IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8029",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Transcriptome Analysis",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Transcriptome analysis is the study of the transcriptome, of the complete set of RNA transcripts that are produced under specific circumstances, using high-throughput methods. Transcription profiling, which follows total changes in the behavior of a cell, is used throughout diverse areas of biomedical research, including diagnosis of disease, biomarker discovery, risk assessment of new drugs or environmental chemicals, etc. Transcriptome analysis is most commonly used to compare specific pairs of samples, for example, tumor tissue versus its healthy counterpart. In this volume, Dr. Pyo Hong discusses the role of long RNA sequences in transcriptome analysis, Dr. Shinichi describes the next-generation single-cell sequencing technology developed by his team, Dr. Prasanta presents transcriptome analysis applied to rice under various environmental factors, Dr. Xiangyuan addresses the reproductive systems of flowering plants and Dr. Sadovsky compares codon usage in conifers.",isbn:"978-1-78984-328-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-327-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-263-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77860",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"transcriptome-analysis",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"19e7bd55dd90a5187ee806a307ef112d",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8029.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8265,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:42,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 27th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 16th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 15th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"396",title:"Molecular Genetics",slug:"genomics-molecular-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"66606",title:"Introductory Chapter: Transcriptome Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85980",slug:"introductory-chapter-transcriptome-analysis",totalDownloads:3008,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Miroslav Blumenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66606",authors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"66083",title:"Single-Cell Transcriptome Analysis in Tumor Tissues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84558",slug:"single-cell-transcriptome-analysis-in-tumor-tissues",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tumor microenvironment is comprised of cancer cells and their surroundings, including various normal cells and non-cellular components, and each tumor tissue has a distinctive microenvironment. Cancer progression is affected by different microenvironmental states, such as the heterogeneity of infiltrating immune cells. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the complex cell-to-cell interactions associated with tumor developmental stages in different tissues. Recent revolution of single-cell RNA sequencing technology can uncover the tumor microenvironment diversity. We have developed a novel strategy of single-cell transcriptome analysis: next generation 1-cell sequencing (Nx1-seq) technology, and it allows for profiling of thousands of single cells from tumor tissue. Our microwell with cell bar-code beads device can detect genes with high sensitivity, and it is easily transported anywhere without any other dedicated devices. Further, the developmental cost is relatively cheaper than other single-cell RNA sequencing methods. In this study, we introduce representative application of the single-cell RNA sequencing technique in gynecological cancers, and we show the result of Nx1-seq application in human endometrioid adenocarcinoma tissue.",signatures:"Sadahiro Iwabuchi and Shinichi Hashimoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66083",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65985",title:"Transcriptome Atlas by Long-Read RNA Sequencing: Contribution to a Reference Transcriptome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84920",slug:"transcriptome-atlas-by-long-read-rna-sequencing-contribution-to-a-reference-transcriptome",totalDownloads:1051,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The recent emergence of long-read transcriptome sequencing has helped improve the overall accuracy of gene prediction compared with that by short-read RNA-Seq. In addition, the technology can offer a more comprehensive view of functional genomics in uncharacterized species with an efficient full-length unigene build and high-precision gene annotation, thus being efficient in developing transcriptome data resources from useful genetic pools. Hence, I will review the applications of long-read RNA isoform sequencing, including the relative merits of the technology, the improvement of the accuracy in gene prediction and gene annotation, and the full-length unigene builds in a new genome; the limitations of the technology will be also discussed. The review will be valuable in collecting data resources for functional genomic studies.",signatures:"Dong Jin Lee and Chang Pyo Hong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65985",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68358",title:"Plant Comparative Transcriptomics Reveals Functional Mechanisms and Gene Regulatory Networks Involved in Anther Development and Male Sterility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88318",slug:"plant-comparative-transcriptomics-reveals-functional-mechanisms-and-gene-regulatory-networks-involve",totalDownloads:1170,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gene transcription and transcriptional regulation are crucial biological processes in all cellular life. Through the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, transcriptome data from different tissues and developmental stages can be easily obtained, which provides us a powerful tool to reveal the transcriptional landscape of investigated tissue(s) at special developmental stage(s). Anther development is an important process not only for sexual plant reproduction but also for genic male sterility (GMS) used in agriculture production. Plant comparative transcriptomics has been widely used to uncover molecular mechanism of GMS. Here, we focused on researches of anther developmental process and plant GMS genes by using comparative transcriptomics method. In detail, the contents include the following: (1) we described the commonly used flowchart in comparative transcriptomics; (2) we summarized the comparative strategies used to analyze transcriptome data; (3) we presented a case study on a maize GMS gene, ZmMs33; (4) we described the methods and results previously reported on gene co-expression and gene regulatory networks; (5) we presented the workflow of a case study on gene regulatory network reconstruction. The further development of comparative transcriptomics will provide us more powerful theoretical and application tools to investigate molecular mechanism underlying anther development and plant male sterility.",signatures:"Xiangyuan Wan and Ziwen Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68358",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66483",title:"Transcriptome Analysis for Abiotic Stresses in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84955",slug:"transcriptome-analysis-for-abiotic-stresses-in-rice-em-oryza-sativa-em-l-",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rice, a model monocot system, belongs to the family Poaceae and genus Oryza. Rice is the second largest produced cereal and staple food crop fulfilling the demand of half the world’s population. Though rice demand is growing exponentially, its production is severely affected by variable environmental changes. The various abiotic factors drastically reduce the rice plant growth and yield by affecting its different growth stages. To fulfill the growing demand of rice, it is imperative to understand its molecular responses during stresses and to develop new varieties to overcome the stresses. Earlier, the microarray experiments have been used for the identification of coexpressive gene networks during various conditions in crop plants. Though the microarray experiments provided very useful information, the unviability of genome-wide information did not provide complete information about the regulatory gene networks involved in the stress response. The advancement of molecular techniques provided breakthrough to understanding the complex regulatory gene networks and their signaling pathways during stresses. The high-throughput RNA sequencing data have opened the floodgate of transcriptome data in rice. Here we have summarized some of the transcriptome data for abiotic molecular responses in rice, which further help to understand their complex regulatory mechanism.",signatures:"Ashutosh Kumar and Prasanta K. Dash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66483",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69066",title:"Revealing the Symmetry of Conifer Transcriptomes through Triplet Statistics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88696",slug:"revealing-the-symmetry-of-conifer-transcriptomes-through-triplet-statistics",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The novel powerful technique is used for a study of combinatorial and statistical properties of transcriptome sequences. The main approach stands on the study of distribution of nucleotide triplet frequency dictionaries obtained from the conversion of transcriptome sequences. The distribution is revealed through PCA presentation and elastic map technique. The transcriptomic data of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) and Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour) were studied. The transcriptomes exhibit unusual symmetries. The octahedral structure exhibiting rotational symmetry in transcriptome contig distribution was found for L. sibirica, while mirror symmetry was found for P. sibirica. The octahedron structure seems to be universal for plants.",signatures:"Sadovsky Michael, Putintseva Yulia, Biryukov Vladislav and Senashova Maria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69066",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5519",title:"Melanin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c20953970276d03b7d85a71b6a7b786f",slug:"melanin",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5519.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Equilibria",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65667.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65667",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65667",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65667",chapter:{id:"57461",slug:"the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",signatures:"Er’el Granot",dateSubmitted:"April 7th 2017",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"January 24th 2018",book:{id:"6165",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",slug:"entrepreneurship-development-tendencies-and-empirical-approach",publishedDate:"January 24th 2018",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6165.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate 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\r\n\tRecently, researchers have given considerable attention to soft robotic systems. Soft robotics presents a new robotics paradigm that is centered around flexible, configurable, and compliant structures and actuators. Unlike finite-DOF (degrees of freedom) hard robotic systems that are composed of kinematic chains of rigid links, soft robotic systems have characteristics of continuum topology with infinite DOFs. These robots use soft actuators such as photo-responsive actuators, electrically responsive actuators, pressure-driven actuators, thermally responsive actuators, and magnetically responsive actuators. Precise motion control for soft robotic systems is a highly challenging task since accurate models of the actuation dynamics and environmental interactions are often not available. Formulation of precise models of movement, sensing, and actuation and development of new control techniques that can be applied to soft robotic systems remain open research areas.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book is intended to bring together important contributions from international researchers to provide the state of the art in soft robot design, modeling, fabrication, sensing, and control.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-955-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-954-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-956-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"06e947238d5d4ea1162509a5d66de887",bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11459.jpg",keywords:"Shape Memory Polymers, Electroactive Memory Polymers, Hydrogels, 3D-printing, Curvature Sensors, Inductive Sensors, Photo-Responsive Actuators, Electrically Responsive Actuators, Soft Wearable Robots, Bioinspired Robots, Adaptive Autonomous Robots, Medical Robots",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in robotics and autonomous systems, nonholonomic systems, and aerospace systems. Been named in Stanford University’s global list recognizing the top 2% of the world’s leading scientists. A senior member of IEEE and AIAA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15068/images/system/15068.jpg",biography:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu is currently Director of Robotics Engineering, Columbus State University (CSU), Georgia, USA. Prior to joining CSU, he was the Glaxo Wellcome Distinguished Professor of Engineering, University of North Carolina at Asheville, USA. His extensive research makes use of advanced mathematical techniques and models that arise from fundamental physical principles. His major research interests are in the areas of nonlinear dynamical systems and control theory, with particular emphasis on applications to mechanical and aerospace systems, robotics, and mechatronics. He has edited five books and authored/co-authored five book chapters and more than 140 peer-reviewed journal/proceedings papers. He served on the Transactions on Automatic Control Editorial Board and the Control Systems Society Conference Editorial Board of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He also served as a member of the International Program Committee for several conferences and as a member of the Guidance, Navigation, and Control Technical Committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). 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1. Introduction
Generally, a wing or tail of an aircraft will be damped by damping when the speed of it is low; when the speed of flight exceeds a certain value, small disturbance will cause vibration divergence and the structure to collapse in a matter of seconds or even tens of milliseconds. This phenomenon is called flutter. Flutter is the most important subject in aeroelasticity. It is a kind of self-excited vibration which can maintain the constant amplitude oscillation under the interaction of elastic force, inertia force and aerodynamic force when the lifting surface moves at a certain speed in the air flow. At this time, the damping (g) equals 0. Due to the existence of system damping (g < 0), the vibration of the aircraft soon attenuates or even disappears completely with a small flight speed after being disturbed, but when the flight speed increases to a certain value, the amplitude caused by the disturbance just keeps the same. This speed is called the critical flutter speed, the vibration frequency at this time is called the critical flutter frequency and g = 0. In order to prevent flutter, the critical flutter velocity must be larger than the maximum flight velocity under all flight conditions and there must be some margin. Figure 1 taken from a Chinese book written by Liu, C., F. and Qiu, J. [1] is an example of the wing flutter calculation: when the speed of flight, VCR, is 850 m/s, the wing is in constant amplitude vibration, and if the speed of flight is less than or greater than it, the wing vibration will attenuate or disperse.
Figure 1.
The wing flutter calculation, VCR = 850 m/s.
Classical flutter calculations in frequency domain are performed using either the K method proposed by Bisplinghof, R. L., and Ashley, H. [2] or the P-K method proposed by Hassig, H. [3] and Lawrence, J. A., and Jackson, P. [4]. The K method is generally very fast and quite simple, but it has a downfall in that sometimes the frequency and damping values “loop” around themselves and generate multi-value frequency and damping as a function of velocity. The K method solution is only valid when g = 0 and the structural motion is neutrally stable and matches the aerodynamic motion with the neutral stability. The P-K method is acknowledged to provide more accurate modal damping values after the K method. Gradually, the P-K method has become one of the most widely used methods in aeroelastic engineering. After that, the p method, proposed by Abel, I. [5], improves the damping and frequency trends by taking into account the effect of nonzero damping by means of generalized aerodynamic forces, which are approximately valid for the damping-frequency area under consideration. At the end of the 1990s, the μ method studied by Lind, R., and Brenner, M. [6], was used to fitting procedures to transform the aerodynamics to the state space. At the beginning of the new century, a g method proposed by P. C. Chen [7] is used in the analytic property of unsteady aerodynamics and a damping perturbation approach. These two methods of P-K method and g method are different in the equation form, but they share the same stability criterion, i.e., an eigen root of aeroelastic equation is solved and the root with positive real part indicates flutter. Additionally, the g method uses a reduced-frequency sweep technique to search for the roots of the flutter solution and a predictor corrector scheme to ensure the robustness of the sweep technique. The g method includes a first-order damping term in the flutter equation which is rigorously derived from the Laplace-domain aerodynamics. And then, an improved g method proposed by Ju Qiu and Qin Sun [8], increases a second-order damping term in the flutter equation. It is also valid in the entire reduced frequency domain and up to the second order of damping. Recently, the H method proposed by Michaël H. L. [9], automatically extends the aerodynamic data obtained for purely oscillatory motions to damping and diverging oscillatory motions by means of a direct harmonic interpolation method, thereby improving the prediction of damping and frequencies. This procedure may assist the aeroelastician in making improved estimates of aerodynamic damping at g < 0 conditions to support flight flutter testing and probably offers potential for flight control system design or analysis. Brian P. Danowsky and etc. [10] showed that three different flutter suppression controllers were designed using a flight-test-validated aeroelastic aircraft model. The flight tests demonstrated that the flutter boundary could be successfully expanded using active control. Eli [11] indicated that AFS (Active flutter suppression) technology had the potential to lead to significant weight savings and performance gains.
In the new and challenging field of energy harvesting through fluid–structure instabilities, such as analysis in time domain, the coupled-mode flutter mechanism has been recently scrutinized. A lot of complicated aeroelastic characteristics are predicted by a structural-aerodynamic fully-coupled formulation, such as rotorcraft written by Bernardini G., Serafini J., Molica Colella M., and Gennaretti M. [12], a transport wing’s wingtip introduced by Peng Cui and Jinglong Han [13], a transonic wing analyzed by Xiang Zhao, Yongfeng Zhu and Sijun Zhang [14]. Francisco Palacios, Michael R. Colonno, and etc. [15] showed an integrated platform for multi-physics simulation and design, e.g. flutter predictions by a loosely-coupled method, remained open source and serves as a starting point for new capabilities that will hopefully be contributed by users in both academic and industrial environments. Most recently, Leclercq T., Peake N., and de Langre E. [16] pointed out that flutter did not prevent drag reduction by reconfiguration. Eirikur Jonsson [17] put flutter and post-flutter constraints into the process of the aircraft design optimization. Sergey Shitov and Vasily Vedeneev [18] investigated the flutter boundaries of rectangular panels simply supported at all edges, and used potential flow theory to calculate the unsteady pressure.
Naturally, for every simulation and every test, it is desired to produce a model that could be accurate, studied by Samuel C. Mclntosh Jr., Robert E. Reed Jr. T. and William P. Rodden [19], so as to permit meaningfully calculated and experimental comparisons and to provide data for evaluating new theoretical or numerical techniques for treating aeroelastic problems. The studies of all cases suggest that at increased airspeeds the aircraft may develop unstable oscillations leading to a catastrophic failure, described by Jieun Song, Seung Jin Song and Taehyoun Kim [20], Jie Zeng and Sunil L. Kukreja [21], Thomas Andrianne and Grigorios Dimitriadis [22]. At all times, on one hand, there exist analytical models and tools that allow estimating the onset of the dynamic instability, but they are often subject to modeling uncertainties and limitations that can produce inaccurate, unreliable results. On the other hand, the test data are a direct reflection of the actual aircraft, to some degree, and hence can be used with confidence. Also, it is a common and required practice in aerospace industry to conduct flight flutter tests and validate the simulation effect of the analysis model before aircraft enter into service.
Since the beginning of the century, American Society of Mechanical Engineers guide to Verification and Validation (V&V) defined the goal of V&V process as to develop standards for assessing the correctness and credibility of modeling and simulation in computational science. According to the paper, for Validation, and Predictive Capability in Computational Engineering and Physics, written by William L. Oberkampf, Timothy G. Trucano, Charles Hirsch [23], a proposed question was how confidence in modeling and simulation should be critically assessed. Verification and validation (V&V) of computational simulations are the primary methods for building and quantifying this confidence. Briefly, verification is the assessment of the accuracy of the solution to a computational model. Validation is the assessment of the accuracy of a computational simulation by comparison with experimental data. In verification, the relationship of the simulation to the real world is not an issue. In validation, the relationship between computation and the real world, i.e., experimental data, is the issue. Furthermore, Verification is defined as following: the process of determining that a model implementation accurately represents the developer’s conceptual description of the model and the solution to the model, while Validation means that the process of determining the degree to which a model is an accurate representation of the real world from the perspective of the intended uses of the model. Supanee Arthasartsri and He Ren [24], in A380 Aircraft Reliability Program also pointed out that the validation is a process determining whether the mathematical model describes sufficiently well the reality with respect to the decision to be made, which includes requirement validation and product validation, whereas, the purpose of Validation is to ensure that the requirements for a product are sufficiently correct and complete to achieve safety and to satisfy the needs of the customer within program constraints (e.g. cost, schedule). The Product Validation is to check if product meets the implicit needs of the customer. It is also to ensure the final product meets the requirement, for example, airworthiness certification of commercial aircraft. Additionally, V & V method was described in Guide for Verification and Validation in Computational Solid Mechanics, written by Schwer L. E. and etc. [25].
In Figure 2, it is evident to see the test has not been involved in the first stage of the V&V process, Verification and only is employed in the second step, Validation.
Figure 2.
Verification and Validation’s activities and products.
When V & V technique is widely used to aerospace engineering, civil engineering, auto engineering, etc., it obtains fruitful achievements. For instance, the example of V&V method implementation on GP7200 by Engine Alliance, which the results of reliability before entry into service exceeded the expectation requirements from FAA. With the entry into service of Airbus A380, the application of validation and verification method in safety and reliability program has been proven successful. The other example is Validation and Verification of the Lunar Atmosphere Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) mission models and software. This program identified and prioritized a set of V&V technologies that significantly reduced the development cost and compressed the development schedule of emerging safety critical flight control systems. It is predicted that it could also be applied to other aerospace system design and to other industry that require the high level of safety and V&V Method would be used to provide the confidence in the results from simulation.
The present research uses V & V technologies to handle the flutter problem of the rudder. There is, however, a significant difference, that is to say, the experimental data were added to modify the simulated models, besides codes and software verification.
In the Verification process, the stiffness of the rudder axis could be adjusted during the flight or the experiment. The accuracy of the flutter-prediction results of these methods heavily depends on how good the model or mode estimations are. Therefore, the modes of the rudder directly influencing flutter speeds become very critical. In order to obtain a precise model to simulate two cases of supersonic flutter, the appropriate axis structures were provided by optimization process. Unlike traditionally aeroelastic systems of maximum performance and minimum weight, studied by Melike Nikbay, and Muhammet N. Kuru, [26], the objective was a minimal 1-order or 2-order error which was a ratio of test eigenvectors and calculated ones, constraints were the first and second natural frequencies, and design variables were stiffness of the different rudder axles. Finally, modes of the first bending and second twisting of the rudder were found out in Case one, and these of the first torsion and second bending were extracted in Case two. In addition, it focused on finding a right analysis model by optimization method, according to experimental data of mode shapes studied by Zimmerman, N. H., and Weissenburer, J. T. [27]. Test investigations were first presented, followed by verifying the structural model and mode by optimization. Although two flutter cases both had the same flutter mechanism, classical bending-torsion flutter, they had their own critical flutter points, respectively.
The present work also aims at a deeper understanding of the phenomena by characterizing the tight interaction between the unsteady flow patterns in the flow-field and the response of the structure. After numerical aeroelastic simulations were finished, the test data were employed to validate flutter prediction to confirm the observed critical velocity and coupled-mode flutter in the validation stage of V& V technologies.
2. Experimental set-up
Flight flutter testing is an expensive and hazardous task, but it is required to verify if the aircraft is truly free from flutter within the margin of the aircraft’s operational envelope.
In order to validate the supersonic flutter calculation method and the verification of the flutter model accuracy, done by Bingyuan Yang, Weili Song [28], in FD-06 wind tunnel of 701 Institute, a test of a rudder was conducted. The data of eigenvector records taken in ground vibration test (GVT) were being preserved and would be available for further analysis. All test conditions and model configurations for available data are summarized in Table 1.
Case 1 Test Number: 2
Mach number = 1.53 Angle of attack = 2°10′ 1st order frequency:35.86 2nd order: 64.74
The following section introduces the details of the rudder model used in the test and the generation of an accurate FEM (Finite Element Method), which matches experimental data.
3.1 Rudder model
The rudder axle in Figure 4 was attached to the pitch and twist springs. The outer leaves of the springs were rigidly mounted to the tunnel walls. The pitch springs were commercially available flexure pivots that allowed ±7.5 deg. of rotation through the elastic bending of rudder flexures. The twist springs had a flexural rigidity range. Usually, the spring retained its linear characteristics over large displacements. Also, there were no sliding surfaces at support points which would produce damping. The springs were designed to deflect elastically approximately 10 mm. During flight or in the wind tunnel, rudder stiffness uncertainties are related to spring rotation and operating conditions. In particular, some record data from the experiment are not so reliable, maybe, from immature operations or instrumental limitations. So, it is naturally involved in designing and optimizing a realistic structure for a required level of reliability and efficiency for supersonic flutter validation.
Figure 4.
Rudder model (unit: Millimeter).
3.2 FEM and boundary conditions
The rudder was composed of a Ti-alloy material with the rudder torque tube that was made of a steel material. The material parameters are listed in Table 3.
Parameters
Young module(MPa)
Poisson ratio
Density (Kg/m3)
Rudder
4.1e10
0.34
1810.
Axle
2.11e11
0.3
7800.
Table 3.
Structural material parameters.
The finite element model was composed of 540 hexahedral structural elements. The rudder torque tube was modeled with 10 linear beam elements in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
FEM of rudder.
The node at the end of the rudder shaft was fixed in 3 translations and 2 rotations, but was free to rotate about the axis of the shaft.
3.3 Optimization method and parameters
In the present research, Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP), also known as Quadratic Approximation, is applied. It has arguably become the most successful method for solving nonlinearly constrained optimization problems. Its outstanding strongpoint is the less number of function and gradient evaluation, and the higher computational efficiency, especially for the rudder structural optimization objective function being a linear or nonlinear function of the design variables, and constraints such as frequencies for a function of the design variables. Using the method to optimize its stiffness, applying the mode shape error derivative concept to calculate the sensitivity of the stiffness, and employing this Method in the iterative process to make rapid the optimization convergence, and reliable the computational results.
Figure 6.
Monitoring nodes of FEM.
When the optimal model was established, it was possible to define the optimization conditions and perform mode analysis.
The objective function:
From Table 1, the vibration amplitude distribution of the first frequency of the rudder was nonlinear in Case 1, and therefore, the eigenvector error equation was written by.
error1=∑i=1nxi−yi2/nE1
N sample nodes were located at the same location of the test points from the upper rudder surface in Figure 6.
For Case 2, the eigenvector error equation was defined by linear, due to the linear changing of the vibration displacements.
error2=∑i=1nxi−yi/nE2
The two errors in modal analysis of the rudder were the objectives to be minimized in this research, respectively.
Constraints:
The first and second frequencies were taken as constraints. At the same time, the stiffness of the rotation shaft was also restricted to some limits.
Design variables:
The stiffness of the rudder axle was defined as design variables.
3.4 Optimization results
The optimization typically took 9 and 26 iterations, for Case 1 and Case 2 respectively to converge to the precision required for the gradient optimization in Figures 7 and 8.
Figure 7.
History of case 1 (vertical axis shows percent error in Eq. (1)).
Figure 8.
History of case 2 (vertical axis shows percent error in Eq. (2)).
In Case 1, the first mode surface was fitted in the test data and the optimization monitoring points in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
First mode surface of the test data(left) VS. first mode surface of the optimization monitoring points (right).
The Figure 9 above shows that the experimental points change dramatically and disorderedly, while the optimized ones transit gradually and softly. It also demonstrates the 2nd-order error for the first mode shape in Case 1 is selected very right.
In Case 2, the first mode surface is fitted in the test data and the optimization monitoring points in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
First mode surface of the test data(left) VS. first mode surface of the optimization monitoring points(right).
It is indicated in Figure 10 that more test data deviate from the fit left surface, but almost all of optimization points lie in the right surface.
In cases 1 and 2, the natural frequencies and mode shapes are shown in Figures 11–14.
Figure 11.
First bending mode (case 1).
Figure 12.
Second torsion mode (case 1).
Figure 13.
First torsion mode (case 2).
Figure 14.
Second bending mode (case 2).
Compared with the experimental frequencies, the errors are shown in Table 4.
Cases
First frequency
Error (%)
Second frequency
Error (%)
Test
Opti.
Test
Opti.
1
35.86
36.002
0.396
64.74
64.35
0.602
2
29.68
30.024
1.16
58.86
58.029
1.41
Table 4.
Frequency errors between test and optimization.
From Table 4, the error of the first frequency is less than 1%, and that of the second one is not more than 1.5%. Again, it represents optimization design is very successful.
4. Flutter prediction
In this section, two flutter-prediction method, namely Zona51of Nastran from MSC Software Corporation [29], and Local piston theory, which is performed by home-made software are employed to obtain the flutter speeds.
4.1 Zona51
ZONA51, written by MSC Software Corporation, is a supersonic lifting surface theory that accounts for the interference among multiple lifting surfaces. It is similar to the Doublet-Lattice method (DLM) in that both are acceleration potential methods that need not consider flow characteristics in any wake. An outline of the development of the acceleration-potential approach for ZONA51 and its outgrowth from the harmonic gradient method (HGM) are described. ZONA51 is a linearized aerodynamic small disturbance theory that assumes all interfering lifting surfaces lie nearly parallel to the airflow, which is uniform and either steady or vibrating harmonically. As in the DLM, the linearized supersonic theory does neglect any thickness effects of the lifting surfaces.
For aeroelastic analysis, the unsteady aerodynamic forces are obtained using Doublet Lattice for supersonic flight. The rudder section was subdivided into a lattice of 20 chordwise ×20 spanwise space vortex panels, yielding a total of 400 vortex panels. Figure 14 describes aerodynamic trapezoidal panels of the rudder in Figure 15.
Figure 15.
DLM grid.
Through the flutter analysis by Nastran’s ZONA51, the V-g and V-f curves of Case 1 are shown in Figures 16 and 17, when M = 1.35 and Density Ratio = 0.479.
Figure 16.
V-g curve.
Figure 17.
V-f curve.
From Figure 16, g of the first bending mode changes from the negative value to the positive at the speed of 380 m/s, and Figure 17 presents frequencies of the second torsion mode and the first bending mode try to go toward the same value at the speed of 380 m/s, that is, 1.35 M. At this point, flutter occurs.
Through the flutter analysis, the V-g and V-f curves of Case 2 are shown in Figures 18 and 19, when M = 2.4 and Density Ratio = 0.327.
Figure 18.
V-g curve.
Figure 19.
V-f curve.
From Figure 18, g of the 2st-order bending mode changes from the negative value to the positive at the speed of 550 m/s, and Figure 19 presents frequencies of the second bending mode and the first torsion mode try to go toward the same value at the speed of 550 m/s, e.g. 2.4 M. At this point, flutter occurs.
As can be seen from the preceding Figures 16–19, two cases present the same bending-torsion coupling modes that lead to flutter failure in terms of the same flutter mechanisms. However, aeroelastic flutter speeds have somewhat obvious differences, though the first two frequencies are slightly similar.
4.2 Comparison of calculated methods and tests
Due to the different aerodynamic expressions, Zona51, and Local piston theory, the flutter results are indicated in Table 5.
Cases
Flutter speed (Mach)
Error (%)
Test
Zona51
Local piston theory
Zona51
Local piston theory
1
1.53
1.35
1.33
11.76
13.07
2
2.51
2.4
2.46
4.38
1.99
Table 5.
Comparison of flutter prediction.
From the above table, the error is somewhat large in Case 1, because it is different for getting unsteady aerodynamic forces near transonic flight, and the other reason is not to consider the static pressure, which is caused by an initial angle and test points are much fewer.
In Figure 20, there is only two test points, which is connected to a straight line transcend the zero point, and makes us find the flutter speed. However, the other two colorful curves also go through the horizontal axis, which gets the different flutter speeds, greater than the former or less than it.
Figure 20.
Flutter V-g curve.
But in Case 2, in supersonic flight, the test result is in good agreement with all three methods, due to better optimization model and much more test points.
5. Conclusions
From experimental mode data to mode verification, optimized FEM is much closer to the test rudder. Through flutter predictions, the predicated results are basically similar to the test data. We can draw some conclusions listed as follows:
According to the experimental eigenvectors in two supersonic flight cases, optimization technique with the sensitivity-based approximation approaches, and the first-order and second-order errors, helps to find the different finite element models with the first bending and second torsion, or the first torsion and second bending, by modifying the stiffness of the rudder axle.
During the optimization procedure, Figures 11 and 12 represent the optimized mode surface can correct some mistake of the test data, perhaps, coming from manual errors or tool limitations.
Via the flutter prediction in frequency domain, it is in agreement with the mechanism of coupled mode instability, and the classical bending-twist coupled flutter failure is presented, once more.
By two flutter prediction methods, their results shown in Table 5 and supplied by the current solutions agree well with the test values. Once again, it reveals the optimized model is reliable and robust.
The predicated flutter speeds are less than the test ones. It shows flutter predictions are safe at most of times. But, being a robust analysis of its flutter margin solution might be too conservative to be realistic.
The most important is that V&V technologies are utilized to the flutter prediction of flight vehicles, the GVT figures are added to the modeling for simulation in the Verification, and the flutter test validates the simulated results. Experimental data are involved in the first phase, which greatly increases confidence and reliability for validation in the second one.
6. Final remarks
From the preceding discussions, an interesting phenomenon is observed, when we rotate the rudder axle for getting the diverse stiffness, the flutter speed is increased from 1.53 M to 2.51 M, but the structural weight or the rudder itself does not vary. Does it mean that the rudder itself can suppress flutter as the rudder is operated or controlled appropriately, and thereby, the flutter boundary is expanded?
Besides, V&V are tools for assessing the accuracy of the conceptual and computerized models. It can be extended to airworthiness certification of civil aircraft (see Figure 21).
Figure 21.
V & V for airworthiness certification.
From the above flowchart, if we modify the calculated model by test data, which ensures the analyzed precision, does it mean that analysis prediction could directly pass by Airworthiness Certification? Especially, for much of the Operational Reliability work, other highly nonlinear dynamic problems or very high frequency of acoustic ones, the assessment is so difficult, if it is not possible to copy in the experiment, that V&V became more associated with the issue of credibility, i.e., the quality, capability, or power to elicit belief, when we use the test to modify the model.
Acknowledgments
My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Mr. Erwin Johnson and Mr. Mohan Barbela, my previous coworkers in MSC, for their revisions of this paper. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to MSC Software Corporation which has given me precious chances and experiences to improve my knowledge of FEM analysis.
This research work was financially supported by Shanghai Science and Technology Committee (Grant agreement No. 13QB1401500).
Nomenclature
g = Damping
n = Sample number
xi = Calculated value of eigenvector corresponding to point i
yi = Test value of eigenvector corresponding to point i
\n',keywords:"Classical flutter, Mode verification, Rudder, Wind tunnel, Verification and Validation (V&V)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77204.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77204.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77204",totalDownloads:7,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 30th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 13th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 17th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The abrupt and explosive nature of flutter is a dangerous failure mode, which is closely related to the structural modes. In this work, the principal goal of the study is to produce the model, which is used very accurately for flutter predictions. Mode correctness of the model can correct the test deflects by the optimization technique----Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP). The optimization of two finite element models for two flight conditions, transonic and supersonic speeds, had the different objectives which were defined by the nonlinear and linear eigenvector errors. The first and second frequencies were taken as constraints. And the stiffness of the rotation shaft was also restricted to some limits. The stiffness of the rudder axle was defined as design variables. Experiments were performed for considering springs both in plunge and in torsion of the rudder shaft. When the comparison between experimental information and analyzed calculations is described, generally excellent agreement is obtained between experimental and calculated results, and aeroelastic instability is predicted that agrees with experimental observations. Comments are also given concerning improvements of the flutter speed to be made to the model with changing stiffness of the rudder axle. Most importantly, V&V Method is used to provide the confidence in the results from simulation in this paper. Firstly, it introduces experimental data from Ground Vibration Test to build up or modify the Finite Element Model, during the Verification phase, which makes simulated models closer to the real world and guarantees satisfaction of final computed results to requirements, such as airworthiness. Secondly, the flutter consequence is validated by wind tunnel test. These enhancements could find potential applications in industrial problems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77204",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77204",book:{id:"10627",slug:null},signatures:"Ju Qiu and Chaofeng Liu",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental set-up",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Model/mode verification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Rudder model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 FEM and boundary conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Optimization method and parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Optimization results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Flutter prediction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Zona51",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Comparison of calculated methods and tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Final remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Liu, C., F. and Qiu, J. (2016). “A fluid-structure coupling analysis method of Aeroelasticity, Beihang University Press”, 11. (In Chinese)'},{id:"B2",body:'Bisplinghof, R. L. and Ashley, H. (1962). “Principles of Aeroelasticity”, Wiley, New York'},{id:"B3",body:'Hassig, H. (1971). “An Approximate True Damping Solution of the Flutter Equation by Determinant Iteration”, Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 8, No. 11, 885–890'},{id:"B4",body:'Lawrence, J. A., and Jackson, P. (1968). “Comparison of Different Methods of Assessing the Free Oscillatory Characteristics of Aeroelastic systems”, Aeronautical Research Council, London, England'},{id:"B5",body:'Abel, I. (1979). “An Analytical Technique for Predicting the Characteristics of a Flexible Wing Equipped with an Active Flutter-Suppression System and Comparison with Wind-Tunnel Data”, NASA, TP-1367'},{id:"B6",body:'Lind, R., and Brenner, M. (1999)." Robust Aeroservoelastic Stability Analysis”, Springer–Verlag, New York'},{id:"B7",body:'Chen, P. (2000). “A Damping Perturbation Method for Flutter Solution: The g-Method”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 9, 1519-1524, doi:10.2514/2.1171'},{id:"B8",body:'Ju Qiu and Qin Sun (2009). “New Improved Method for Flutter Solution”, Journal of Aircraft, AIAA, Vol. 46, No. 6, 2184-2186'},{id:"B9",body:'Michaël H. L. Hounjet (2010). “Verification of H Flutter Analysis”, Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 47, No. 6, 2168'},{id:"B10",body:'Brian P. Danowsky, Aditya Kotikalpudi, et al. (2018). “Flight Testing Flutter Suppression on a Small Flexible Flying-Wing Aircraft”, AIAA AVIATION Forum, June 25-29, 2018, Atlanta, Georgia, 2018 Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, 1-13'},{id:"B11",body:'Eli Livne (2018). “Aircraft Active Flutter Suppression: State of the Art and Technology Maturation Needs”, JOURNAL OFAIRCRAFT, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2018, 410-450'},{id:"B12",body:'Bernardini G., Serafini J., et al. (2013). “Analysis of a structural-aerodynamic fully-coupled formulation for aeroelastic response of rotorcraft”, Aerospace Science and Technology, 29, 175-184'},{id:"B13",body:'Peng Cui and Jinglong Han (2012). “Prediction of flutter characteristics for a transport wing with wingtip devices”, Aerospace Science and Technology, 23, 461-468'},{id:"B14",body:'Xiang Zhao, Yongfeng Zhu, et al. (2012). “Transonic wing flutter predictions by a loosely-coupled method”, Computers & Fluids, 58, 45-62'},{id:"B15",body:'Francisco Palacios, Michael R. Colonno, et al. (2013). “Stanford University Unstructured (SU2): An open-source integrated computational environment for multi-physics simulation and design”, 51st AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Grapevine (Dallas/Ft. Worth Region), Texas, AIAA 2013-0287, 1-60'},{id:"B16",body:'Leclercq T., Peake N. and de Langre E.(2018), Does flutter prevent drag reduction by reconfiguration? Proc. R. Soc. A 474: 20170678. doi:10.1098/rspa.2017.0678'},{id:"B17",body:'Eirikur Jonsson, Cristina Riso, et al. (2019). “Flutter and Post-Flutter Constraints in Aircraft Design Optimization”, Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 1-77. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333513498 doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2019.04.001'},{id:"B18",body:'Sergey Shitov and Vasily Vedeneev (2017). “Flutter of rectangular simply supported plates at low supersonic speeds”, Journal of Fluids and Structures 69 (2017), 154–173'},{id:"B19",body:'Samuel C. Mclntosh Jr., Robert E. Reed Jr. T., et al. (1981). “Experimental and Theoretical Study of Nonlinear Flutter”, VOL. 18, NO. 12, AIAA 80-0791R, Journal of Aircraft, 1057-1062'},{id:"B20",body:'Jieun Song, Seung Jin Song, et al. 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Composites Center, COMAC Shanghai Aircraft Manufacturing Co., Ltd., China
Beijing Key Laboratory of Civil Aircraft Structures and Composite Materials, COMAC Beijing Aircraft Technology Research Institute, China
Mechanics Engineering School, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Songjiang, China
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1. Introduction
Vitamin E is an important micronutrient in the human body. Vitamin E maintains various body functions. It plays a very important role in maternal health and child development [1]. Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble micronutrient for higher mammals and functions as an antioxidant for lipids [2]. American scientists Herbert McLean Evans and Katherine Scott Bishop discovered vitamin E in 1922. Vitamin E is an essential lipid-soluble vitamin. It was initially denoted as an “anti-sterility factor X” that was necessary for reproduction. The vital role of vitamin E in reproduction was first investigated 80 years ago [3]. It was named according to a consecutive alphabetical order preceded by the discovery of vitamins A to D. Later vitamin E was called alpha-tocopherol, according to the Greek term “tokos” childbirth, “phero” to bear, and -ol indicating alcohol. Vitamin E is also called the “protecting vitamin” [4]. The amount of vitamin E is determined by age. For adults, the safest dose of vitamin E supplements is 1,500 IU/day for natural forms and 1,000 IU/day for man-made (synthetic) forms. Table 1 shows the average daily prescribed doses as determined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine [5, 6, 7].
Life stage
Recommended Amount
Birth to 6 months
4 mg/day
Infants 7 to 12 months
5 mg/day
Children 1 to 3 years
6 mg/day
Children 4 to 8 years
7 mg/day
Children 9 to 13 years
11 mg/day
Teens 14–18 years
15 mg/day
Adults
15 mg/day
Pregnant women
15 mg/day
Breastfeeding women
19 mg/day
Table 1.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for Vitamin E.
Some vitamin E containing foods include wheat, rice bran, barley, oat, coconut, palm, and annatto [8, 9]. Other sources include rye, amaranth, walnut, hazelnut, poppy, sunflower, maize and the seeds of grape and pumpkins [10]. The richest sources are nuts, spinach, whole grains, olive oil, and sunflower oil [11]. Vitamin E now refers to eight different isoforms that belong to two categories, four saturated analogues (α, β, γ, and δ) called tocopherols and four unsaturated analogues (α, β, γ, and δ) referred to as tocotrienols [12]. α-, β-, γ- and δ-homologues contain three, two, two and one methyl groups, respectively. These structural differences and isomerism determine the biological activity [13]. Tocotrienols differ in the presence of 3 double bonds in their side chain from tocopherols. The position of the methyl groups on the chromanol ring varies between the tocopherol and tocotrienol isomers. Tocopherols can form 8 stereoisomers due to the presence of 3 asymmetrical carbons in their side chains (RRR, RRS, RSR, RSS, SRR, SRS, SSR, SSS) [14]. Among these isomers, α-tocopherol (Figure 1) has the highest biologically active form [15]. α-tocopherol is the most abundant in plasma, cell membranes, other human tissues, and nutritional supplements, whereas γ-tocopherol is the primary form found in the human diet [16]. Tocopherols and tocotrienols, collectively known as tocols, are phenolic compounds. Although phenolic and polyphenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and ellagitannins have received much attention due to their antioxidant activities and potential health benefits [17, 18].
Figure 1.
Chemical Structure of alpha-Tocopherol.
Natural and synthetic forms of the tocopherols and tocotrienols are equally absorbed from the intestinal lumen in the form of mixed micelles. After the passage of the micelles into the intestinal mucosa, chylomicrons are synthesized to transport vitamin E from the intestinal mucosa through the lymphatic system to the circulatory system [19]. In plasma, alpha-tocopherol is found in all lipoprotein fractions but mostly is associated with apo B-containing lipoproteins. Via the action of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), extrahepatic tissues pick up parts of the tocopherols transported in chylomicrons, and the remaining chylomicrons transport the remaining tocopherols to the liver. Here, a large proportion of alpha-tocopherol is incorporated into nascent very-low-density lipoproteins by the operation of the “alpha-tocopherol transfer protein” (VLDL), whereas the excess of alpha-tocopherol plus the other forms of vitamin E is excreted in bile. When VLDL is secreted into circulation, the action of LPL transforms VLDL into IDL and LDL, and the excess surface components, including alpha-tocopherol, are transferred to HDL. In addition to the LPL action, alpha-tocopherol is transmitted to tissues via the absorption of lipoproteins by different tissues through their corresponding receptors [20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Metabolism of vitamin E begins with one cycle of CYP4F2/CYP3A4-dependent ω-hydroxylation followed by five cycles of subsequent β-oxidation and forms the water-soluble end-product carboxyethyl hydroxy chroman. α-Tocopherol can be oxidized to the tocopheroxyl radical. Further oxidation of the tocopheroxyl radical forms tocopheryl quinone. Other Metabolites of vitamin E include 2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-(2′-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman (α-CEHC) derived from α-tocopherol and 2,7,8-trimethyl-2- (2′-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman (γ-CEHC) derived from γ-tocopherol. There are two primary pathways for the excretion of vitamin E. Bile, which is then excreted in the urine, is the primary path of excretion. The second path is in the urine to make it more water-soluble after vitamin E is chain-shortened in a process similar to beta-oxidation. The major route of excretion of ingested vitamin E is fecal elimination because of its relatively low intestinal absorption [25, 26].
Because of its antioxidant function, it has several significant functions within the body. Numerous potential complications and disorders, including cancer, diabetes, arthritis and cataracts, have been related to oxidation; vitamin E is beneficial against these conditions. Vitamin E may also prevent platelet hyper aggregation, which can lead to atherosclerosis; it also helps to reduce the development of prostaglandins, such as thromboxane, that cause platelet clumping [27].
2. Role of vitamin E in pregnancy
Vitamin E supplementation may help reduce the risk of pregnancy complications involving oxidative stress. There is a need to evaluate the efficacy and safety of vitamin E supplementation in pregnancy [28]. A lack of vitamin E can lead to female infertility, miscarriage, premature delivery, eclampsia, fetal intrauterine growth restriction and other diseases associated with pregnancy [29, 30, 31]. Here some conditions in which vitamin E role are being described:
2.1 Infertility
Due to excessive production of ROS and/or insufficient consumption of antioxidants, oxidative stress arises. When the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other radical species exceeds then scavenging ability of antioxidants fail, injury to cells can occur. The mitochondrial respiratory chain produces the majority of ROS, although they may also be generated through exogenous exposures such as alcohol, cigarette smoke, and environmental pollutants. Antioxidants (such as vitamins C and E) and antioxidant cofactors (such as selenium, zinc, and copper) can dispose of, scavenge, or suppress the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Reduced sperm motility, sperm number, and sperm–oocyte fusion have all been linked to oxidative stress in male infertility. In women, several animal and in-vitro studies suggest that oxidative stress may affect female fertility. Adequate intake of vitamin E protects from free radical generation [32].
According to Cooper et al., vitamin E deficiency impaired both male and female rats’ germ cells. Vitamin E deficiency has a significant impact on secondary spermatocytes and spermatids [33]. According to several studies, vitamin E deficiency has been linked to reduced fertility in both humans and lab animals. Rengaraj et al. discovered that a moderate amount of vitamin E in poultry diet preserves semen/sperm quality in male birds and egg quality in female birds by reducing lipid peroxidation in semen/sperms and eggs [34]. The effects of vitamin E on sperm motility were studied by Suleiman et al. A total of 11 out of 52 treated patients (21%) were pregnant, and 31 subjects experienced increased sperm motility [35]. In a systematic review of the effect of oral antioxidants (vitamins C and E, zinc, Se, carnitine) on male infertility by Ross et al., 17 randomized trials, including a total of 1665 men, were identified. Of the 17 trials, 14(82%) showed an improvement in either sperm quality or pregnancy rate after antioxidant therapy [36]. Cicek et al., studied the impact of vitamin E on the treatment results of women who were going through intrauterine insemination and controlled ovarian stimulation and had an unknown cause of infertility. Two groups A and B had 53 and 50 volunteers respectively. Group A received 400 IU/day of vitamin E and clomiphene citrate. This combination was used for producing controlled ovarian stimulations. Group B (control) also received controlled ovarian stimulation but without vitamin E. Outcome of the study demonstrated that both the groups had a significant difference in the thickness of endometrium on the day which human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) was administered. Nevertheless, implantation and pregnancy rates had no connection with the administration of vitamin E. Based on the study it can be concluded that vitamin E possesses antioxidant effect and its administration could enhance the response of endometrium in females with unknown cause of infertility [37]. Das et al. performed a study in which female rats (30 days age) were maintained on a vitamin E-deficient diet for 70 days. At 100 days of age, the vitamin E-deficient and control animals were sacrificed. A group of animals was supplemented with a normal diet for the last 25 days following a 45-day deficient diet, or vice versa. The most notable findings were (i) a significant decrease in uterine weight in the deficient group, (ii) a significant decrease in estrogen, LH, and estrogen-induced uterine enzymes alkaline phosphatase and peroxidase, and (iii) ovarian dysfunction as shown by degenerating graffian follicles [38].
2.2 Endometriosis
Endometriosis is a condition characterized by the presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity [39]. Endometriosis is a condition that affects mostly women of reproductive age. The peak incidence is between 35 and 45 years old [40]. Endometriosis is found in 25 to 40% of women with infertility and 40–87% of women with chronic pelvic pain have endometriosis [41, 42, 43]. Endometriosis is associated with oxidative stress, even though the pathogenesis of the condition is currently unknown. Patient with endometriosis have an altered balance of prooxidant and antioxidant molecules [44, 45, 46].
Santanam et al. performed a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of antioxidant vitamins (vitamin E and C) in women with pelvic pain and endometriosis. This study included 59 women between the ages of 19 and 41 who had pelvic pain and had a history of endometriosis or infertility. Before surgery, patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups: vitamin E (1200 IU) and vitamin C (1000 mg) or placebo for eight weeks. Results indicated that after treatment with antioxidants, chronic pain (“everyday pain”) improved in 43 percent of patients in the antioxidant treatment group (P = 0.0055) compared with the placebo group. The results of this clinical trial show that administration of antioxidants reduces chronic pelvic pain in women with endometriosis and inflammatory markers [47]. East-Powell et al. performed a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of antioxidant vitamins (vitamin E and C) in women with pelvic pain and endometriosis and/or infertility. A total of 59 women were included in the trial. Patients were randomly assigned to 2 groups: vitamin E 1200 IU (3 capsules of 400 mg each) and vitamin C 1000 mg (2 tablets of 500 mg each) daily for eight weeks before surgery. The results of this clinical trial show that administration of antioxidants (vitamin E and C) reduces chronic pelvic pain in women with endometriosis and inflammatory markers [48]. Hashemi et al. performed a randomized clinical trial in 40 women with implantation failure aged 18–37 years old. Participants were randomly divided into two groups: group A received 400-IU vitamin E supplements and group B received a placebo for 12 weeks. Vitamin E supplements were shown to dramatically improve serum vitamin E levels and endometrial thickness in women with implantation failure [49]. Kavtaradze et al. performed a clinical trial in 59 patients age 19–41 years with pelvic pain and history of endometriosis and/or infertility. Patients were randomly assigned to 2 groups: vitamin E (1200 IU) and vitamin C (1000 mg) combination or placebo daily for two months before surgery. This clinical trial’s preliminary findings indicate that antioxidants (vitamins E and C) improve pelvic pain in women with endometriosis. According to this report, antioxidant vitamins are effective in reducing chronic pelvic pain in women with endometriosis. This research supports the development of a new class of medicines for the treatment of endometriosis-related pelvic pain. This information further supports our overall conclusion that endometriosis is an oxidative stress-related condition [50].
2.3 Miscarriage
Miscarriage is a serious pregnancy complication that can be brought about by a variety of causes. Vitamin deficiency has been linked to an increased risk of miscarriage, so supplementing women with vitamins before or during pregnancy can help prevent miscarriage [51]. Vitamin E deficiency’s effects on human health have yet to be thoroughly reported and investigated. Low plasma vitamin E, on the other hand, has been linked to miscarriage in the first trimester of a woman’s pregnancy. Furthermore, vitamin E supplementation in the diet reduced the rate of miscarriage in pregnant women by around 50% [52].
Pregnant women have quicker metabolism, increased production of free radicals, and increased lipid peroxidation. Thus, low levels of vitamin E can lead to the production of excessive free radicals, leading to placental aging, endothelial vascular damage, which increases the incidence of high-risk infections in pregnancy [53, 54]. It can also damage the lining of the fetal cell membranes, increasing the risk of premature rupture of the embryo [55]. Increased reactive oxygen species and decreased antioxidant levels in men are associated with recurrent miscarriage (RM). Antioxidant therapy has recently been recognized as a way to improve sperm parameters. Pourmasumi et al. evaluate the effect of paternal factor and antioxidant therapy on sperm parameters in couples with RM. Sixty samples with RM patients were analyzed before and after 3 months of vitamin E and selenium therapy. Results of this study show that antioxidants can improve sperm parameters and chromatin condensation in recurrent miscarriage male partners [56].
Vitamin E has anticoagulant activity; excessive vitamin E can have an impact on blood clotting in the fetus, increasing the risks of high levels of bilirubin and nuclear jaundice for newborn babies. Also, excessive vitamin E has an antagonistic effect on other fat-soluble vitamins in the blood of pregnant women, preventing the absorption and functions of other vitamins. As a result, clinicians should pay careful attention to changes in vitamin E levels during pregnancy and offer appropriate dietary advice, with an emphasis on reasonable vitamin E supplementation [57].
Kurmacheva et al. conduct a pharmacoeconomic analysis of two schemes of vitamin-mineral drugs in the peri-gestation period in women. In two classes of women, the cost-effectiveness of vitamin-mineral formulations was calculated. Patients in the first group (n = 60) were given a vitamin-mineral complex before and during pregnancy that included metafolin, other B vitamins, vitamins C, E, PP, and iodine (150 mcg) in physiological doses, as well as 200 mg of docosahexaenoic acid in a capsule intended for use from the 13th week until the end of pregnancy. During pregravid preparation and the gestational period, women in the second group (n = 54) took high doses of synthetic folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12 as part of two vitamin and mineral preparations. The use of vitamin-mineral complex containing physiological dosages of vitamins of group B, vitamins C, E, PP and iodine in the peri-gestation period in women with habitual miscarriages has tangible clinical and economic advantages in comparison with the administration of high doses of synthetic folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12 [58].
Shamim et al. studied the contribution of deficiencies of vitamin E to human pregnancy loss (pregnancy losses <24 wk. of gestation) in rural Bangladesh. A trial was done in 1605 pregnant Bangladeshi women, gestational age: 8–13 weeks. Of the 1,605 women in the study, 141, or 8.8%, miscarried. About 5.2% of women with adequate alpha-tocopherol miscarried in the first or second trimester, compared with 10.2 percent of women with low levels. It was found that low plasma α-tocopherol was associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. Maternal vitamin E status in the first trimester may influence the risk of early pregnancy loss [59].
Junovich et al. investigate the fertility properties of Vitamin E. Pregnant females from CBA/J × DBA/2 miscarriage model (creates an immune type miscarriage) were orally supplemented with Vitamin E (15 mg/day). It was found that Vitamin E has able to decrease the miscarriage rate [60]. Şimşek et al. investigated plasma levels of vitamin E in 40 women with habitual abortion (HA) at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical Faculty of Firat University, ElazigÏ, Turkey. The mean age of the patients was 28.5 years (21 ± 38 years). The levels of vitamin E were significantly lower in women with HA than in controls. According to the results of this study, it was found that a level of vitamin E was significantly decreased (P < 0.01) in HA. The decrease of this antioxidant may play a significant role in women with habitual abortion [61]. Vural et al. performed a clinical trial to determine the relationship between changes in some parameters of the antioxidant system like vitamin E and recurrent abortion. For the study 120 women with recurrent abortions, 25 non-pregnant healthy women in the productive era and 25 normotensive pregnant women within their first trimester were taken into the study in Istanbul Medical Faculty, Gynecology and Obstetric Department. According to the etiology, women with chronic miscarriage were classified into four subgroups: autoimmune, luteal phase defect, anatomical disease, and unexplained. Vitamin E levels in the autoimmune, unexplained, and luteal phase defect subgroups were slightly lower than in the two control groups and the anatomical defect group. It was found that decreased concentrations of plasma vitamin E reflect the increased oxidative stress. In a conclusion, recurrent miscarriages may also result in oxidative stress and depletion and weakness of antioxidant defence [62].
Von Mandach et al. studied that whether there is an association between reduced vitamin E levels and abnormal pregnancy. Abnormal pregnancies were compared with normals. In normal pregnancies, mean vitamin E levels rose from 12.9 +/− 1.1 micrograms/ml in early pregnancy to 22.5 +/− 1.5 micrograms/ml at term (p < 0.05, n = 11). In pregnancies with fetal complications or maternal risks, vitamin E levels were lower than in normal at corresponding gestational age. The results show lower maternal levels of vitamin E in abnormal pregnancies [63].
Oladimeji et al. performed a clinical trial to examine the relationship between serum vitamin E levels and unexplained infertility and recurrent miscarriages. Eighty-two healthy Nigerian Women volunteers were recruited for this study. The mean serum vitamin E concentration in pregnant women was found to be insignificantly higher (10.36 ± 3.52 mg/ml) than the reported values in women with unexplained infertility and persistent miscarriage (8.97 ± 3.56 mg/ml). It was concluded from this study that there is no relationship between recurrent miscarriages and unexplained infertility and vitamin E levels [64].
Miscarriage risk is significantly reduced by taking supplementary vitamin E (at least 200 IU and perhaps 400 IU daily). There were already results of medical reports confirming this by the end of WW II [65].
2.4 Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
Polycystic ovary syndrome is a common birth defect in women during childbearing age. According to the Endocrine Society released training strategies for PCOS, in adolescents with PCOS, metformin and hormonal contraceptives are the treatment options [66].
Vitamin E is not a hormone but acts as a hormone. It works by impersonating the effects of progesterone on the body, as well as by reducing the side effects of high levels of androgens (testosterone and estrogen). In a study after 12 weeks, the amount of serum testosterone decreased which provides evidence against it. The study also found that lifestyle changes and the use of supplements including omega-3 and/or Vitamin E will improve inflammation and insulin sensitivity thus remaining an effective treatment approach for PCOS subjects. Vitamin E may serve as a necessary supplement included in the current treatment guide to improve PCOS parameters, which will also improve the quality of life in PCOS and reduce overall medical costs, often unaffordable for most people with PCOS in India [67]. Vitamin E reacts often with lipid peroxyl radicals which leads to the elimination of peroxidation chain reactions and thus reduces oxidative damage. The serum concentration of vitamin E in the study was significantly lower in PCOS patients compared with controls. Similar reports of reduced vitamin E concentration in PCOS patients were stated in various studies [68]. The prospect of a fast response of vitamin E to cellular oxygen and free radicals may be the cause of a significant decrease in vitamin E concentration. Therefore, it is proposed that vitamin E through its natural scavenging method protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from peroxidation reactions [69]. Mohan et al. 2009 estimated plasma vitamin E level in fifty-six Polycystic Ovary Syndrome patients. It was observed that there was a significant decrease in plasma vitamin E levels in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome when compared to controls [70]. Hamad et al. studied the effect of vitamin E and selenium on ovulation in PCOS patients. The participants in this sample included 25 PCOS patients who were untreated and 26 PCOS patients who were treated, as well as 42 healthy controls. From the results of this study, it was found that vitamin E has a significant role in the ovulation of PCOS patients [71]. Angiogenesis disturbances are common in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Shirazi et al. performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial on 43 women, ages 20–40 years, with PCOS to evaluate antiangiogenic properties of Vitamin E. Patients were randomly assigned into two groups: group A received vitamin E 400 IU/day and group B received placebo for 8 weeks. At the start and end of the analysis, anthropometric and angiogenic parameters such as body weight, fat mass, and fat-free mass, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) were calculated using standard methods. Vitamin E supplementation for eight weeks had beneficial effects on body weight, Ang-1, Ang-1/Ang-2 ratio, and VEGF level in PCOS women [72]. Carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) artery in women with PCOS was significantly higher than healthy women. CIMT has been widely used as a surrogate index of atherosclerosis and CVD events. Talari et al. performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 60 women with PCOS to evaluate the beneficial effects of omega-3 and vitamin E co-supplementation on carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT). Participants were randomly assigned into two groups and assigned to take either 1000 mg omega-3 plus 400 IU vitamin E supplements or a placebo for 12 weeks. It was found a significant reduction in maximum and mean levels of the left and right CIMT in patients with PCOS compared with placebo. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Vitamin E may improve CIMT [73].
PCOS is a heterogeneous syndrome characterized by hyperandrogenism symptoms. Izadi et al. performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to evaluate the effects of CoQ10 and/or vitamin E on glucose homeostasis parameters and reproductive hormones in women with PCOS. In this study, it was found that CoQ10 with or without vitamin E supplementation for 8 weeks among patients with PCOS significantly decreased serum total testosterone levels (P < 0.001) compared with those of the placebo group. CoQ10 supplementation in combination with vitamin E significantly improved sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels compared with other groups (P = 0.008) [74].
2.5 Embryonic development
Human embryonic development refers to the development and formation of the human embryo. It is characterized by the processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development [75].
ROS are highly reactive molecules, their accumulation can lead to damage and breakage of DNA strands. Many pieces of evidence have been found that ROS compromises embryo development in many species [76, 77, 78].
Selenium and Vitamin E are the important antioxidants that protect mammalian cells against lipid peroxidation. Tsujii et al. conducted a study to investigate whether Selenium or Vitamin E and Selenium + Vitamin E overcome the undesirable oxidative stress produced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and enhance the development of pre implanted mice embryo. Co-incubating the embryos with 60 nM Selenium and/or 100 nM Vitamin E were increased (P < 0.05) the blastocyst development rate. The addition of H2O2 reduced the development of mouse embryos, but the addition of Vitamin E, Se and Selenium+Vitamin E reduced the detrimental effect of H2O2 and influenced the higher rate of development to blastocysts, compared to CZB alone (P < 0.05). The incorporation and oxidation of 14C-glucose in the blastocysts developed by the medium supplemented with Se and/or Vitamin E in the presence or absence of H2O2 were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of the control. Moreover, Vitamin E is more effective than Selenium and Selenium + Vitamin E in reversing ROS-induced mouse embryotoxicity [79]. McDougall et al. studied the long-term effects of Vitamin E deficiency on embryonic development and improvement effect after feeding Vitamin E-adequate diets by using a zebrafish model. Adult zebrafish maintained on Vitamin E-deficient (E-) or sufficient (E+) diets up to 12 days post-fertilization (dpf) to obtained E- and E+ embryos. The E- group suffered significantly increased morbidity and mortality as well as altered DNA methylation status through 5 dpf when compared to E+ larvae, but upon feeding with a Vitamin E -adequate diet from 5 to 12 dpf both the E- and E+ groups survived and grew normally; the DNA methylation profile also was similar between groups by 12 dpf. However, 12 dpf E- larvae still had behavioral defects. Outcomes suggest that embryonic Vitamin E deficiency causes behavioral impairments due to persistent lipid peroxidation and metabolic perturbations that are not resolved via later dietary vitamin E supplementation [80].
2.6 Pre-mature delivery
Every year, about 15 million babies (1 in 10) are delivered prematurely around the world. Prematurity is the second leading cause of death among newborns after pneumonia. Pre-mature babies struggle with visual, auditory and learning disabilities. Over 60% of pre-mature delivery worldwide occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia [81].
Cruz et al. studied the effect of vitamin E supplementation on mothers with threatened premature delivery and premature infants. It was found that maternal vitamin E treatment did not prevent either erythrocyte hemolysis or lipid peroxide formation in premature infants after birth. On the other hand, intramuscular vitamins E to infants after birth prevent erythrocyte hemolysis and low lipid peroxide formation when serum vitamin E increased above 2 mg/100 ml [82]. Hittner et al. performed a double-blind study in 101 preterm infants to evaluate the efficacy of oral vitamin E in preventing the development of retrolental fibroplasia. 50 infants received vitamin E 100 mg/Kg/ day and 51 infants received 5 mg mg/Kg/day (controls). The severity of retrolental fibroplasia was found to be significantly reduced in infants given 100 mg of vitamin E (P = 0.012) [83]. The link between vitamin E deficiency and hemolytic anemia in small premature infants prompted researchers to look into vitamin E absorption in infants of different gestational and developmental ages. Premature infants’ capacity to sustain vitamin E sufficiency during the first three months of life was shown to be directly related to their gestational age; infants with the lowest gestational age were the least likely to attain vitamin E sufficiency, even when given a vitamin E supplement. In infants with a gestational age of fewer than 32 weeks, there was a gradual increase in vitamin absorption in the intestine. Oral iron administration has been linked to a reduction in vitamin E absorption in the intestine. Since maintenance of vitamin E sufficiency appears to be nutritionally important in the premature infant, the efficacy of other routes of administration of the vitamin should be explored [84]. Vitamin E has been linked to several positive outcomes in premature newborn infants. Vitamin E deficiency is believed to be at least partially responsible for the anemia that happens often 4 to 6 weeks after premature birth, and regular vitamin E supplementation is often recommended. However, a review of published controlled trials of vitamin E supplementation shows that the extent, if any, of this preventive effect against anemia is debated. According to research, the dietary ratio of alpha-tocopherol to polyunsaturated fatty acids is normally sufficient to avoid symptoms of vitamin E deficiency without the use of supplements. Premature infants exposed to oxygen-rich conditions and artificial ventilation are protected from the risks of retrolental fibroplasia and bronchopulmonary dysplasia by receiving large parenteral doses of vitamin E. However, subsequent research has yet to verify these positive early findings of preventive effects. At this time, there does not seem to be any clear evidence that supplementing a premature infant’s usual vitamin E intake is essential [85].
2.7 Uterine fibroids
Uterine fibroids or myomas are benign tumours of the human uterus. The main symptoms are prolonged or heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure or pain, and reproductive dysfunction [86]. Fibroids have an effect on a woman’s pregnancy as well as her quality of life. Fibroids affect approximately 35–77% of reproductive-age women. Fibroids may cause infertility by obstructing the fallopian tubes and impairing gamete transport [87].
A total of 49 patients were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial conducted by Harrison et al. in 2003. For six months, all patients were given either vitamins E (1000 IU) and C (1000 mg) or a placebo. Results show that a statistically significant improvement in fibrosis score (p = 0.002) [88]. Fruscella et al. studied the effect of vitamin E (300 mg per day) in a group of 25 women, aged between 25 and 41 years old, suffering from uterine myomas in pregnancy. All the pregnancies continued to term. The neonatal outcome was satisfactory in all cases and no collateral effects were observed in either mothers or fetuses [89]. Tocopherol can stop cancer cells from growing in culture by trapping free radicals and other mechanisms [90]. Young et al. discovered that vitamin E succinate (a vitamin E analogue) decreased the number of UF cells and caused cell death [91]. In addition, Zhang et al. discovered that vitamin E succinate ester could suppress steroid hormone signalling [92].
2.8 Preeclampsia
Preeclampsia is a major cause of both maternal and fetal neonatal morbidity. Endothelial damage in the arteries is believed to play a role. The simple clinical definition [gestational hypertension (>90 mmHg diastolic) occurring after the 20th week of gestation with superimposed proteinuria (>300 mg/day) belies the complexity of preeclampsia, which is often accompanied by multi-organ dysfunction. Free radical-mediated lipid peroxidation may be involved in endothelial damage in preeclampsia. Complications such as endothelial cell dysfunction of blood vessels in women with preeclampsia and other hypertensive conditions are linked with oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation.
Antioxidants may be essential for lipid peroxidation prevention and, hypothetically, pre-eclampsia prevention. Vitamin E, which is a free radical scavenger and thus inhibits the development of lipid peroxides, opposes the toxic acts of lipid peroxides. It acts as in-vivo antioxidant that protects tissue lipids from free radical attack and thus stabilizes cell membranes. Compared to non-pregnancy, maternal levels of vitamin E are elevated in pregnancy, which is consistent with previous studies. In women with preeclampsia, the antioxidant function is decreased relative to women who have normal pregnancies. Antioxidant activity increases throughout normal gestation, but not with preeclampsia. It has been suggested that evidence of vitamin E consumption is an alerting mechanism for the development of preeclampsia [93, 94]. Some preclinical studies show that vitamin E plays a role in preeclampsia [95]. But some clinical studies suggest that there is no role of vitamin E in preeclampsia [96, 97]. A study has found that level of vitamin E in preeclampsia was low, but no preventive role was found in preeclampsia [98].
2.9 Intrauterine growth restriction
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is the inability of fetuses to achieve their genetically defined growth rate resulting in offspring with low birth weight (LBW) and is a problem for both human and veterinary medicine. IUGR has significant consequences for the mortality and morbidity of LBW newborns and has long-term effects on their development and health. The presence of IUGR is directly linked to an insufficient supply of nutrients and oxygen to the fetus due to maternal malnutrition and/or placental insufficiency [99, 100].
In the study, Sales et al. found that combined maternal administration of vitamin C and E in sheep was associated with increased levels of both vitamins in the fetal cord, enhanced antioxidant status, and increased fetal development in singleton and twin pregnancies, but with a greater impact on twin pregnancies. These findings demonstrate the ability of supplementation of vitamin C and E to reduce the effects of IUGRR [101]. Since the transplacental transmission of alpha-tocopherol is minimal, newborns are considered an at-risk category for vitamin E deficiency. Low serum levels of alpha-tocopherol are associated with the development of edemas, thrombocytosis, and hemolytic anemia, which can result in cardiomyopathy and the possible consequence of this vitamin deficiency is its restriction on the intrauterine growth of fetuses [102].
Atherosclerosis is one of the main factor of intrauterine growth restriction. Busso et al. [103] studied LDL KO mice diet-induced maternal hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis during pregnancy can negatively impact fetal growth. Vitamin E dietary supplementation has a beneficial effect, preventing growth restriction in a significant proportion of fetuses from HC-fed mice [103].
2.10 Premature rupture of membranes
Preterm, premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM) is defined as membrane rupture before 37 weeks’ gestation in the absence of labour.
PPROM occurs in 1–2% of all deliveries and results in a major portion of preterm deliveries with the regular mortality rate in neonates [104]. Infection, cigarette smoke, and inflammation have all been linked to preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes. Since hypochlorous acid (a reactive oxygen species) is essential to the body’s reaction to infection, it may cause tissue damage when destroying pathogens. Plessinger et al. found that antioxidant therapy (vitamins C and E) has a protective effect against hypochlorous acid-induced damage [105].
Preterm infants have a higher risk of oxidative stress and free-radical-mediated diseases, which is partially due to their low antioxidant levels. Bolisetty et al. studied the effect of maternal supplementation of antioxidant vitamins before delivery to reduce the oxidative stress in the mothers and their infants. Five mothers between the ages of 30 and 36 weeks who were at risk of preterm delivery were given a daily oral dosage of betacarotene 20 mg, vitamin E 167.8 mg, and vitamin C 1000 mg until delivery. There was a trend of lower plasma MDA and higher vitamin E at birth in infants born to supplemented mothers. Finally, it has been concluded that short supplementation of antioxidant vitamins to preterm pregnant women reduced the oxidative stress at delivery in mothers and probably in their neonates [106].
The fetal membranes (amnion and chorion) derive their strength principally from collagen. Collagen provides fetal membranes with both tensile strength and elasticity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the body’s response to infection, cigarette smoking, bleeding, or cocaine use can activate collagen lytic enzymes and impair fetal membrane integrity. Vitamin E, a lipid-soluble antioxidant, inhibits membrane-damaging effects of reactive oxygen species induced lipid peroxidation [107]. Hauth et al., studied that maternal supplementation with vitamin C and E did not reduce the occurrence of spontaneous preterm birth [108].
3. Discussion
Several risk factors contributing to reproductive- and pregnancy-related disorders have been reported. Environmental and lifestyle factors are the two main types factors. Examples of major environmental pollutants include hazardous man-made chemicals, industrial discharge, agricultural run-off, human and animal waste, municipal and domestic effluents, and spillage of vessels and oil spills [109]. Lifestyle factors represent another category of major risk factors for reproductive and pregnancy-related disorders. Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors, including cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and/or drug abuse, have negative impacts, particularly on female fertility [110, 111]. Furthermore, exposure to multiple environmental pollutants may also result in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced oxidative stress (OS). High levels of OS can be linked to a variety of pregnancy-related issues, including embryonic death, early spontaneous abortion, IUGR, fetal death, preterm births, and low birth weight [112, 113]. ROS are highly reactive and unstable. They acquire electrons from nucleic acids, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, or any other nearby molecule causing a string of chain reactions to become stable. These chain reactions result in cellular damage and diseases [114]. The human body produces reactive compounds known as free radicals which exert a positive as well as a negative impact on the body. To minimize the harmful effect, a complex protection system is required which is known as the antioxidant system. When there is an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the defense mechanism of the antioxidant system it leads to a condition known as oxidative stress [115]. Oxidative stress affects the interaction of gametes and their quality. Spermatozoa, embryos, and oocyte and their environment are affected by free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS). The quality of sperm-mediated oocyte activation, early embryo development, implantation, sperm oocyte interaction is dependent on the microenvironment associated with peritoneal fluid, follicular fluid, and hydrosalpingeal fluid. Implantation and early embryo development are adversely affected by oxidative stress leading to a negative effect on the rate of pregnancy. One of the causative factors for infertility and endometriosis is oxidative stress [116]. ROS or pro-oxidant or free radicals production have a connection with aerobic metabolism [117, 118], and also the hormones, cytokines, and other stressors are associated with its production. Hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide are examples of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and they act by modulating the gene expression and transcription factor. A broad range of antioxidants is available which hold the capability to repair cell damage caused by ROS and can neutralize them as well [119, 120].
Some studies suggested that there is a direct relationship between the outcome of the pregnancy and the level of ROS. The placental mitochondrion is the place that has been identified for the production of superoxide in a great amount [121, 122]. Antioxidants such as vitamin C and vitamin E have been reported to be efficient, and their uses in reproductive- and pregnancy-related disorders have been the subject of significant clinical trials [123]. Vitamin E is a chain-breaking antioxidant that helps to inhibit lipid peroxidation [124, 125].
All of these studies show that vitamin E is essential for a natural and stable pregnancy and that vitamin E supplementation has no negative effects on pregnancy outcomes. As discussed above, vitamin E has been proven to be beneficial in pregnancy and neonatal health.
4. Conclusion
Vitamin E has antioxidant properties that may support pregnancy, but more research is needed to determine its effectiveness. There is a need to evaluate the efficacy and safety of vitamin E supplementation in pregnancy. More research is needed to accurately quantify antioxidant-like vitamin E levels in pregnancy and how they change throughout the pregnancy. It is necessary to investigate the effects of antioxidants on maternal, fetal, and placental health. Prenatal advice should be clear to ensure that women and physicians understand the dietary conditions during pregnancy and how a balanced diet contains antioxidant micronutrients like vitamin E will help avoid pregnancy-related diseases.
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, U.P., India
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Thus, communities that are at risk of oil disasters must anticipate the consequences and prepare for them.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Ismail M.K. Saadoun",authors:[{id:"173457",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Saadoun",slug:"ismail-saadoun",fullName:"Ismail Saadoun"}]},{id:"49635",doi:"10.5772/61771",title:"Rotifers as Models in Toxicity Screening of Chemicals and Environmental Samples",slug:"rotifers-as-models-in-toxicity-screening-of-chemicals-and-environmental-samples",totalDownloads:2731,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"An important objective of aquatic ecotoxicology is to determine the effects of toxic compounds in organisms that play a central role in aquatic communities where rotifers have a large impact on several important ecological processes. The contribution of the rotifers to secondary production in many aquatic communities is substantial as they are often the larger fraction of zooplankton biomass at certain times of the year. In addition to the importance of their ecological roles in aquatic communities, the rotifers are attractive organisms for ecotoxicological studies by its short life cycles and rapid reproduction, their small size, and little volumes needed for culture and toxicity assays. The main end points used in ecotoxicological studies are mortality, reproduction, behavior, and biomarkers. Such parameters are included in international regulations from all over the world, where different species are used to evaluate the effect of environmental samples or chemical compounds. The high diversity of rotifers is an important issue because it can modify their relative susceptibility to toxicants. Thus, more studies are needed to know the relations and mechanisms involved in clonal variation, sensitivity, and development, which can be all assessed by state-of-the-art procedures.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Roberto Rico-Martínez, Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas, Daniel\nRobles-Vargas, Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi, Alvarado-Flores\nJesús and Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano",authors:[{id:"96153",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rico-Martinez",slug:"roberto-rico-martinez",fullName:"Roberto Rico-Martinez"},{id:"177852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Arzate-Cárdenas",slug:"mario-alberto-arzate-cardenas",fullName:"Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas"},{id:"177853",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Vargas",slug:"daniel-robles-vargas",fullName:"Daniel Robles-Vargas"},{id:"177854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Legaspi",slug:"ignacio-alejandro-perez-legaspi",fullName:"Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi"},{id:"177855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado-Flores",slug:"jesus-alvarado-flores",fullName:"Jesús Alvarado-Flores"},{id:"177856",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Medrano",slug:"gustavo-emilio-santos-medrano",fullName:"Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano"}]},{id:"49050",doi:"10.5772/60216",title:"Immunotoxicological Threats of Pollutants in Aquatic Invertebrates",slug:"immunotoxicological-threats-of-pollutants-in-aquatic-invertebrates",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Immunology deals with the physiological activity of organisms to defend against pathogen and toxin invasion. Invertebrates residing in aquatic ecosystems often face toxicological threat arises from habitat pollution. The aquatic habitat of invertebrates is in the precarious risk of pollution caused by diverse groups of environmental toxins. Immunotoxins have been considered as a special group of pollutants capable of affecting the immunological profile of organisms. Invertebrates residing in water bear ecological, economical, medicinal, industrial, nutritional and biotechnological significance. Global aquatic bioresource is largely composed of invertebrates belonging to multiple Phyla. These organisms, including insects, snails, clams, mussels, crabs and sponges, are physiologically dependent on innate immunological response for defense against pathogen and environmental contaminants. External physicochemical barriers of invertebrates act as primary line of defen against toxin entry. Principal barriers have been identified as shell, tunic, test, carapace, mucus, etc., in diverse species. Toxin-induced morphological damage of specialized immunocytes of invertebrates has been reported. Toxin-induced shift in density, surface adhesion efficacy and aggregation of blood cells or haemocytes have been identified as major xenobiotic stress in invertebrates. Various environmental toxins are capable of initiating alteration in the innate phagocytic response and cytotoxicity of blood cells. Lysosomes of invertebrate haemocytes are functionally involved in intracellular destruction of environmental pathogens. Toxins like arsenic, pyrethroid pesticides, azadirachtin and washing soda were reported to increase the relative fragility of lysosomal membranes of immunocytes. This often leads to impairment in the efficacy of invertebrates to destroy pathogen under the exposure of pollutants. Xenobiotics like pyrethroid pesticides have been recorded to affect apoptosis and necrosis of invertebrate immunocytes. Selected toxin-induced morphological damages of heart, gill, digestive gland, mantle and antennae may result in the overall impairment in homeostatic levels of invertebrates inhabiting the polluted environment. Global environment, in recent times, is under the serious threat of contamination by diverse chemical compounds of unknown or less known toxicity. A thorough ecotoxicological analysis at cellular and molecular levels needs to be carried out in invertebrates occupying the different realms of the planet in future.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Sajal Ray, Soumalya Mukherjee, Niladri Sekhar Bhunia, Anindya\nSundar Bhunia and Mitali Ray",authors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"},{id:"175476",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumalya",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"soumalya-mukherjee",fullName:"Soumalya Mukherjee"},{id:"175477",title:"Mr.",name:"Niladri Sekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Bhunia",slug:"niladri-sekhar-bhunia",fullName:"Niladri Sekhar Bhunia"},{id:"175478",title:"Mr.",name:"Anindya Sundar",middleName:null,surname:"Bhunia",slug:"anindya-sundar-bhunia",fullName:"Anindya Sundar Bhunia"},{id:"175479",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitali",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"mitali-ray",fullName:"Mitali Ray"}]},{id:"49867",doi:"10.5772/62228",title:"Overview of the Standard Methods for Soil Ecotoxicology Testing",slug:"overview-of-the-standard-methods-for-soil-ecotoxicology-testing",totalDownloads:2671,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter briefly describes the importance of the services provided by soil invertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems and highlights the role of soil fauna in the risk assessments of potentially polluting substances for the terrestrial environment, considering the sensitivity of these organisms, when compared to other indicators of soil quality (e.g., chemical and physical). The main invertebrate groups used in laboratorial ecotoxicological assays are presented and, based on its physiological characteristics and habit requirements, the advantages and disadvantages of using certain taxonomic groups in laboratory assessments are also discussed. The most frequently used methods to perform this type of toxicity tests are summarized, highlighting the fundamental steps of the assays with the species Eisenia fetida/Eisenia andrei, Folsomia candida, Enchytraeus albidus/Enchytraeus crypticus, and Hypoaspis aculeifer, as well as the possible adjustments that are being carried out in tropical countries. Finally, the future prospects, related to the challenge of increasing the realism of laboratory ecotoxicological analyses, are discussed to show the main needs of this study at global and regional perspectives.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves and Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",authors:[{id:"176887",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes Alves",slug:"paulo-roger-lopes-alves",fullName:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves"},{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso"}]},{id:"48714",doi:"10.5772/60887",title:"The Relevance of ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy in Semiconductor Photocatalysis",slug:"the-relevance-of-atr-ftir-spectroscopy-in-semiconductor-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:3103,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy has a high potential for investigating a wide range of samples and systems. In photocatalysis, various interfacial phenomena can be studied using this technique, including pH-dependent adsorption and photodegradation of probe molecules. The analysis of the processes occurring at the interface of thin particle films deposited on the surface of an ATR crystal, either in the liquid or the gas phase, is perhaps the best way to elucidate the mechanism of adsorption and heterogeneous photocatalytic reactions. This chapter summarizes the recent advances and applications of ATR-FTIR techniques in semiconductor photocatalysis. A brief outlook at some of the possible investigations in this area is provided and the different proposed adsorption and photocatalytic degradation mechanisms are discussed.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar, Hamza Belhadj, Ralf Dillert and Detlef W.\nBahnemann",authors:[{id:"100553",title:"Prof.",name:"Detlef",middleName:null,surname:"Bahnemann",slug:"detlef-bahnemann",fullName:"Detlef Bahnemann"},{id:"173632",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mohamed Faycal",middleName:null,surname:"Atitar",slug:"mohamed-faycal-atitar",fullName:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar"},{id:"173812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Dillert",slug:"ralf-dillert",fullName:"Ralf Dillert"},{id:"175502",title:"MSc.",name:"Hamza",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"hamza-belhadj",fullName:"Hamza Belhadj"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48714",title:"The Relevance of ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy in Semiconductor Photocatalysis",slug:"the-relevance-of-atr-ftir-spectroscopy-in-semiconductor-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:3102,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy has a high potential for investigating a wide range of samples and systems. In photocatalysis, various interfacial phenomena can be studied using this technique, including pH-dependent adsorption and photodegradation of probe molecules. The analysis of the processes occurring at the interface of thin particle films deposited on the surface of an ATR crystal, either in the liquid or the gas phase, is perhaps the best way to elucidate the mechanism of adsorption and heterogeneous photocatalytic reactions. This chapter summarizes the recent advances and applications of ATR-FTIR techniques in semiconductor photocatalysis. A brief outlook at some of the possible investigations in this area is provided and the different proposed adsorption and photocatalytic degradation mechanisms are discussed.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar, Hamza Belhadj, Ralf Dillert and Detlef W.\nBahnemann",authors:[{id:"100553",title:"Prof.",name:"Detlef",middleName:null,surname:"Bahnemann",slug:"detlef-bahnemann",fullName:"Detlef Bahnemann"},{id:"173632",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mohamed Faycal",middleName:null,surname:"Atitar",slug:"mohamed-faycal-atitar",fullName:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar"},{id:"173812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Dillert",slug:"ralf-dillert",fullName:"Ralf Dillert"},{id:"175502",title:"MSc.",name:"Hamza",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"hamza-belhadj",fullName:"Hamza Belhadj"}]},{id:"49472",title:"Nanotoxicity in Aquatic Invertebrates",slug:"nanotoxicity-in-aquatic-invertebrates",totalDownloads:2186,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Due to their unique properties, nanomaterials (NMs) are being incorporated in several applications including consumer products, electronics, pesticides and the pharmaceutical industry. As such, the rapid development and large-scale production of NMs has inspired concerns regarding their environmental health risks. In order to address these concerns, there has been a rapid development in the methods of toxicity testing of NMs, specifically in aquatic organisms. Understanding the unique properties of nanoscale materials has proven to be a particular important aspect of their toxicity. Properties such as surface area, surface coating, surface charge, particle reactivity, aggregation and dissolution may affect cellular uptake, in vivo reactivity and distribution across tissues. The behaviour of NPs is influenced by both the inherent properties of the NP as well as environmental properties (such as temperature, pH, ionic strength, salinity, organic matter). As such, this chapter describes methodologies of NM characterization in exposure media and NM in vivo toxicity experimental procedures under variable environmental conditions (with special emphasis on temperature).",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Chavon Walters, Edmund Pool and Vernon Somerset",authors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",middleName:null,surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"},{id:"176939",title:"Dr.",name:"Chavon",middleName:null,surname:"Walters",slug:"chavon-walters",fullName:"Chavon Walters"},{id:"177116",title:"Prof.",name:"Edmund",middleName:null,surname:"Pool",slug:"edmund-pool",fullName:"Edmund Pool"}]},{id:"49635",title:"Rotifers as Models in Toxicity Screening of Chemicals and Environmental Samples",slug:"rotifers-as-models-in-toxicity-screening-of-chemicals-and-environmental-samples",totalDownloads:2729,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"An important objective of aquatic ecotoxicology is to determine the effects of toxic compounds in organisms that play a central role in aquatic communities where rotifers have a large impact on several important ecological processes. The contribution of the rotifers to secondary production in many aquatic communities is substantial as they are often the larger fraction of zooplankton biomass at certain times of the year. In addition to the importance of their ecological roles in aquatic communities, the rotifers are attractive organisms for ecotoxicological studies by its short life cycles and rapid reproduction, their small size, and little volumes needed for culture and toxicity assays. The main end points used in ecotoxicological studies are mortality, reproduction, behavior, and biomarkers. Such parameters are included in international regulations from all over the world, where different species are used to evaluate the effect of environmental samples or chemical compounds. The high diversity of rotifers is an important issue because it can modify their relative susceptibility to toxicants. Thus, more studies are needed to know the relations and mechanisms involved in clonal variation, sensitivity, and development, which can be all assessed by state-of-the-art procedures.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Roberto Rico-Martínez, Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas, Daniel\nRobles-Vargas, Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi, Alvarado-Flores\nJesús and Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano",authors:[{id:"96153",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rico-Martinez",slug:"roberto-rico-martinez",fullName:"Roberto Rico-Martinez"},{id:"177852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Arzate-Cárdenas",slug:"mario-alberto-arzate-cardenas",fullName:"Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas"},{id:"177853",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Vargas",slug:"daniel-robles-vargas",fullName:"Daniel Robles-Vargas"},{id:"177854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Legaspi",slug:"ignacio-alejandro-perez-legaspi",fullName:"Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi"},{id:"177855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado-Flores",slug:"jesus-alvarado-flores",fullName:"Jesús Alvarado-Flores"},{id:"177856",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Medrano",slug:"gustavo-emilio-santos-medrano",fullName:"Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano"}]},{id:"48738",title:"Impact of Oil Spills on Marine Life",slug:"impact-of-oil-spills-on-marine-life",totalDownloads:4867,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Petroleum contamination is a growing environmental concern that harms both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. However, the public and regulatory and scientific communities have given more attention to the contamination of marine habitats. This is because marine oil spills can have a serious economic impact on coastal activities, as well as on those who exploit the resources of the sea. Thus, communities that are at risk of oil disasters must anticipate the consequences and prepare for them.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Ismail M.K. Saadoun",authors:[{id:"173457",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Saadoun",slug:"ismail-saadoun",fullName:"Ismail Saadoun"}]},{id:"49867",title:"Overview of the Standard Methods for Soil Ecotoxicology Testing",slug:"overview-of-the-standard-methods-for-soil-ecotoxicology-testing",totalDownloads:2670,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter briefly describes the importance of the services provided by soil invertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems and highlights the role of soil fauna in the risk assessments of potentially polluting substances for the terrestrial environment, considering the sensitivity of these organisms, when compared to other indicators of soil quality (e.g., chemical and physical). The main invertebrate groups used in laboratorial ecotoxicological assays are presented and, based on its physiological characteristics and habit requirements, the advantages and disadvantages of using certain taxonomic groups in laboratory assessments are also discussed. The most frequently used methods to perform this type of toxicity tests are summarized, highlighting the fundamental steps of the assays with the species Eisenia fetida/Eisenia andrei, Folsomia candida, Enchytraeus albidus/Enchytraeus crypticus, and Hypoaspis aculeifer, as well as the possible adjustments that are being carried out in tropical countries. Finally, the future prospects, related to the challenge of increasing the realism of laboratory ecotoxicological analyses, are discussed to show the main needs of this study at global and regional perspectives.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves and Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",authors:[{id:"176887",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes Alves",slug:"paulo-roger-lopes-alves",fullName:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves"},{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"846",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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