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Kulchin, V. Dzyuba and S. Voznesenskiy",authors:[null]},{id:"14384",title:"Structural and Electron Transport Properties of Ultrathin SiO2 Films with Embedded Metal Nanoclusters Grown on Si",slug:"structural-and-electron-transport-properties-of-ultrathin-sio2-films-with-embedded-metal-nanocluster",signatures:"Andrei Zenkevich, Yuri Lebedinskii, Oleg Gorshkov, Dmitri Filatov and Dmitri Antonov",authors:[{id:"19482",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Zenkevich",fullName:"Andrei Zenkevich",slug:"andrei-zenkevich"},{id:"19490",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Lebedinskii",fullName:"Yuri Lebedinskii",slug:"yuri-lebedinskii"},{id:"19491",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Gorshkov",fullName:"Oleg Gorshkov",slug:"oleg-gorshkov"},{id:"19492",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitri",middleName:null,surname:"Filatov",fullName:"Dmitri Filatov",slug:"dmitri-filatov"},{id:"19493",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitri",middleName:null,surname:"Antonov",fullName:"Dmitri Antonov",slug:"dmitri-antonov"}]},{id:"14385",title:"From Zeolite to Host-Guest Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"from-zeolite-to-host-guest-nanocomposite-materials",signatures:"Masoud Salavati-Niasari and Fatemeh Mohandes",authors:[{id:"19555",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",middleName:null,surname:"Salavati-Niasari",fullName:"Masoud Salavati-Niasari",slug:"masoud-salavati-niasari"}]},{id:"14386",title:"Morphology Development of Polymer Nanocomposites: Utilizing Interstratified Clay Minerals from Natural Systems",slug:"morphology-development-of-polymer-nanocomposites-utilizing-interstratified-clay-minerals-from-natura",signatures:"Kenji Tamura and Hirohisa Yamada",authors:[{id:"17858",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Tamura",fullName:"Kenji Tamura",slug:"kenji-tamura"},{id:"19654",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirohisa",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",fullName:"Hirohisa Yamada",slug:"hirohisa-yamada"}]},{id:"14387",title:"Nanocomposite and Nanostructured Carbon-based Films as Growth Substrates for Bone Cells",slug:"nanocomposite-and-nanostructured-carbon-based-films-as-growth-substrates-for-bone-cells",signatures:"Lucie Bacakova, Lubica Grausova, Jiri Vacik, Alexander Kromka, Hynek Biederman, Andrei Choukourov and Vladimir Stary",authors:[{id:"19728",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Bacakova",fullName:"Lucie Bacakova",slug:"lucie-bacakova"}]},{id:"14388",title:"Multiscale Manufacturing of Three-Dimensional Polymer-Based Nanocomposite Structures",slug:"multiscale-manufacturing-of-three-dimensional-polymer-based-nanocomposite-structures",signatures:"Louis Laberge Lebel and Daniel Therriault",authors:[{id:"19133",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Therriault",fullName:"Daniel Therriault",slug:"daniel-therriault"},{id:"20033",title:"Dr.",name:"Louis",middleName:null,surname:"Laberge Lebel",fullName:"Louis Laberge Lebel",slug:"louis-laberge-lebel"}]},{id:"14389",title:"The Role of Elongational Flow in Morphology Modification of Polyethylene/OMMt Nanocomposite System",slug:"the-role-of-elongational-flow-in-morphology-modification-of-polyethylene-ommt-nanocomposite-system",signatures:"N. Tz. Dintcheva and F. P. La Mantia",authors:[{id:"20803",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadka Tzankova",middleName:null,surname:"Dintcheva",fullName:"Nadka Tzankova Dintcheva",slug:"nadka-tzankova-dintcheva"}]},{id:"14390",title:"Dental Nanomaterials",slug:"dental-nanomaterials",signatures:"Seyed Shahabeddin Mirsasaani, Maedeh Hajipour Manjili and Nafiseh Baheiraei",authors:[{id:"18803",title:"MSc.",name:"Seyed Shahabeddin",middleName:null,surname:"Mirsasaani",fullName:"Seyed Shahabeddin Mirsasaani",slug:"seyed-shahabeddin-mirsasaani"},{id:"24240",title:"Prof.",name:"Maedeh",middleName:"Hajipour",surname:"Manjili",fullName:"Maedeh Manjili",slug:"maedeh-manjili"},{id:"24241",title:"MSc.",name:"Nafiseh",middleName:null,surname:"Baheiraei",fullName:"Nafiseh Baheiraei",slug:"nafiseh-baheiraei"}]},{id:"14391",title:"Influence of Nanocomposite Materials for Next Generation Nano Lithography",slug:"influence-of-nanocomposite-materials-for-next-generation-nano-lithography",signatures:"Scott Lewis and Lucio Piccirillo",authors:[{id:"21441",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"Lewis",fullName:"Scott Lewis",slug:"scott-lewis"}]},{id:"14392",title:"Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"polymeric-nanocomposite-materials",signatures:"Masoud Salavati-Niasari and Davood Ghanbari",authors:[{id:"19555",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",middleName:null,surname:"Salavati-Niasari",fullName:"Masoud Salavati-Niasari",slug:"masoud-salavati-niasari"}]},{id:"14393",title:"Electronic Functionality of Nanocomposites",slug:"electronic-functionality-of-nanocomposites",signatures:"Pandiyan Murugaraj and David Mainwaring",authors:[{id:"18097",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Mainwaring",fullName:"David Mainwaring",slug:"david-mainwaring"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1044",title:"Metal, Ceramic and Polymeric Composites for Various Uses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"efe6de8a5dd7987feb5a26d96c26ae54",slug:"metal-ceramic-and-polymeric-composites-for-various-uses",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1044.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1046",title:"Nanocomposites with Unique Properties and Applications in Medicine and Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a21bf7559248a9b519eb35777723e68e",slug:"nanocomposites-with-unique-properties-and-applications-in-medicine-and-industry",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1046.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6513",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c92db3d5c64117861b425cb692b5695",slug:"cement-based-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. 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Saleh and Martin Koller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72857",title:"Fillers for Packaging Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93252",slug:"fillers-for-packaging-applications",body:'Before proceeding, it is worthwhile to make a little observation about the environment around you. Take a quick break and behold what surrounds you and the place where you are.
Unless you are reading this in the wild of nature, everything you see was made available through some sort of packaging, even the materials used in the construction of the place where you are were bundled, contained, or packed.
Also, everything you eat—regardless of being an ordinary meal or a gourmet delight—came to you via packaging entrusted to keep high food safety and hygiene standards. Even if one has a backyard or farm that provides a wide variety of fresh produce, at some point in time some packaged foods will be bought and brought home.
Now think about all medicines that are consumed by millions of people every day to keep their well-being and health. Without being noticed, packaging allows for one of the most noble uses: to provide a longer and healthier life. You may now have realized for the first time that life as we know it exists at current standards due to a powerful enabler: packaging. Some studies suggest an association between the quality of life in a certain location and the level of packaging development in the same place [1].
The reason for this is simple: our society has developed in a way that knowledge and experimentation are part of everyday life. We are informed about the latest trends and we want to try new things. At the same time, just a small fraction of the goods we buy is produced in our vicinity. Most goods are produced thousands of kilometers away from where we live. Some make journeys to our home longer than the longest travel we have ever done.
The definition of the term “packaging” is very broad [2, 3], but it is possible to define it as “a system that consists of different materials, machinery and symbols which are set up in a way to contain, protect, communicate and allow access of its contents to make goods available in a cost-efficient way.”
It is not the intention of this chapter to go into detail on marketing aspects of packaging, but references will be made when necessary since most products on shelves rely on their packaging as the sole communication tool with their consumers.
The global market of packaging was estimated to be as of US$ 851 billion in 2018 as per recent estimates (Figure 1) [4, 5].
World packaging market (share by material) [
Considering the market share by material types, cardboard (including corrugated boxes) and plastic packaging in their flexible and rigid forms correspond to almost 80% of the whole market. Fillers are used mainly in these three types of packaging.
Cardboard production has increased due to the rapid growth of e-commerce in recent years. Flexible packaging has proven to be a lightweight and cheaper alternative to glass and metal. The annual growth of the packaging segment is estimated to be between 3.5 and 4.3% and is influenced by the urban shift of populations, the trend of pre-packed products in the food segment, and diversification of retail landscape [6].
It is important to highlight that these estimates were made before the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, economy was still not precise by the time this chapter was being written. Although exact figures cannot be given, packaging market growth is expected to follow global trade trends, according to previous studies [7].
It is estimated that in 2018 the global plastic production almost reached 359 million tonnes. Even in Europe, where environmental concerns are usually high and public opinion plays a big role, packaging is of key importance since it represents almost 40% of the plastics demand. This share is very expressive since it is more than double the second main use of plastics (building and construction, which corresponds to almost 20% of share) (Figure 2) [8].
Plastic uses in Europe [
There are two major categories of cellulose-base packaging: corrugated cases—the standard brown box using for transporting—and paperboard carton as you may see on supermarket shelves containing cereals, toothpaste, frozen food, etc. There is a wide array of drawing possibilities in both categories and the choice about what should be used depends on product requirements, machinability, and design strategy. These materials are used for “secondary packaging” (because it does not get into contact with the product) in the case of paperboard carton or “transport packaging” in the case of corrugated cases for obvious reasons.
The enhancement of visual properties in paper packaging given by fillers makes its use imperative for assuring customer attractiveness. This is not the case for corrugated cases, which have the function of protecting and grouping various units of products during transport. However, for paperboard carton packaging, this feature is crucial for standing out on shelves, grabbing consumer’s attention, and providing improved sales.
Fillers are not added to the process of “converting” cellulosic packaging (printing, cutting, creasing, gluing, etc.) but in the production of the various paper grades that will be further transformed.
Fillers used in papermaking are defined as insoluble particles (from 0.1 to 10 μm) added to the slurries of cellulosic fibers before the formation of paper. The uses of fillers vary from zero to 30% [9]. On average, it is estimated that minerals used for wet-end addition and coatings make up 8% (by mass) of the materials used in the paper industry [10].
What defines the amount of fillers used in papermaking is the grade and purpose of that specific paper or paperboard. For instance: an aseptic multilayer packaging like the milk box may have little or no fillers at all, while printing papers may have 30% (by mass) or more of its content made by fillers.
There has been a noted increase in the number of fillers being used, driven by lower cost of fillers themselves compared to the fibers itself, and by meeting market demand for higher opacity and/or brightness. The most common fillers found in papermaking can be seen in Table 1 [11].
Chemical composition | Natural source | Synthetic source |
---|---|---|
CaCO3 | Ground limestone (GCC) Chalk (ground) | Precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) |
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O | Clay (hydrous kaolinite) | Precipitated aluminum silicate |
TiO2 | — | Titanium dioxide |
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 | Talc | — |
CaSO4.2H2O | — | Gypsum |
Fillers from renewable sources can also be used in papermaking [12]. Most common types of natural fillers are:
Although the use of fillers can influence a wide array of attributes in papermaking (coefficient of friction, permeability, burn rate), the two main drivers for their use in cellulose-based packaging are:
Other uses of fillers can lead to the development of nonconventional applications, although commercial use of several novel applications is still strict [13]. Examples are deodorant paper [14], antimicrobial paper [15], flame retardants [16], and magnetic paper [17].
However, fillers reduce the flexibility of paper, posing extra attention to converting operations. Side effects, like creasing, if not done properly the packaging may show small cracks when folded, resulting in reduced mechanical strength and visual defects that can compromise the packaging function of protection and its attractiveness at the point of sale. Furthermore, and due to its mineral nature, fillers increase abrasion and dusting.
To overcome these drawbacks, fillers have been modified in several ways to achieve desired properties in an optimized way. Examples of processes that allow filler modification are modification with inorganic substances, modification with natural polymers (or their derivatives), modification with water-soluble synthetic polymers, modification with surfactants, hydrophobic modification, cationic modification among others [13].
Plastic packaging is widely used due to its wide range of applications, low cost, relatively high level of safety in terms of migration, and the convenience it can add to packaged products. They have been extensively employed for substituting more expensive packaging materials like glass, metal, and even wood [18].
Plastics are commonly used as “primary packaging,” meaning it directly contacts the product. Plastics can also be used as secondary packaging to bundle bottles for instance or to transport packaging in the form of a stretch film.
Regardless of its use, there are two major groups of plastic packaging, based on their physical characteristics:
Flexibles—which include all wraps, bags, and other packaging that can be used manually or automated through vertical or horizontal machines.
Rigid—which includes all sorts of tubes, bottles, containers, and drums. This type of packaging is suitable for liquids and products requiring mechanical protection or specific positioning. Due to the higher amount of mass required for achieving rigidity, it is also more expensive and substituted with flexible alternatives whenever possible.
Recent developments in the area of material engineering make use of a wide variety of fillers to modify the original properties of plastics. Advances in the production of nanofillers also have shown promising areas of research. These functional fillers can result in unique properties that enhance the performance of packaging materials even at small loads.
In theory, any material that can be found or transformed into small particles can be used as a filler for plastics in general. Potential combinations are endless but for commercial purposes, fillers for plastics should be readily available, insoluble, and chemically inert; have a low hardness to avoid wear; and be nontoxic, non-flammable, and finally free from metal impurities, which can degrade plastics [19].
In general, the most common fillers used in plastics are calcium carbonate, aluminum trihydrate, talc, kaolin, mica, wollastonite, glass fiber, aramid fiber, carbon fiber, and carbon black. However, it is important to highlight that fillers are used mostly in engineered plastics (Table 2).
Filler source | Group | Examples |
---|---|---|
Inorganic | Oxides | Glass, SiO2, ZnO, Al2O3, MgO |
Hydroxides | Mg(OH)2, Al(OH)3 | |
Salts | CaCO3, CaSO4, BaSO4, phosphates | |
Silicates | Talc, kaolin, mica, montmorillonite, wollastonite, feldspar | |
Metal | Steel, boron, (silver for antimicrobial nanofillers) | |
Organics | Carbon, graphite | Carbon fillers and nanotubes, carbon black, graphite fibers and flakes |
Natural polymers | Cellulose, starch | |
Synthetic polymers | Polyester, aramid, polyamide and PVOH fibers | |
Natural fibers | Straw | Wheat, corn, and rice |
Bast | Hemp, jute, kenaf, lax | |
Leaf | Pineapple leaf, sisal | |
Seed/fruit | Cotton, coir | |
Grass fibers | China reed, bamboo, grass | |
Wood fiber | Hardwood, softwood |
The use of fillers affects plastics by modifying original material properties or adding features that did not exist in the original polymer. Specifically for this aim, properties can be changed due to the use of glass fibers, mica flakes, nano-clays, carbon nanotubes/nanofibers, natural fibers, wood flour, talc, and kaolin [21].
Plastic packaging containing nanofillers has been shown to have an enhanced performance especially for food packaging, where high barrier properties against water vapor, aromas, and oxygen are mandatory [22].
Because the surface area of nano-clays can be more than 750 m2/g, the use of nanofillers even in loads smaller than 2% (in volume) creates a tortuous path for the diffusion of gases through the polymer matrix, therefore improving its gas barrier. This is of special interest because nanofillers can be an alternative to multilayer coextruded packaging, which are commonly not recyclable. Another advantage of adding nanofillers (like montmorillonite-MMT, kaolinite, carbon nanotubes, and more recently graphene nanosheets) in plastic packaging is the improved mechanical properties that allow downgauging and consequent economic and environmental benefits.
The use of nanofillers can also enable broader use of biopolymers in packaging. This group of materials has been studied for several decades but, usually, their properties are much weaker when compared to petroleum-based polymers. They include natural sources like starch; cellulose; proteins (collagen, soybean protein, zein, etc.); and polylactic acid (PLA). The low-performance properties of these “green” materials and can be compensated by the addition of nanofillers, broadening the possibilities of use at commercial scale [23, 24].
On top of the mechanical reinforcement and improved barrier properties, nanofillers can extend the shelf life of products that may spoil due to the development of pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms. It is known that the use of nanofillers made of silica through the sol-gel method has improved the shelf life of fruits due to their hydrophobic characteristics [25].
Besides the features mentioned above, other beneficial functions of nanofillers in food packaging are the possibility of exploring and developing new technologies in the area of active packaging, where the role of packaging goes beyond traditional purposes. Main groups of research areas can be listed as follows [26, 27]:
Oxygen scavenging—oxygen causes food spoilage due to oxidation or due to enabling aerobic bacteria development. Even under proper vacuum, package materials may allow the permeation of O2.
Nanobased sensors—for compensating transport and storage conditions (e.g., temperature variations) and informing about the potential shorter shelf life of products.
Detection of gases produced by food spoilage—microbial development is commonly followed by gas production, which can be detected by conducting polymer nanocomposites.
O2 indicators—since the development of aerobic microorganisms happens during the presence of oxygen, the control of this gas is necessary to evaluate product decay.
Enzyme immobilization at the nanoscale—sometimes the direct uses of enzymes is restricted due to its potential degradation during processing. The absorption of enzymes by nano-clays embedded in a polymer matrix is a promising mechanism for efficient release control.
However, the fillers at nanoscale should be only used after a careful study of their toxicology and potential harm to humans and the environment. It is known that migration may happen from food-contact materials through various mechanisms that may not be fully extracted by standardized simulants or quantified by current analytical methods [28].
More than ever, the packaging is under public scrutiny and blamed for environmental problems. Although only approximately 10%, of all solid waste, is plastic, up to 80% of all waste accumulated in land, shorelines, seabed, and ocean surface is plastic due to its long decomposition time. This is a threat to aquatic animals since they can be entangled or ingest plastic fragments. Some researches suggest that over 260 species of animals (invertebrates, mammals, seabirds, fishes, turtles) have ingested or been entangled by plastic debris.
Due to its fragmentation properties, plastic packaging can decompose into microplastics and pose yet another type of hazard. The bodies of all marine species, ranging in size from plankton to the blue whale, contain plastics [29]. The food chain has detrimentally changed.
While attention has been focused on the number of microplastics in oceans, almost no effort has been made in fighting root causes. The pollution on land, in rivers and the ocean, is not caused by plastic packaging or any other packaging material, but by the lack of educating the public on the consequences of littering.
Furthermore, massive marketing is promoting miraculous solutions and materials for the sake of the environment without technical evidence about its effectiveness. Deceiving customers with the promise of mitigating their environmental impact is called greenwashing.
Another problem in evaluating the environmental benefit of packaging is to neglect the components of the product itself. It happens for the vast majority of products that the packaging impact is much lower than that of the product itself [30] and eventual packaging failure will lead to increased waste.
The most advanced tool to evaluate the eco-efficiency of packaging is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which has already been used for a wide array of applications with great acceptance from the scientific community. It provides comparative data about the environmental impact of the product under analysis considering various aspects like Global Warmth Power (GWP), ozone depletion, toxicity (both cancerous and noncancerous), particulate respiratory effects, ionizing radiation, photochemical ozone creation potential, acidification potential, aquatic eutrophication, freshwater ecotoxicity potential, and nonrenewable resource depletion. Other parameters to be considered are land use, freshwater use, and cumulative energy demand (CED) [31].
It was already mentioned that fillers reduce the drying energy required in papermaking, which will be transformed into cellulosic-based packaging. Although the use of fillers may reduce the carbon footprint of papermaking in some aspects [32], a full LCA analysis should be performed to confirm assumptions. Nevertheless, the environmental impact of mineral fillers in the production of paper or paperboard is expected to be negative according to perspectives below:
Fillers of organic origin like wood waste-derived fillers have been studied for several decades and can contribute toward reducing solid waste, even in large-scale commercial activities, although compounders are somehow reluctant to consider this technology because they are not sure how to handle it or are not aware of a market to justify production [38, 39].
Unfortunately, for the time being, the amount of LCA studies evaluating the environmental impact of fillers added to polymers is likewise small but indicates potential lower GWP comparing to standard plastics. Better eco-performance is achieved using nanofillers, which reduces the amount of petroleum-based raw materials for achieving the same performance although some exceptions can be found (e.g., LDPE and talc).
The addition of natural fibers to partially substitute polymers may also be an opportunity for reducing the environmental impact especially because they come from renewable sources, but again an LCA analysis is necessary for confirmation due to the production burden of raw materials [40]. It is important to highlight that LCA studies should include not only the resources used to produce that specific type of packaging but also the after-use impact. This broad view limits the boundaries of the analyses “from cradle to grave” and is fundamental for having an overall picture of the system.
The process of recovering material by recycling is becoming increasingly important due to environmental and economical concerns. One recent driver toward reduced environmental impact is the concept of circular economy, where the traditional linear model of production is substituted by the concept of keeping goods in use for the longest possible time (Figure 3) [41].
The circular economy model with technical (right) and biological (left) cycles proposed by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Reproduced with permission.
One of the models of circular economy in use was proposed by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, commonly known as the “butterfly diagram.” The smaller the loop, the greater the value of the material in question. The right side of the diagram (in blue) refers to “technical cycles” where goods are designed to stay in use for the longest possible period through sharing, reusing, extended durability, repairing, and recycling, the last possible loop.
The left part of the diagram (in green) refers to “biological cycles,” where components of any goods or packaging may biodegrade. This is a feasible alternative for organic waste or sewage, but it is the least wanted solution for packaging because recycling has a greater value and lower environmental impact than biodegrading.
Packaging plays a fundamental role in our society by providing accessibility to food and any other type of physical goods. Broad multidisciplinary knowledge is necessary for making the definition of a packaging system accurately.
The choice of packaging which is more adequate for a specific product must pass through the definition of suitable materials and its properties for best fulfilling production, distribution, preservation and sales requirements. Most important packaging materials are made of cellulose (cases and folded carton) and polymers (flexible or rigid packaging), which are the types of materials where fillers are mostly used.
No matter what type of packaging system is chosen, the end of life of that specific packaging (reuse, recycling, incineration or composting) should always be considered in the project phase. The selection of the proper filler(s) combined with the optimum amount used to contribute to the success of that package either during its lifespan as well as during the recycling stage.
The author would like to thank Juliano Barbosa and Stefan Viering for sharing their expertise. The author is also grateful to Hessa Tary for her feedback and friendship.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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As a consequence, plants have acquired several sophisticated regulatory mechanisms that allow them to cope with such adverse conditions. Epigenetic regulation plays a key role in the mechanisms of plant response to the environment, without altering DNA sequences. Epigenetics refers to heritable alterations in chromatin architecture that do not involve changes in the underlying DNA sequence but alter gene expression through DNA methylation or histone modifications. The epigenetic regulation of the plant genome is a highly dynamic process that fine-tunes the expression of a pertinent set of genes under certain environmental or developmental conditions. Over the past two decades rapid advancements in the field of high throughput sequencing unveil epigenetic information at genome wide level in various plant species. In view of the adverse effects of global climatic change, utilizing epigenetic differences for developing improved crop varieties is of paramount importance.",book:{id:"7995",slug:"epigenetics",title:"Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Epigenetics"},signatures:"Garima Singroha and Pradeep Sharma",authors:[{id:"142882",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"pradeep-sharma",fullName:"Pradeep Sharma"},{id:"281215",title:"Dr.",name:"Garima",middleName:null,surname:"Singroha",slug:"garima-singroha",fullName:"Garima Singroha"}]},{id:"64908",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82738",title:"Therapeutic Implication of miRNA in Human Disease",slug:"therapeutic-implication-of-mirna-in-human-disease",totalDownloads:1519,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding RNA molecules that are involved in development and diseases. Early studies are focusing on the miRNA profile as a biomarker in disease. As discovery of human miRNAs increased in the setting of disease, the research focus was gradually shifted towards miRNA therapeutic strategy for diagnostic and treatment of disease. Increasing evidences suggest that miRNAs are the next important class of antisense therapeutic molecules, which have significant advantage over antisense such as siRNAs because miRNAs are naturally occurring endogenous molecules. Aberrant alteration of the endogenous miRNAs has been linked to the development of certain diseases. Correcting these altered miRNAs by their mimics or inhibitors has been developed as potential therapeutic approaches. Some of the miRNA-based therapeutics are processed in preclinical and clinical trial for treatment hepatitis C, liver cancer, and other diseases. Currently, the major focus in the development of miRNA-based therapeutics is how to increase the miRNA stability and optimize delivery systems for specific disease with minimal off-target effect. 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Therefore, the RNAi-based biopesticides are expected to reach the market also in the form of nontransgenic strategies such as sprayable products, stem injection, root drenching, seed treatment, or powder/granule. While the delivery of dsRNA by transgenic expression is well established, it requires generations of crop plants and is costly, which may take years and delays for practical application, depending on the regulatory rules, plant transformability, genetic stability, and public acceptance of genetically modified crop species. DsRNA delivery as a nontransgenic approach was already published as a proof-of-concept work, so it is time to point out some directions on how the real potential for agriculture and crop protection is.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Deise Cagliari, Ericmar Avila dos Santos, Naymã Dias, Guy Smagghe\nand Moises Zotti",authors:null},{id:"65775",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84628",title:"The Role of DNA Repair in Cellular Aging Process",slug:"the-role-of-dna-repair-in-cellular-aging-process",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Aging is defined as the time-dependent decline of functional properties. One common denominator of aging is mitochondrial dysfunction and accumulation of genetic damage throughout life. In fact, the imperfect maintenance of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA likely represents a critical contributor of aging. Each day, the integrity and stability of DNA are challenged by exogenous physical, chemical, or biological agents, as well as by endogenous processes, including DNA replication mistakes, spontaneous hydrolytic reactions, and reactive oxygen species. In this way, DNA repair systems have evolved a complex network that is collectively able of dealing with most of the damages inflicted. However, their efficiency may decrease with age and, therefore, influence the rate of aging. Thus, the purpose of this work is to summarize the recent knowledge in cellular aging process and its link with DNA repair systems, with a particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms associated.",book:{id:"8605",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",title:"DNA Repair",fullTitle:"DNA Repair- An Update"},signatures:"Francisco Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel and Rosa María Bermúdez-Cruz",authors:[{id:"205238",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Bermudez",slug:"rosa-bermudez",fullName:"Rosa Bermudez"},{id:"287111",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco-Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Lagunas-Rangel",slug:"francisco-alejandro-lagunas-rangel",fullName:"Francisco-Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"64290",title:"Strand Displacement Amplification for Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids",slug:"strand-displacement-amplification-for-multiplex-detection-of-nucleic-acids",totalDownloads:2177,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The identification of various targets such as bacteria, viruses, and other cells remains a prerequisite for point-of-care diagnostics and biotechnological applications. Nucleic acids, as encoding information for all forms of life, are excellent biomarkers for detecting pathogens, hereditary diseases, and cancers. To date, many techniques have been developed to detect nucleic acids. However, most of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. These methods are sensitive and robust, but they require expensive instruments and trained personnel. DNA strand displacement amplification is carried out under isothermal conditions and therefore does not need expensive instruments. It is simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and inexpensive. In this chapter, we introduce the principles, methods, and updated applications of DNA strand displacement technology in the detection of infectious diseases. We also discuss how robust, sensitive, and specific nucleic acid detection could be obtained when combined with the novel CRISPR/Cas system.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Omar Mukama, Xuewen Lu, Shilin Cao and Donghai\nLin",authors:null},{id:"63557",title:"Molecular Identification of Genetically Modified Crops for Biosafety and Legitimacy of Transgenes",slug:"molecular-identification-of-genetically-modified-crops-for-biosafety-and-legitimacy-of-transgenes",totalDownloads:1993,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Crops undergo artificially DNA modifications for improvements are considered as genetically modified (GM) crops. These modifications could be in indigenous DNA or by introduction of foreign DNA as transgenes. There are 29 different crops and fruit trees in 42 countries, which have been successfully modified for various traits like herbicide tolerance, insect/pest resistance, disease resistance and quality improvement. GM crops are grown worldwide and its area is significantly increasing every year. Many countries have very strict rules and regulations for GM crops and are also a trade barrier in some situations. Hence, identification and testing of crops for GM contents is important for identity and legitimacy of transgene to simplify the international trade. Normally, molecular identification is performed at three different levels, i.e., DNA, RNA and protein, and each level has its own importance in testing about the nature and type of GM crops. In this chapter, current scenario of GM crops and different molecular testing tools are described in brief.",book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:null},{id:"38872",title:"Repetitive DNA: A Tool to Explore Animal Genomes/Transcriptomes",slug:"repetitive-dna-a-tool-to-explore-animal-genomes-transcriptomes",totalDownloads:4690,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2748",slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Deepali Pathak and Sher Ali",authors:[{id:"33032",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"sher-ali",fullName:"Sher Ali"},{id:"141455",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepali",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"deepali-pathak",fullName:"Deepali Pathak"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3371,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. Indeed, ASOs are used either in vitro or in vivo to generate mRNA selective knockouts. They can be used for human therapy since ASOs can inhibit specifically target genes especially whose are difficult to target with small molecules inhibitors or neutralizing antibodies. However, despite their specificity and broadness of use, some practical obstacles remain unsolved in antisense pharmacology, such as insufficient stability due to nucleases degradation activity, and poor cellular delivery as a result of low cellular uptake difficult biological membrane crossing. Moreover, in many cases, potential off-target effects and immunostimulation are also part of the problems derived from their use. In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"396",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81720",title:"Genetic Transformation in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",slug:"genetic-transformation-in-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103839",abstract:"Improving the quality and quantity of an organism and its products can be approached by molecular characters enhancement through the insertion of a gene of interest into cells of the desired organism. Genetic transformation of an organism involves isolation, identification, cloning a gene of interest into a vector, and transferring the gene to the target organism. This chapter reviews the process of genetic transformation into the organism’s cell from bacterial (Escherichia coli), yeast, plant (Onion, Tobacco, and Orchids), and mammalian. The discussion will be focused on the introduction of DNA molecules into plant cells and protoplast mediated by polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, and gene gun using particle bombardment. Further discussion on the transient protein expression system of plant-based on protoplast, onion cell, and tobacco will also be covered in this chapter as well. The systems have been proven as a powerful tool for determining subcellular protein localization, protein-protein interactions, identifying gene function, and regulation. Finally, it can be clearly seen, the differences and similarities in the mechanism of genetic transformation both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Endang Semiarti, Yekti Asih Purwestri, Saifur Rohman and Wahyu Aristyaning Putri"},{id:"81604",title:"Nonribosomal Peptide Synthesis",slug:"nonribosomal-peptide-synthesis",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104722",abstract:"Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are a type of secondary metabolite with a wide range of pharmacological and biological activities including cytostatics, immunosuppressants or anticancer agents, antibiotics, pigments, siderophores, toxins. NRPs, unlike other proteins, are synthesized on huge nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) enzyme complexes that are not dependent on ribosomal machinery. Bacteria and fungi are the most common NRPs producers. Furthermore, the presence of these peptides has been confirmed in marine microbes. Nowadays, many of these peptides are used in the treatments of inflammatory, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious disease for the development of new therapeutic agents. The structure, function, and synthesis of NRPs, as well as producer microorganisms and their several application areas, are covered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takci and Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe"},{id:"81051",title:"CRISPR Technology: Emerging Tools of Genome Editing and Protein Detection",slug:"crispr-technology-emerging-tools-of-genome-editing-and-protein-detection",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102516",abstract:"CRISPR technology has seen rapid development in applications ranging from genomic and epigenetic changes to protein identification throughout the last decade. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein systems have transformed the ability to edit, control the genomic nucleic acid and non-nucleic acid target such as detection of proteins. CRISPR/Cas systems are RNA-guided endonucleases exhibiting distinct cleavage activities deployed in the development of analytical techniques. Apart from genome editing technology, CRISPR/Cas has also been incorporated in amplified detection of proteins, transcriptional modulation, cancer biomarkers, and rapid detection of POC (point of care) diagnostics for various diseases such as Covid-19. Current protein detection methods incorporate sophisticated instrumentation and extensive sensing procedures with less reliable, quantitative, and sensitive detection of proteins. The precision and sensitivity brought in by CRISPR-dependent detection of proteins will ensure the elimination of current impediments. CRISPR-based amplification strategies have been used for accurate estimation of proteins including aptamer-based assay, femtomolar detection of proteins in living cells, immunoassays, and isothermal proximal assay for high throughput. The chapter will provide a comprehensive summary of key developments in emerging tools of genome editing and protein detection deploying CRISPR technology, and its future perspectives will be discussed.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Rita Lakkakul and Pradip Hirapure"},{id:"80374",title:"Viral Vectors in Gene Therapy and Clinical Applications",slug:"viral-vectors-in-gene-therapy-and-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102559",abstract:"Developments in gene therapy, coupled with advances in genome sequencing and a greater understanding of DNA sequences, have given rise to an exciting area of research. The use of viral vectors in gene therapy has become a very promising and fast-emerging technology over the past few decades. Despite previous setbacks, the approval of viral vector therapies worldwide, with many in late-stage clinical trials has led to a significant increase in research in this area of gene therapy. Retroviral, adenoviral, adeno-associated viral, and lentiviral vectors are all key vectors currently being researched and used in clinical trials. There are many challenges with the use of viral vectors that are yet to be overcome including cost of production, the immune response, and the ability to precisely regulate the expression of the transgene. However, with increased numbers of clinical trials showing efficacy, safety, and growing financial investment, the future use of viral vectors in gene therapy is increasingly promising.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra L.G. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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