957. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0b013e31821c4bac'},{id:"B28",body:'Kinugasa Y, Arakawa T, Abe S, Ohtsuka A, Suzuki D, Murakami G, et al. Anatomical reevaluation of the anococcygeal ligament and its surgical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:232-237. DOI: 10.1007/DCR.0b013e318202388f'},{id:"B29",body:'Tao Y, Han JG, Wang ZJ. Extralevator abdominoperineal excision for advanced low rectal cancer: Where to go. World Journal of Gastroenterology : WJG. 2020;26:3012-3023. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v26.i22.3012'},{id:"B30",body:'Kim NK, Kim YW, Cho MS. Total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer with emphasis on pelvic autonomic nerve preservation: Expert technical tips for robotic surgery. Surgical Oncology. 2015;24:172-180. DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2015.06.012'},{id:"B31",body:'Chew MH, Yeh YT, Lim E, Seow-Choen F. Pelvic autonomic nerve preservation in radical rectal cancer surgery: changes in the past 3 decades. Gastroenterology Report. 2016;4:173-185. DOI: 10.1093/gastro/gow023'},{id:"B32",body:'Luca F, Valvo M, Ghezzi TL, Zuccaro M, Cenciarelli S, Trovato C, et al. Impact of robotic surgery on sexual and urinary functions after fully robotic nerve-sparing total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Annals of Surgery. 2013;257:672-678. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0b013e318269d03b'},{id:"B33",body:'Garbarino GM, Canali G, Tarantino G, Costa G, Ferri M, Balducci G, et al. Laparoscopic versus open rectal resection: a 1:2 propensity score-matched analysis of oncological adequateness, short- and long-term outcomes. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2021;36:801-810. DOI: 10.1007/s00384-021-03841-w'},{id:"B34",body:'Hur H, Bae SU, Kim NK, Min BS, Baik SH, Lee KY, et al. Comparative study of voiding and male sexual function following open and laparoscopic total mesorectal excision in patients with rectal cancer. Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2013;108:572-578. DOI: 10.1002/jso.23435'},{id:"B35",body:'Mari GM, Crippa J, Cocozza E, Berselli M, Livraghi L, Carzaniga P, et al. Low ligation of inferior mesenteric artery in laparoscopic anterior resection for rectal cancer reduces genitourinary dysfunction: Results from a randomized controlled Trial (HIGHLOW Trial). Annals of Surgery. 2019;269:1018-1024. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002947'},{id:"B36",body:'Hollabaugh Jr RS, Steiner MS, Sellers KD, Samm BJ, Dmochowski RR. Neuroanatomy of the pelvis: Implications for colonic and rectal resection. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2000;43:1390-1397. DOI: 10.1007/BF02236635'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sanghyun An",address:null,affiliation:'
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But the blood-flow measurement inside the heart is difficult. There are many reasons behind it. The deep range and fast blood-flow are difficult to measure because of limitation of acoustic velocity. Moreover, strong heart valve signals mix into the blood-flow signal. Against such difficulties, the statistics mathematical model was applied to analyze many clinical data sets. The system identification method based on the mathematical model could realize a new blood-flow measurement system that has ultrasound Doppler information as input and electrocardiogram as output.",book:{id:"4655",slug:"applications-of-digital-signal-processing-through-practical-approach",title:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing through Practical Approach",fullTitle:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing through Practical Approach"},signatures:"Baba Tatsuro",authors:[{id:"65121",title:"Dr.",name:"Baba",middleName:null,surname:"Tatsuro",slug:"baba-tatsuro",fullName:"Baba Tatsuro"}]},{id:"24302",title:"Multiple-Membership Communities Detection and Its Applications for Mobile Networks",slug:"multiple-membership-communities-detection-and-its-applications-for-mobile-networks",totalDownloads:4106,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"599",slug:"applications-of-digital-signal-processing",title:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing",fullTitle:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing"},signatures:"Nikolai Nefedov",authors:[{id:"66756",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Nefedov",slug:"nikolai-nefedov",fullName:"Nikolai Nefedov"}]},{id:"49358",title:"Optical Signal Processing for High-Order Quadrature- Amplitude Modulation Formats",slug:"optical-signal-processing-for-high-order-quadrature-amplitude-modulation-formats",totalDownloads:2012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this book chapter, optical signal processing technology, including optical wavelength conversion, wavelength exchange and wavelength multicasting, for phase-noise-sensitive high-order quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) signals will be discussed. Due to the susceptibility of high-order QAM signals against phase noise, it is imperative to avoid the phase noise in the optical signal processing subsystems. To design high-performance optical signal processing subsystems, both linear and nonlinear phase noise and distortions are the main concerns in the system design. We will first investigate the effective monitoring approach to optimize the performance of wavelength conversion for avoiding undesired nonlinear phase noise and distortions, and then propose coherent pumping scheme to eliminate the linear phase noise from local pumps in order to realize pump-phase-noise-free wavelength conversion, wavelength exchange and multicasting for high-order QAM signals. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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