Variation of film thicknesses d (nm) with solution viscosity.
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-544-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",keywords:"Non-indigenous Species, Dynamics, Ecosystem Maturation, Ecological Succession, Water Quality, Recovery, Biodiversity, Environmental Status, Ecosystem Services, Goods Production, Carbohydrates, Carrageenan",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ana Marta Gonçalves (h-index 19) holds a Ph.D. in Biology, from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, in 2011. During her research career obtained several grants is highly international competitive calls, including the MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",middleName:"Marta",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320124/images/system/320124.jpg",biography:"Ana Marta Gonçalves obtained a Ph.D. in Biology with a specialization in Ecology from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, Belgium, in 2011. Currently, she is an auxiliary researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal, where she is also a member of the Directive Board. Since 2016, she has been a member of the Scientific Council of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra (IIIUC). Dr. Gonçalves holds various administrative and management positions in international networks, societies (e.g., Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, AIL), and associations (e.g., PROAQUA). She is an editorial board member and reviewer for several indexed journals. She has published more than 70 journal articles, 50 book chapters, and 165 communications in international scientific events. She participated as a member and/or coordinator in more than twenty-five national and international projects and is currently the coordinator of four research projects. She has supervised more than ninety-five national and international undergraduate and graduate students. She has experience as a teacher of university courses and in accredited training sessions for teachers. Additionally, she has coordinated several ocean literacy and environmental education activities for kindergarten and school students. During her research career, Dr. Gonçalves obtained several grants and a MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ).\n\nShe has expertise in biosafety, biochemical pathways, and impacts of stressors in aquatic species. Her research focus is on the valorization of marine resources and their applications in the industrial sector, such as the food and pharmaceutical industries. Her studies also highlight the application of biomarker tools for monitoring and managing aquatic systems",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Particularly, sol–gel process is very useful for thin film deposition because of the capability to coat materials of various shapes and/or large area, to control the composition easily for obtaining solutions of homogeneity and controlled concentration without using expensive equipment.
Historically, metal alkoxides have been employed in sol–gel process, which readily undergo catalyzed hydrolysis and condensation to form nanoscale oxide or hydroxide particles. Still in general, metal alkoxides are often used as raw materials in sol–gel process, but many of the alkoxides are very difficult to be obtained because of the high sensitivity to the atmospheric moisture [4-9]. In ordinary sol–gel processing, starting compositions as well as reaction conditions are selected so as to maintain the mixture in a homogeneous state throughout the processes including mixing of starting compounds, gelation, aging, drying and heat-treatment.
Titanium and zirconium oxides are very promising candidates for future technology of thin layers because of their interesting mechanical, thermal and chemical properties. Titanium oxide (TiO2) is a cheap, non-toxic, and non-biodegradable material, besides their widely uses in various industries [10]. Moreover, it is a semiconductor under the form of thin films. Its insensitivity to visible light due to its band gap (3.2 eV) enables it to absorb in the near ultraviolet region [11], even though its low efficiency. Hence, it can be sensitized by a great number of dyes; some of them allow a conversion rate incident photon–electron approaching unity. Thus, these various applications arouse great interest in the study of titanium oxide thin films. The significant uses of TiO2 thin films are in solar cells [12], photo-catalytic [13] and electro-chromic systems [14], in other words, they are mainly found their use in optics.
TiO2 thin films are extensively studied because of their interesting chemical, electrical and optical properties [15,16]. TiO2 film in anatase phase could accomplish the photocatalytic degradation of organic compounds under the radiation of UV. So, it has a variety of application prospects in the field of environmental protection [17,18]. TiO2 thin film in rutile phase is known as a good blood compatibility material and can be used as artificial heart valves [19]. In addition, TiO2 films are important optical films due to their high reflective index and transparency over a wide spectral range [16].
During the two last decades, several methods have been used for the TiO2 thin films preparation, such as chemical vapor deposition [20], chemical spray pyrolysis [21], pulsed laser deposition [22] and sol–gel method [23]. In comparison with other methods, the sol–gel method has some advantages such as controllability, reliability, reproducibility and can be selected for the preparation of nano-structured thin films [23,24]. Sol–gel coating has been classified as two different methods such as dip and spin coating.
The dip-coating has considerably been used for preparation TiO2 nanostructured thin films [25–27]. Experimental results have shown that the preparation of high transparent TiO2 thin film by dip-coating method needs to control morphology, thickness of the film and the anatase-brookite-rutile phase transformation [26,28].
Additions of another semiconductor have been used to improve the properties of titanium dioxide. In principle, the coupling of different semiconductor oxides seems useful in order to achieve a higher photocatalytic activity [29]. Various composites formed by TiO2 and other inorganic oxides such as SiO2 [30], ZrO2 [31] SnO2 [32], Cu2O [33], MgO [34], WO3 [35], In2O3 [36], ZnO [37], MoO3 [38], CdS [39], PbS [40], and so on, have been reported.
Zirconium oxide (ZrO2) has good dielectric and optical properties [41,42] it has a high refraction index [43]. Additionally, it has a very good transparency on a broad spectral field [44], a great chemical stability and a threshold of resistance to high laser flow. All these properties led to miscellaneous applications such as optical filters, laser mirrors [45] or barriers layers from the heat [46]. ZrO2 films are also employed as plug layer for super-conducting ceramics [47,48], like biomaterial for prostheses [49,50], as gas sensor [51] or like component in combustible batteries [52]. Basically, ZrO2 itself is an insulating direct wide gap metal oxide, with an optical band gap in the range 5.0-5.85 eV [53].
The aim of the present work is to investigate the transformation behaviors and the effect; of a smaller ratio range of ZrO2; doping on the surface area of TiO2 thin films, light absorption, band gap energy, variations of crystal granularity, phase composition and especially on the evolution of the crystallite size and defects concentration with annealing treatments (heat treatments) and layers thickness of the samples produced. So that in this chapter, we report the study of structural, thermal and optical properties of ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films deposited by the sol–gel process. Several experimental techniques were used to characterize structural and optical properties resulting from different annealing treatments and different layer thicknesses: X-ray powder diffraction, Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetric (DSC), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) and UV spectroscopy.
To obtain nanomaterial’s with controlled properties, it is most often involves the use of mineral additives (dyes, semiconductors, metal particles, rare earth, etc.) in small quantities. These additions can promote densification or control the phenomenon of grain growth, or to change the structural, physical and optical properties. So the presence of impurities in a matrix can stabilize, improve or modify the various properties of a material. Generally, thin layers of doped TiO2 give hope of significant performance gains and new applications.
Our 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2, thin films were prepared by dip coating, in three steps. The first step: the dissolution of 1 mol of butanol (C4H9OH) as solvent, 4 mol of acetic acid (C2H4O2), 1mol of distilled water and 1 mol of tetrabutylorthotitanate (C4H9O)4Ti. In the second step, the solution of ZrO2 was prepared from the dissolution of 1 mol of zirconium oxychloride salt (ZrOCl2•8H2O) in distilled water and 2 mol of ethanol (95%) as catalyst. Finally, the solution of TiO2 was doped with ZrO2. Then, the resultant yellowish transparent solutions were ready for use. The substrates were dip-coated in the solutions at a constant rate of 6.25 cm.s-1. After each dipping, thin films were dried for 30 min at a distance of 40 cm from a 500 W light source. The drying temperature of the light source is approximately equal to 100 °C. Subsequently, thin films were heat treated in the temperature range 350–450 °C, with a temperature increase rate of 5°C.min-1, for 2 h in the furnace. The powders obtained from the xerogel were prepared in room temperature and under air atmosphere.
After each dipping, the thin films were dried for 30 min, at a distance of 40 cm from a 500 Wight source. The drying temperature of the light source is approximately equal to 100 °C. Subsequently, thin films were heat treated in the temperature range 350–450 °C, with a temperature increase rate of 5 °C min-1, for 2 h in the furnace. The powders obtained from the xerogel were prepared with an annealing till three months in room temperature and under air atmosphere.
To investigate the transformation behaviors and the effect; of a smaller ratio range of ZrO2; doping on the surface area of TiO2 thin films, light absorption, band gap energy, variations of crystal granularity, phase composition and especially on the evolution of the crystallite size and defects concentration with annealing treatments (heat treatments) and layers thickness of the samples produced.
So that in this chapter, we report the study of structural, thermal and optical properties of ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films deposited by the sol–gel process.
Several experimental techniques were used to characterize structural and optical properties resulting from different annealing treatments and different layer thicknesses: X-ray powder and films diffraction, Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetric (DSC), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) and UV spectroscopy.
To determine the transformation points, the obtained powdered xerogels were analyzed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) using a SETARAM DSC–92 analyzer equipped with a processor and a measuring cell. The thermal cycle applied consists of heating from room temperature to 520°C, holding for 5min at this temperature and finally cooling back to room temperature with the same rate (5°C/min). X-ray powder diffraction was performed by Siemens D5005 diffractometer using a Cu Kα1 radiation. The patterns were scanned at room temperature, over the angular range 10-70° 2
This part is devoted to study the effect of solution aging and its viscosity on the films thickness. To do this study, five samples are developed, successively on the day, the next day, after seven days, after 10 days, and after fourteen days of solution synthesis. The conservation of the sol during the 14 days is made at room temperature.
Table 1 shows an important change of layers thickness with the increasing of the solution viscosity. After a repose period of 14 days of synthesis solution doped with ZrO2, the thickness of layer changes from 32 nm, with a viscosity 10 mPa.s, to 81 nm when the viscosity is 180 mPa.s. We notice that the ZrO2-doped TiO2 solution becomes more viscous over time (Figure 1). This reflects the rate of polycondensation reaction progress.
10 | 32 | |
20 | 33 | |
60 | 39 | |
110 | 61 | |
180 | 81 |
Variation of film thicknesses d (nm) with solution viscosity.
Variation of film thicknesses d (nm) with solution viscosity η(mPas.s)
Figure 2a and b shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of TiO2 xerogels of undoped (Figure 2a) and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 (Figure 2b). The XRD pattern evolution of titanium xerogel obtained after the evaporation of the organic compounds during 3 months of aging at ambient temperature shows that it is an amorphous phase as reported in [54].
It has been reported that the used acid catalyst, during sol–gel preparation, plays a crucial role for determining the TiO2 phase, in literature [54, 55], they found that powder is amorphous when they use acetic acid as catalyst. However, when using formic acid they found that, in addition to amorphous phase, there is an amount of the anatase nanoparticles. This analysis of the doped TiO2 xerogel exhibits that the addition of 5% ZrO2 (Figure 2b) would be largely sufficient to form nanoparticles of anatase which crystallizes with (101) plane. It is interesting to note that the addition of a minor amount of ZrO2 starts crystallization of anatase. Whereas, A. Kitiyanan et al. [56] B. Neppolian et al. [57] reported that addition of ZrO2 has no effect on TiO2 oxide morphology..
The differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) curves of undoped TiO2 and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 xerogels are shown in Figure 3 It is interesting to note that both doped and undoped xerogels showed a similar thermal behavior in the temperature range 20–250 °C. Generally, weight loss corresponds to the evaporation of water, thermal decomposition of butanol as well as carbonization or combustion of acetic acid and other organic compounds [58-60] which constitute metal alkoxides. Hence, the above thermal events were represented by an endothermic peak spreading from 50 to 250 °C.
Evolution of XRD patterns of xerogels (a) undoped TiO2, and (b) 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2.
A double exothermic peak in the 260–450 °C temperature range of TiO2 xerogel can be attributed to the crystallization of titanium oxide [61].
The addition of 5% of zirconium oxide led to a shift of exothermic peak phase towards lower temperatures. This may be due to the speeding up of the crystallization of titanium oxide compared to the undoped one.
Differential scanning calorimetric curves of xerogels: (a) undoped TiO2 and (b) 5 % ZrO2-doped TiO2.
3.3.1.1. Thin films thickness
The measured values of thin films thickness, given in Figure 4, were determined with a surface profiler for various layers and at different annealing temperatures. It is clearly observed that the film thickness increases with the number of dipping and annealing temperatures.
Variation of film thicknesses d (nm) for different annealing temperatures and different dipping
3.3.1.2. Study of deposition rate
A thin film deposited by dip-coating method has a thickness which can be controlled by the deposition rate. To simplify, d thickness depends on the speed according to the following relationship:
Where:
Vd is the deposition rate, k is the empirical factor depending on the viscosity, surface tension and density of the solution used and a is the exponent with 2/3 value according to Landau and Levich [62], and 1/2 according to Michels et al. [63] or even proportionately at the speed of dipping Hewak et al. [64].
We then set the objective of determining this factor to validate one of these different models. So, we have prepared six samples with different deposition rate from 0.6 cm.s-1 to 2 cm.s-1 in the same conditions (deposited in solution with a viscosity 40 mPa.s at 21°C and treated at 400°C); we measured their thicknesses by profilometer and the results are grouped in table 2 and represented in figure 5.
This curve shows a linear increase in ln(d) versus ln(Vd). For the exponent a, values of 0,965 have been obtained, which is in good agreement with the exponent obtained by Hewak et al. [64]. This simple comparison shows that the increase in the speed of dipping, results an increase in the thickness of doped thin films.
0.6 | 0.8 | 1 | 1.4 | 1.8 | 2 | |
38 | 56 | 74 | 93 | 116 | 143 |
Variation of film thickness d (nm) for different deposition rate.
Variation of thickness logarithm with deposition rate logarithm.
3.3.1.3. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.3.1.3.1. Crystallization
Influence of annealing temperature
Our samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) to investigate the transformation behaviors. We have studied the structural properties of undoped TiO2, and doped with 5% ZrO2 thin films and deposited by the sol–gel method. The dip-coated thin films have been examined at different annealing temperatures (350 to 450 °C).
Figure 6 shows XRD patterns of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin film obtained after different dipping and treated at 450 °C. However, Figure 7 shows XRD patterns of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin film obtained after 2 dipping and treated at various annealing temperatures at 350 °C, 400 °C and 450 °C. Clearly, titanium oxide starts to crystallize starting from annealing at 350 °C.
This analysis of the doped TiO2 thin films exhibits that the addition of a minor amount of ZrO2 would be largely sufficient to form 4 sharp diffraction peaks at 25.35°, 35.51°, 50.90° and 60.76°, these are assigned to (101), (112), (200), and (105) planes which are attributed to anatase nanoparticles (crystalline) phase of TiO2.
Furthermore, all XRD patterns show a peak at 30.41° corresponding to (111) plane which is attributed to the brookite formation whatever the annealing temperature.
Peak intensities corresponding to characteristic planes of anatase (101) and brookite (111) phases are obviously increased with the increase of annealing temperature and number of dipping. This latter is interpreted as due not only to increase in proportion of titanium oxide but also to the improvement of the crystalline quality.
However, in the same conditions Kitiyanan et
Influence of doping with ZrO2
Comparison between XRD patterns (Figure 8) of both undoped and doped with 5% ZrO2 thin films obtained after 2 dippings and annealed at 400 °C temperature showed a similar behavior, so characteristic peaks correspond to the crystallization of anatase and brookite phases of the doped state is shifted to larger angles compared to the undoped one.
Evolution of diffraction patterns of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films; obtained after various dipping (2, 4, 6, 8) annealed at 450°C.
Evolution of diffraction patterns of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films; obtained at various annealing temperatures (350, 400, 450 °C) for the same thickness.
Comparison between undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 diffraction patterns.
3.3.1.3.2. Surface morphology and grain size
The crystallite size D of TiO2 doped with ZrO2 thin films can be deduced from XRD line broadening using Scherrer equation [65]:
λ is the wavelength of X-ray beam (Cu Kα=1.5406 Å), Δhkl is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of (hkl) diffraction peak, Δinstr is the FWHM corresponding to the instrumental limit, and θ is the Bragg angle.
Using the size of the crystallites, the dislocation density (δ) [66], the number of crystallites per unit surface area (N) and strain in the films (ε), which are newly introduced by Ray et al. [66], has been determined:
Where d is the film thickness.
The calculated structural parameters are presented in Table 3.
Annealed at | Phase | (hkl) | L (nm) | δ (10-4 traits/nm2) | N (10-3 nm-2) | ε (10-4) | ||
Undoped TiO2 | Xerogel | 3 months at T ambient | Amorphous | - | - | - | - | - |
5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 | Xerogel | 3 months at T ambient | Anatase | (101) | 14,80 | - | - | - |
Same thickness | 350 °C | Anatase | (101) | 8,58 | 135,84 | 99,74 | 3,11 | |
Brookite | (111) | 17,50 | 32,65 | 11,76 | 3,89 | |||
Anatase | (112) | 16,66 | 36,03 | 13,62 | 4,52 | |||
Anatase | (200) | 14,74 | 46,03 | 19,67 | 6,69 | |||
Anatase | (105) | 16,33 | 37,50 | 14,47 | 7,53 | |||
400 °C | Anatase | (101) | 10,09 | 98,22 | 73,01 | 3,07 | ||
Brookite | (111) | 17,61 | 32,25 | 13,73 | 3,82 | |||
Anatase | (112) | 17,27 | 33,53 | 14,56 | 4,44 | |||
Anatase | (200) | 15,57 | 41,25 | 19,87 | 6,37 | |||
Anatase | (105) | 18,71 | 28,57 | 11,45 | 7,58 | |||
450 °C | Anatase | (101) | 13,92 | 51,61 | 29,29 | 2,98 | ||
Brookite | (111) | 18,06 | 30,66 | 13,41 | 3,74 | |||
Anatase | (112) | 19,09 | 27,44 | 11,36 | 4,38 | |||
Anatase | (200) | 18,63 | 28,81 | 12,22 | 6,34 | |||
Anatase | (105) | 20,56 | 23,66 | 9,09 | 7,47 |
Structural parameters of xerogels and thin films, for different annealing temperatures and same thickness.
The computed values of grain sizes, given in Table 3, were calculated for different annealing temperatures with the same thickness. Thus, the obtained grain sizes of anatase and brookite increase from 8.58 nm to 20.56 nm and from 17.50 nm to 18.06 nm, respectively. In fact, as annealing temperature increases grain sizes also increases.
It is interesting to note that the grain size improves and the defects like dislocation density and strain in the films decrease with film thickness. This may be due to the improvement in crystallinity in the films with film thickness. As we also note that the variation of the strain is perfectly correlated with that of the dislocation density δ. When these increase, they cause the decrease in grain size and leads to recrystallization of the nanoparticles. Furthermore, the stages of nucleation, growth and coalescence become stable, which causing the reduction of constraints in the film formed.
The evolution of the grain size D according the annealing temperature can be interpreted by the Arrhenius law (figure 9):
Where:
Ea is the energy activation of crystallization;
KB the Boltzmann constant;
D0 pre-exponential factor.
The size D tends towards the infinite for high temperatures [67].
The values of activation energies of crystallization corresponding respectively to anatase and brookite phases are calculated from the curve showed in figure 9, we note that the activation energy of the anatase Ea=0,096 eV crystallization is lower than that of the brookite Ea=0,012 eV. This means that the formation of anatase requires more energy than that of brookite.
3.3.1.4. RAMAN
The Raman spectra of undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films annealed at 450°C for different dipping (figure 10) display various peaks related to titanium oxide as anatase and brookite phases. These spectra exhibit bands at around 138 (strong), 235 (weak), 514 (weak) and 632 cm-1 (medium)) for the thin layers of ZrO2-doped TiO2 corresponding to the Eg modes of vibration. The above bands can be assigned to anatase phase except the band 235 cm-1 corresponding to the B1g modes of vibration, which is due to the crystallization of brookite phase. While bands of 144, 188 and 651 cm-1 can be assigned to both anatase and brookite phases [68,69].
A slight shift of the most intense peak, Eg, to smaller wavenumber is observed for all thin films doped with ZrO2 by comparison with anatase of undoped phase (figure 11). Similar displacements have been previously reported in XRD patterns and they can be correlated with the confinement effects in nano-structured anatase crystallites.
Plot of log (D) versus (1000/T) for determination of activation energies of anatase and brookite
Raman spectrum of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films annealed at 450°C for different dipping; =anatase, =brookite.
Comparison between Raman spectrum of undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films; =anatase, =brookite.
3.3.1.5. FTIR
Figure 12 shows the infrared absorption spectrum of the 5% ZrO2 -doped TiO2 films annealed at different temperature. The peak at 2360 cm-1 resulted from the adsorbed H2O molecules, which were not removed completely after sol–gel coating. The peaks at 1242 cm-1, 1111 cm-1, 1035 cm-1 and 860 cm-1 correspond to the vibration mode of Ti-OH [70, 71].
The band around 665 cm-1 was attributed to the vibration mode of Ti-O-Ti bond [72] and another bond appears around 455 cm-1, this is the O-Ti-O band corresponding to the crystalline titania in the anatase form [73-76].
We find that the vibration bands intensity located in the vicinity of 665 cm-1 and 455 cm-1 increase when annealing temperature increases. This indicates that the number of Ti-O-Ti and O-Ti-O links of titanium dioxide crystallization is also growing.
FTIR spectra of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films, obtained at various annealing temperatures (350, 400, 450 °C).
3.3.1.6. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and EDX
5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films deposited on ITO substrates and obtained after various annealing temperature at 350°C and 450°C were coated and examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to investigate their structure and surface characteristics. We observed that the coating was homogeneous without any visual cracking over a wide area. The increase in the treatment temperature, did not affect the uniformity of the film.
The surface composition of films is further identified by EDX measurement. EDX result shown in Figure 13 demonstrates that the peaks of Ti, O and Zr can be clearly seen in the survey spectrum. While the other elements as Si, In, Ca, Na and Mg are the components of ITO substrate.
The chemical compositions of thin film analyzed are given in table 4.
40,13 | 2,03 | 3,15 | 37,83 | 3,07 | 4,39 | 1,23 | 8,17 | 100 |
Elemental composition (at. %) of 5% ZrO2 -doped TiO2 thin films, treated at 450 ° C.
EDX spectra of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films annealed at 450°C.
3.3.2.1. UV absorption analysis
Figure 14 display diffused scattering UV-VIS transmittance spectra of TiO2 thin films undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2, for different annealing temperatures from 350°C to 450°C and different numbers of dipping (3, 4, 6, 8 dipping) in the wavelength range 300–800 nm, where the film due to interference phenomena between the wave fronts generated at
UV–VIS spectra of undoped TiO2 and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films, for various dipping and at different annealing temperatures.
the two interfaces (air and substrate) defines the sinusoidal behavior of the curves’ transmittance versus wavelength of light. The curves showed a similar behavior in the temperature range:
A region characterized by a strong absorption at λ< 380 nm, this absorption is due to the transition electronic inter-band.
High transmittance region, from 60 to 95% on a wide range of wavelength in the visible region (from 380 to 800 nm) has been observed which may be used in applications in solar cells. High transparency is one of the most important properties that explain the interest in undoped or doped TiO2 thin films.
As can be seen, all the spectrums exhibit interference fringes, which are due to the multiple reflections at the two film edges, i.e. at the film/air and the film/substrate interfaces. This indicates that the top film surface is smooth and uniform and exhibits a good transparency in the visible region. So that the excellent surface quality and homogeneity of the film were confirmed from the appearance of interference fringes in the transmission spectra. This occurs when the film surface is reflecting without much scattering/absorption in the bulk of the film.
If the film surface is rough, the radiation in film/air interface undergo scattering in all directions instead of a reflection. Oh et al. [28], Kim et al. [77] show that the interference fringes are due the increase in thin films thickness. The occurrence of such fringes means that our films are sufficiently thick
Analysis of UV– VIS transmission spectra shows that the 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films are transparent in the visible range and opaque in the UV region, whatever are the annealing temperature and number of dipping
The amplitude of interference spectra increased with increasing calcination temperature. These results show that the refractive index of TiO2 thin films is increased while the film thickness is decreased. This can be due to the formation stage of anatase and with the increase in the grain size [28].
A slight shift of transmission curves to lower wavelengths is observed for curves of ZrO2-doped thin films in comparison with those undoped (figure 14) This shift is ascribed to the increase in band gap energy.
3.3.2.2. Refractive index, density, thickness and porosity
The refractive index of TiO2 thin films was calculated from measured UV–VIS transmittance spectrum. The evaluation method used in this work is based on the analysis of UV–VIS transmittance spectrum of a weakly absorbing film deposited on a non-absorbing substrate [78]. The refractive index n (λ) over the spectral range is calculated by using the envelopes that are fitted to the measured extreme:
Where n0 is the refractive index of air, ns is the refractive index of the film, Tmax is the maximum envelope, and Tmin is the minimum envelope. The thickness of the films was adjusted to provide the best fits to the measured spectra. In this study, all the deposited films are assumed to be homogeneous.
The porosity of the thin films is calculated using the following equation [79]
Where nd is refractive index of pore-free anatase (nd = 2.52) [80], and n is refractive index of porous thin films.
The relationship between density, and refractive index for the polymorphs was proposed by Gladstone-Dale [81]. This relationship is as follows:
Where :
n: mean index of refraction,
d: density
0,40: Gladstone-Dale constant for TiO2
The thickness of the films was calculated using the equation:
Where
The results of the computed refractive index (n) (figure 15), density (
This phenomenon is related to crystallization, pores destruction and densification of associated film, as well as the elimination of organic compounds.
However, the porosity decreases with increasing annealing temperature and film thickness.
2,19 | ||||||||||
Variation of refractive index (n), density (ρ), porosity (p) of undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 for different annealing temperatures and different thickness.
The calculated values of thin films thickness are given in table 6. It is clearly observed that the film thickness increases with the number of dipping and annealing temperatures, which is in good agreement with results obtained previously of thickness determined with a surface profiler.
Variation of refractive index (n) of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 for different annealing temperatures and different thickness
Variation of porosity (p) of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 for different annealing temperatures and different thickness.
127 | 194 | 268 | |
139 | 216 | 274 | |
158 | 233 | 289 |
Variation of calculated film thicknesses d (nm) for different annealing temperatures and different dipping.
3.3.2.3. Optical band gap:
The band gap is then found as the intercept of the linear portion of the plot. For a direct band gap semi-conductor, the absorption near the band edge can be estimated from the following equation known as the Tauc plot [83]:
Where C is a constant, Eg the optical band, α is the optical absorption coefficient, h
The energy band gap (Eg) of the films can be estimated by plotting (αh
This decrease was correlated with grains size increases with temperature, when the latter increases the defects and impurities tend to disappear causing a reorganization of the structure. We find that doping with ZrO2 causes an increase in the band gap by contrast to that of undoped TiO2 (3.50 eV).
3,79 | 3,74 | 3,71 | 3,65 | |
3,73 | 3,70 | 3,68 | 3,59 | |
3,67 | 3,63 | 3,61 | 3,54 |
Variation of band gap of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films for different annealing temperatures and different thickness.
Plot of (αhν)2 versus (hν) for determination of band gap of undoped and 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2.
In this study, we investigated the transformation behaviors and the effect; of a smaller ratio range of ZrO2; doping on the surface area of TiO2 thin films, band gap energy, variations of crystal granularity, phase composition and especially on the evolution of the crystallite size and defects concentration with annealing treatments and layers thickness of the samples produced. So that in this chapter, we report the study of structural, thermal and optical properties of ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films deposited by the sol–gel process
Analyses of doped TiO2 xerogel show that addition of 5% ZrO2 would be largely sufficient to form nanoparticles of anatase (size of grain of 14.78 nm) by contrast to that of undoped TiO2. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy analyses exhibit that doped thin films obtained starting from annealing at 350°C crystallize in both anatase and brookite phases. Calculation of grain sizes by Scherrer\'s formula, gives sizes ranging from 8.58 to 20.56 nm and we note an increase in grain sizes by increasing the annealing temperature for all structures. Raman spectroscopy studies confirms the results found by XRD and reveal that the films annealed from 350 to 450◦C crystallizes in anatase and brookite structure. From the DSC analysis, we have demonstrated that an annealing temperature equal or higher than 340 °C for undoped and 260 ◦C for 5% ZrO2-doped would be sufficient to form titanium oxide. The addition of 5% of zirconium oxide led to a shift of exothermic peak phase towards lower temperatures, due to the speeding up of the crystallization of titanium oxide compared to the undoped one.
Analysis of UV-VIS transmission spectra shows that the 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films are transparent in the visible range and opaque in the UV region, whatever the annealing temperature and the number of dipping. Refractive index of the thin films of titanium oxide increases with increasing annealing temperature and number of dipping, but the porosity decreases, due to phase transition (anatase, anatase–brookite), which increases grain sizes and/or density of layers. Energy band gap of 5% ZrO2-doped TiO2 films decrease owing to an increase in annealing temperatures, also we find that doping with ZrO2 causes an increase in the band gap by contrast to that of undoped TiO2.
The optical properties of the films are found to be closely related to the microstructure and crystallographic structure which depend on the annealing temperature. In summary, In this study, we successfully fabricated ZrO2-doped TiO2 thin films, with desired structural and optical properties by sol–gel dip coating using the titanium alkoxide (tetrabutyl-orthotitanate) as a starting material.
Parenting is a role that is often perceived as having both great rewards and significant demands. The role of a parent requires that an individual has the resources necessary to ensure the well-being of their child(ren) for many years. This includes not only competence in childrearing practices but also the ability to respond to the physical and behavioral cues and the emotional needs of the child(ren). Parenting is best viewed as a multidimensional concept that incorporates parenting behaviors and perceptions of oneself as a parent [1, 2]. Positive parenting practices, such as warmth, acceptance, belonging, and responsiveness are correlated with healthy development and outcomes even in the face of adverse life situations [3, 4, 5, 6]. According to Yamaoka and Bard, positive parenting practices can provide a buffer against the negative impact of adversities particularly in early development and the absence of this type of parenting can be viewed as an adversity itself [6]. Success in the parenting role creates an internalized sense of safety and trust for the child, which is a critical ingredient to the development of self-regulation responses and adjustment throughout the lifespan [7].
The expectations of a parent to effectively manage the day to day demands of childrearing can create a moderate stress reaction even in situations that are considered relatively normative [8, 9]. Abidin’s parenting stress model identifies the connection between stress and parenting practices, suggesting that increased parental stress leads to less optimal parenting behaviors [2]. Further, this model highlights the connection between parental appraisal of their experiences in the parenting role and the emergence of parenting stress with parenting stress serving as a motivating force for parent’s that have resources to draw upon [2]. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the factors that influence the relationship between adverse experiences and parenting behaviors on parent–child relationships and outcomes for children.
Many parents navigate this stress effectively and find satisfaction and positive regard for this role. Yet parental stress can become exacerbated when parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Parental stress levels and behaviors are influenced by the level of self-efficacy that a parent experiences in their role [10] and may be mediated by the social supports that occur in context [11]. Parental self-efficacy, the confidence that one can manage effectively the parental role and assist their children in managing problems that occur, has been found to be correlated to adaptive family environments and positive outcomes for children [12]. Parental expectations and the perception of stigma can increase the stress experienced by adverse situations and deplete already taxed resources. In a society that places great emphasis on the quality of childrearing practices, the pressure that is placed upon parents to ensure optimal outcomes for their children is immense, and the way these practices and outcomes are judged can be harsh [13, 14].
While adversity is a routine part of the human experience, the impact that it has on individual and family functioning is quite varied, with much research dedicated to understanding why some individuals adapt more effectively than others. An exploration of parenting in adverse situations, parental self-efficacy, resilience, and parenting in context will allow for the development of supports that can improve outcomes for families and decrease vulnerabilities. Understanding the way parents experience stress in the face of adversity provides insight into the resources that parents can access for parenting practices and behaviors and the impact of adverse events on the parents themselves. When planning interventions and services, this knowledge can aid in recommendations that add value and additional resources in order to decrease individual stress responses and adverse family dynamics. It is essential to understand the factors that influence the ability to maintain healthy trajectories amid stressful life situations as even though the experience of adversity cannot be eradicated, the sensitivity by which we provide support and understand the experiences of parents can be enhanced.
Adversity is part of the normal life cycle, and very few individuals will live their entire existence without experiencing an adverse life event. The lived experience of adversity is universal in the human experience [15]; however, the impact of these experiences on individuals and families is quite varied. Adversity has been widely defined as experiences that have the potential to disrupt normative functioning and create undesirable life outcomes [16, 17]. In other words, when individuals experience situations that work against their ability to maintain a sense of balance, safety, and security, the ability to maintain a healthy life trajectory may be compromised.
Adversity can occur on the individual and family levels and in many environmental contexts. At the individual level, children directly experience adverse events such as abuse or neglect, mental illness, disability, bullying and homelessness [18]. At the family level, adversity can take the form of family instability/divorce, family discord lack of safety, substance abuse, and parental incarceration [18]. At the contextual level, adversity in childhood is often related to disadvantaged socioeconomic status, poor school systems, violent neighborhoods, and a resulting lack of resources that can negatively influence health trajectories [18]. The concept of adversity is not easy to construct as it can have many sources, as well as varying levels of intensity and duration. Individuals who experience adverse life events are more likely to have poorer health outcomes, decreased quality of life, and increased risk factors for psychological, emotional, and physical effects [9, 18, 19, 20]. In order to maintain functioning in the face of adversity, individuals and families must draw upon all of their resources to cope with and manage stress.
Adversity has often been utilized interchangeably with trauma [21]; however, there is a distinction that is important to draw as not all adverse situations will lead to the experience of trauma. Further, some attempts at the operationalization of resilience have described the absence of pathology [22, 23], such as posttraumatic stress disorder, as a key factor yet this detracts from the multiple levels of coping and reduces the concept to a binary construct [23]. Yet both trauma and adversity have the potential to impact health and social outcomes negatively and to have lasting effects [15, 19, 24].
Children can experience adversity as early as birth, and some might argue in utero. This experience will continue throughout the lifespan, with estimates from the National Survey of Children’s health reporting that 46 percent of children under the age of 18 have experienced an adverse event, and 11 percent have experienced three or more adverse events [25]. Some adverse events are more common than others with disadvantaged socioeconomic status being experienced by 1 in 4 children, and 25 percent of children have experienced parental separation or divorce [25]. While these numbers are significant, the likelihood that an individual will experience an adverse life situation increases exponentially with age. Although there is a connection between the experience of adverse life situations and negative health outcomes, not all individuals who experience adversity have long-lasting adverse effects. Research has attempted to identify the characteristics that allow some individuals to manage adversity more effectively than others as well as the contextual and social factors that contribute to less optimal outcomes in the face of adversity [15, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27]. The effects of adversity can be long-lasting and include excessive and prolonged stress responses, making the discovery of mediating factors critical. Under the right circumstances, experience adversity can lead to an increase in resilience in the future; with resilience being defined as the ability to manage and adaptively function in the face of adverse life events [23, 28, 29]. Luthar, a seminal author on resilience, emphasized that the development of resilience emerges from the presence of an adverse life event and the resulting functional adaptation [29]. Resiliency is not necessarily an innate quality, but rather the result of the interaction between life contexts, protective and psychosocial factors [23, 30]. While resiliency is a possible outcome, more often than not, adversity undermines parents’ sense of competence and lead to less effective parenting [31, 32].
The vast majority of literature on adversity and children’s outcomes focuses on parenting, creating a wealth of knowledge about the environments that contribute best to development in adverse situations and what children need to build resilience and stress hardiness [4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 32, 33]. Emphasis has been placed on poor parenting practices in the face of adversity as the reason that adverse events have long-term effects, thereby pathologizing parenting behaviors and ignoring the experiences of parents themselves [34]. Further, Herbers, Cutuli, Supkoff, Narayan and Masten cautioned that during periods of adversity it is important not to interpret parent–child behaviors as maladaptive as while they may seem chaotic, it is reflective of a process of re-stabilization [7]. The experience of childhood trauma can make it difficult to form bonds with their children and parents who have not experienced consistent positive parenting in their own upbringing can have difficulties in creating warmth and connectedness in their relationships with their children [5, 35]. This also can influence perception of parenting competence and coping strategies for managing the challenges that occur in the parent–child dynamic [5, 36].
Despite contributions to knowledge regarding the types of parenting behaviors that lend themselves to the development of resilience and adaptation in children, often overlooked are the contexts and experiences of the parents themselves, which is the critical component to influencing outcomes. Benatov, in a study of parents reactions to their child’s victimization via bullying, found that parents emotional responses to the event was correlated to the level of adaptive coping responses with guilt leading to more maladaptive responses such as avoidance and sadness contributing to adaptive coping responses and support for the child [37]. Further, the level of perceived adversity was related to parental self-efficacy with high levels of victimization leading to less adaptive coping strategies and undermining self-efficacy for parents [37].
The exploration of parental resources, i.e., material, social and psychological resources, and influential contextual factors, presents a holistic picture of the potential determinants of parenting behaviors and stress responses. Parent/child relationships exist within the context of the environment and with the resources that are available to them at any given time. Belsky’s ecological model identified the importance of understanding the multiple levels of psychosocial factors that influence parenting [38]. This model recognizes the influence of parenting on healthy child development and identified three types of determinants of parenting behaviors including parental psychological resources, child characteristics, and contextual factors such as the environment [38]. Adversity often depletes the psychosocial resources that individuals have available to them, and parents who experience cumulative or co-occurring adverse events have fewer social supports and resources available to manage parenting stressors [36].
Adversity experienced in the parenting role creates obstacles that can disrupt parenting abilities, increase frustrations, and parent stress levels. There is a need to explore the psychosocial factors for parents who are experiencing adverse life situations and the way these factors contribute to parenting behaviors. Research has linked adverse childhood experiences to potential health and psychological issues throughout development, and one of the critical factors to consider is the way that adverse life events impact the parent and change the parent/child relationship dynamic [10]. For example, childhood illness, particularly illness that has an uncertain trajectory, has been found to be related to parenting stress which increased parental perception of the vulnerability of their child [39]. This perception of vulnerability can increase the presence parental overprotection behaviors [39] which decrease opportunities for the development of autonomy for the child. Parenting of children who have behavioral issues or developmental disabilities has been correlated to an increase in parenting stress which can increase parents’ experiences of emotional dysregulation [40, 41]. Parenting stress can decrease the likelihood that a parent can respond effectively to the behaviors of their child via overreacting, being less sensitive to the needs of the child, using less effective coping strategies, and a decreased ability to seek out support resources for their child which in turn increase child risk factors [41].
The influence of adverse events on parenting practices is an overlooked and critical component to successful outcomes for children and their families. Glazer and colleagues explored parenting after the loss of a spouse and found that parents not only question their parenting skills in the face of this adversity but also perceived stigma from others regarding their ability to parent effectively [42]. Not only did these parents question their skills to parent, they also expressed a lack of confidence in parenting a child who was also experience a grief reaction [40]. Research suggests that parental responses, particularly adverse reactions, are connected to the level of distress that is experienced by the child [34, 43]. If parental stress responses can increase the risk of a stress response in the child, then attention to parental experiences will expand opportunities to mediate stress responses.
Parenting behaviors and practices vary among individuals, regardless of whether or not adversity is present, and not all parents have access to the same resources to support parenting competence. Parents who lack psychosocial and contextual resources to draw upon in adverse situations may not manage these situations as effectively and may experience increased stress fulfilling the obligations of the parenting role. Parents often find themselves in conflicting and mutually demanding roles, creating stress related to which demand to attend to first and how to choose between competing demands. For example, research has found that the experience of severe socioeconomic hardship has the potential to constrain a mother’s ability to engage in sensitive childrearing practices, which can lead to personal distress [8]. Adverse life situations and stressors create intense psychological and physiological demands that can interfere with functioning and increase vulnerability to adverse outcomes [8]. Adversity can lead to disruptions in the parent/child relationship when a parent’s resources are taxed by the demands of their own dysregulation and stress responses [8]. Adversity can create situations where parents experience a loss of confidence and feelings of uncertainty about how to respond to their child effectively [43]. This may take the form of fear, apprehension, self-doubt, feelings of inadequacy, etc. [43]. The ability to find balance in parenting demands during stressful life situations can mediate the potential negative outcomes associated with adversity and increase feelings of competence.
Exposure to adverse life events by itself is not enough to trigger a long-term negative outcome or prolonged stress response as many individuals who experience adversity adapt effectively with little life disruption. Attempts to explore the types of stressful life situations that evoke adverse outcomes has produced with meager results due to the recognition that it is not the events alone that influence adaptation and coping [21]. Existing research has attempted to quantify risk and protective factors to predict outcomes; however, this fails to consider how the experience is perceived by the individual which plays a critical role in long-term trajectories [18]. Individual differences in vulnerability have been attributed to pre-existing mental health conditions, lifetime exposure to social stressors, the experience of conflict, financial hardships [11, 18, 21]. Barnyard, Williams and Siegel found that experiences of trauma were related to problems in parenting, with physical and sexual abuse resulting in less optimal parenting behaviors and negative perceptions of parenting abilities [3]. Hagan and colleagues identified that socioeconomic adversity and conflict in the parent–child relationship or parental harshness increased the likelihood of poorer physical health trajectories for children [44]. Further, positive parent–child relationships or parenting environments was seen to buffer against negative outcomes associated with socioeconomic diversity [44].
While adversity has often been looked at in the context of individual events [22], the experience of multiple adversities is common [45], and increases the cumulative risk for negative outcomes. Individuals who experience multiple adverse events throughout their lifetime, report higher levels of personal distress, decrease in functionality, lower reports of life satisfaction, and [22] poorer parenting outcomes [3]. Cumulative stress exposure increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes even when previous stressors are not related to the current adverse event [21, 22] making context and personal factors an intersection that plays a crucial role in adaptation. The ability to counteract adverse events with social supports or periods of reparation can serve as a mediator to stress responses and appears to decrease the potential for negative long-term outcomes [3, 11]. Parents and families that experience repeated exposure to adversity are vulnerable due to a depletion in resources from which to manage stress responses. While risk factors can increase vulnerability for individuals and families, the presence of risk in and of itself is not enough to predict future outcomes. The identification of vulnerabilities and risk factors is beneficial only in so far that it allows for the implementation of mechanisms that can counteract and balance out the risks, thereby creating adaptation strategies that produce healthy outcomes.
Parents often experience stress related to this role in the face of normative life situations [9]. Parenting stress is a negative psychosocial response to parental obligations and expectations [46] and includes emotional challenges that occur in coping with and managing their children [47]. Abidin identified beliefs about oneself in the parenting role and self-expectations as being influential to the development of parenting stress [2]. In this model, parenting stress is the result of this self-evaluation process and the available resources that support parenting behaviors [2]. Raikes and Thompson found that parents with socioeconomic disadvantage, parenting stress can be mediated by psychological and psychosocial resources such as social support and self-efficacy [11]. Higher levels of self-efficacy were found to be directly correlated to lower levels of parental stress making and moderated the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage for families [11]. Parenting stress has been found to be directly related to child behavior problems, particularly externalizing behaviors [46]. Parental stress appears to occur in a transactional relationship with childhood stress, with each experience having a potential additive effect on the experience of the other [46]. Children of parents who report high levels of stress and anxious or altered perceptions of their parenting behaviors in the face of adversity, such as natural disasters, have greater difficulties following an adverse situation [34]. A factor that is often associated with parenting stress is expectations about childrearing practices and behaviors [13, 14].
When a family experiences adversity, such as socioeconomic disadvantage or caring for a child with a disability, the expectations that they perceive, whether by society or self-imposed, have an additive effect on the emotional stress of the event itself [13]. The expectations of being good parents and being judged should they fail to meet social expectations of parenting responsibilities, play a significant role in adaptation and coping mechanisms available and utilized [13, 14]. The very nature of identifying how parents can contribute to the development of resilience in their children, creates the expectation that this outcome is within their control and the perception of failure should it not occur [48]. Parents of children with disabilities, particularly invisible disabilities, or mental health issues have reported feeling blame from others and a greater likelihood for the perception that their moral deficits have caused the child’s behaviors and problems [13]. While there is a tendency to place blame and pass judgment on parents when the family is going through an adverse situation, the reality is that not all problems that a child or parent experiences are the result of poor parenting or a deficit in parental competence.
The experience of adverse situations that are outside of one’s control contributes to an increase in psychosocial stress and a decrease in feelings of competence and adequacy in the parenting role [32, 40]. This experience intensifies when a parent experiences stigma in their parenting role, which can increase vulnerability for distress and disruptions in parenting behaviors. Stigma, often defined as an experience in which the reactions of others negatively influence one’s identity perception [48], can have lasting effects on an individual’s ability to cope with adverse situations. Stigma often occurs in indirect ways, yet the impact on the individual experiencing it remains negative. Parents who experience adversity report experiencing stigma that is felt by the actions or inaction of others and also stigma that is enacted upon them [13]. Similarities across studies have found that parents report experiences of blame, avoidance, unwelcome attention, lack of offered support or interest, negative labeling, discrimination, and unhelpful advice [13, 14, 49, 50]. Parental stigma is often not the direct result of parenting behaviors or children’s actions but a reflection of societal expectations regarding what parenting behaviors and situations are good or bad, with parenting being judged as a binary construct [13]. Francis found that stigma often resulted in feelings of isolation [13] and stigma has also been found to decrease the likelihood that parents will seek help or social support [14]. While many of these stigma behaviors are often subtle or unintentionally harmful in the case of failure to offer support, the result is often isolation, feelings of rejection and shame, and intense loneliness, which exacerbate existing stressors.
Parental self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability to parent effectively, and the confidence that one can successfully handle the problems that their child may experience, has been associated with adaptive family environments and improved outcomes for children [12, 51]. Parental self-efficacy can have a reciprocal relationship with stress and coping strategies as parents who believe that they can have a positive influence on the development of their child are more likely to utilize adaptive coping strategies to reduce stress reactions [51]. Parents who believe that they have the power to influence children’s behaviors and experiences have an increased ability to identify effective parenting strategies, thus creating positive parent/child interactions [5]. Even for parents who grew up in unfavorable circumstances and environments parental self-efficacy has been found to be related to positive parenting practices and parental beliefs that nurturing behaviors will increase positive outcomes for their children [5]. Parental self-efficacy can serve as a buffer against adverse risk factors such as disadvantaged socioeconomic situations and mediate the risks associated with individual parent and child risk factors.
Self-efficacy, the belief that one’s life is within their control, has been found to serve as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms [52] as well as a protective factor for psychological health. Hastings and Brown found self-efficacy to be a mediator between child behavior problems and anxiety and depression in mothers [53]. Further, the reciprocal relationship between emotional states/stress and the perception of coping efficacy are predictive of future parenting outcomes [54]. Environmental stressors and pressures influence the development and maintenance of self-efficacy. Raikes and Thompson identified that adverse events, particularly socioeconomic disadvantage, can impact how one views their personal characteristics and competencies [11]. Self-efficacy also contains expectations regarding the likelihood of being successful at tasks and amid adversity [11], making it vulnerable to contextual factors that are outside of the control of the individual, such as availability of resources or access to health insurance. A negative self-appraisal has been linked to increased mental health issues and decreased perception of competence as a parent [55].
While studies have shown that general parental self-efficacy is associated with positive child outcomes of psychological health and adaptation, little is known about parental self-efficacy in the context of adversity [42]. Parents with high self-efficacy have been found to increased competence and responsiveness to the needs of the child. In contrast, parents with low self-efficacy have been found to have increased difficulty with parenting decisions, feelings of inadequacy, shame, and increased parental stress [51]. The perception of self-efficacy is linked to how a parent perceives their own and their child’s experiences of adversity and adaptation.
Parental self-efficacy has been correlated to parental sense of competence, parental psychosocial functioning, and childhood socioemotional adjustment. Particularly interesting is that parental self-efficacy is of significant importance in adverse life situations. However, this is also the time where parents are likely to have a hard time feeling control due to the added stress placed upon previously existing resources. Research indicates that individuals who experience adversity are less likely to report feelings of self-efficacy, particularly when the adverse situation is something outside of their control [56]. High levels of parental self-efficacy has the potential to positively influence parenting behavior and buffer against the stress related to adverse life events, especially the effects of poverty [11]. Self-efficacy provides parents with the psychological resources necessary to manage adversity and productively engage with stressors. Conversely, individuals with low self-efficacy are more likely to disengage due to feeling that they cannot overcome the adverse situations with the resources available to them [57].
Many individuals will experience adversity and will effectively adapt and move forward without significant disruption to their developmental or health trajectory. These individuals are often described as having resilience, internal and external qualities that lead to positive outcomes in adverse situations [22, 27, 29]. Often times, resilience is referred to as the ability to “bounce back” after an adverse life situation, however, this implies that an appropriate way to manage adversity is to be able to go back to a previous state of being [22, 58]. This may not accurately describe what occurs after adverse life situations. Other explanations of resilience include experiencing an adverse life event and not having it disrupt developmental trajectories in a negative way [59]. My preference when looking at adversity is to emphasize having gotten through a stressful life event and emerging from it with the knowledge that one can survive adversity and that the skills utilized can be applied to future challenging situations. This strength-based approach allows for an individual to recognize the skill set that now can serve as a resource for coping, building a sense of self-efficacy.
Resilience and adversity are both a natural part of the human condition. While it was once believed that resilience was only present in some individuals, this adaptation strategy can be taught and accessed under the right circumstances. The ability to develop and utilize adaptive coping strategies is directly related to the intersection of environmental and personal factors that have been described throughout this chapter, and include the presence of self-efficacy and appropriate social supports to buffer the negative effects of stressors and to encourage recovery from adversity [16]. Adaptive coping strategies may be one way that resilience is demonstrated, however, resilience is a much larger umbrella that encompasses factors at the individual, family and contextual levels.
Resilience occurs at the intersection of risk and protective factors and allows individuals to navigate their way toward healthy adaptation strategies in the presence of social support mechanisms [16]. Protector factors, such as the presence of responsiveness, positive affect, effective parenting practices, social support, supportive kin relationships, and positive self-concept have been found to decrease stress reactions in children experiencing adverse life events [17, 60]. Park and colleagues found that adolescents who perceived stress as a growth opportunity had more positive responses to adverse events than those who believed that stress is detrimental [61]. The development of this mindset may be the result of examples that they have been exposed to of influential adults managing stress and adversity [61]. There is a great deal of research on identifying risk factors related to the development of maladaptive responses; however, an emphasis on targeted social support and systemic contextual factors may allow for protective factors to balance out identified risks. Risk factors for children such as parental mental illness, family discord, high-risk environments, lack of parental supervision, and poor school systems increase the likelihood that adverse events will impact developmental trajectories [60]. Macmillan and Violato found that the presence of two or more forms of parental adversity was correlated with unfavorable emotional and behavioral health [17].
Caution is essential when using the word resilient and when applying it to parents and children. The identification of an individual as resilient, while it is pointing to positive characteristics, is also creating a category of individuals who would not be considered resilient and, therefore, potentially less than optimal [48]. The expectation that resilience is a skill that can be taught to children by their parents and other influential adults while emphasizing opportunities for growth and buffering of negative outcomes also creates opportunities for stigma and criticism should a child not appear to be resilient [48]. Have these parents now somehow failed, should this marker not be met? The creation of additional opportunities for stigma and judgment should be approached with caution as there are always multiple sides to what appears to be a solution.
One of key factors that assists in understanding the experience of parents in the face of adversity is the context in which they are parenting. Belsky’s Ecological Model provides an understanding of contextual factors that influence parenting on many different levels, and how they combine in systematic ways to influence outcomes [3]. Belsky purports that there is not a linear path to child maltreatment and that parenting practices exist on a continuum between those that inhibit developmental growth and those that facilitate healthy growth and development [62]. This model requires moving beyond traditional research that has looked at individual factors to the inclusion of a parent’s immediate context and also the broader community environment, society, and the systems within [2, 3]. Contexts therefore can be categorized as the individual, family, community and cultural milieus that an individual and family are embedded in [62] A systematic approach makes room for the experience of cumulative adversity and co-occurring stressors and the influence that this has on an individual’s functioning and parenting behaviors.
While society has expectations about right and wrong ways to parent, these constructs do not describe the situations in which parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Little is written or taught about the development of parenting competence in the context of adversity, making this a common yet poorly understood phenomenon. Belsky makes a distinction between placing an emphasis on development and emphasizing the context in which development occurs which helps to identify factors that may contribute to how someone comes to have the parenting skills and behaviors that they possess [62]. As discussed earlier, failure to recognize the context in which an individual is parenting leads to unrealistic expectations and the perpetuation of stigma and judgment.
When an individual experiences adversity, there is the potential for alterations in psychological and physiological functioning both in the short and long term [8]. These alterations can lead to changes in perception and action both on an individual and family level. Altered perceptions can influence how a parent views their capability to handle stressors, to manage their child’s reaction to adversity, and their overall competence to parent effectively. Research has shown that contextual stressors and support are central influences on parenting behaviors and can mediate adjustment to adverse situations [63]. A parent’s psychological stability can affect outcomes in a child beyond what is observed through parenting practices, with contextual stress playing a key role in reparation after adversity [63].
Social support that occurs in direct relationship to the stressor experienced has been found to increase the perception of positive adaptation and decrease stress [64]. While social support has been linked to improved outcomes in the face of adverse life situations, support that is tailored to the source of the stress, for example, parenting stress, has been found to have the greatest influence on reduction of stress and improvement in outcomes for both parents and children [64]. Crnic and Booth found when support services emphasized challenges faced in the parenting role, that this was useful in managing their child’s behaviors [9]. Further family support, friendships and intimate support from a partner are helpful in buffering the adverse influence of challenges in the parenting role [9]. Perhaps of greatest concern is the abundance of literature that supports social support and the buffering effect in the face of adversity. Yet, studies that explore parents’ experiences of adversity regularly report a lack of support and feeling isolated [49].
Social support is critical to parent success in the face of adversity, and it also increases the ability of children to manage adverse situations [65]. In fact, the absence of social support creates an adversity for children and parents [9]. Social support has also been shown to function as a buffer against the long-term effects of parenting stress. Further, a parent who has access to social support, particularly related to parental stress, can, in turn, provide similar support to their child. Social support can help develop resilience and buffer against the negative impact of adversity [3, 17, 65]. Social support increases an individual’s sense of competence to cope with stressful life events and improves available resources, which helps to maintain healthy developmental trajectories [17].
Parental self-efficacy and social supports have been found to be critical ingredients to adaptation following adverse situations. A parent’s ability to regulate stress, recognize the needs of their child, and interpret behavior are crucial to successful navigation of stressful life events [4, 5, 6, 7]. Interventions should target the building of resources for parents that address multilevel contextual factors. While previous research has identified the significance of addressing both parent and child needs in the face of adversity [32], little guidance exists regarding how to cultivate self-efficacy and social support in parents who are experience adversity. Identification of parents and children who are at risk of distress related to adverse events and making connections to health care providers can decrease negative outcomes such as child behavior problems or lack of preparedness to enter school [32]. Parents who experience adversity have additional stressors than those that naturally exist in the parenting role and decreased opportunities to garner supports and resources. Interventions that focuses on increasing parental self-efficacy can have positive effects on the mental health of parents who are raising children with disabilities [53]. Behavioral family intervention programs that seek to address the multiple adversity factors such as the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program [66] have been found to be effective in families with child behavior problems by enhancing parenting skills and strategies, improving stress coping skills for parents, and strengthen support skills in families [6, 66].
Current interventions that target parents mainly focus on the management of children’s difficult behaviors or emotions and do not target the experience of the parent [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 32, 33], particularly how they are affected by the adversity themselves. Interventions that provide social support targeted at the stressor will increase the resources that parents have available to them and allow for greater ease in engaging in the parenting role [64]. Social support can mediate parenting stress, thus increasing the likelihood of optimal outcomes for parents and children [64]. While many interventions exist to teach parents targeted skills and responses to their children [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 32, 33], expanding this to include a focus on parental well-being and health will buffer against the potential for adversity to increase parenting stress [11]. Emphasis on parental experiences will also allow for parents to be supported in their own emotional and physiological reactions to adverse situations and will decrease the pathologizing and judgment experienced [34]. Creating room for an emphasis on the parent’s experience allows for focus on how to develop the skills necessary to read children’s cues, respond effectively to distress in the face of their own responses, and assist in the development of behavioral and emotional self-regulation.
Adverse events have been shown to have an impact on health outcomes for both parents and children; however, it is not the events themselves that create negative outcomes. It is essential to recognize that the intersection between adverse life events and contextual factors, such as psychological and social support resources, is where the quality of outcomes is determined. When parents experience threats to their safety or security without opportunities for reparation, the potential for lasting negative impacts on development and health trajectory increases significantly. Social support and self-efficacy are important resources that can influence parenting stress and the experience of adversity [11]. Interventions that target the development of parental self-efficacy and target social support can substantially increase parents’ sense of competence, satisfaction in the parenting role, and resilience for all members of the family.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard tissue, Peri-implant soft tissue, Restorative materials, Prosthesis design, Prosthesis, Patient satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"