1. Introduction

Internationally, the production and consumption of chicken meat has been growing. FAO’s 2016 report, which takes stock of the next 10years until 2025, states that world meat production will grow by 16% by this date. This prediction is based on data obtained in 2015, which showed a 20% increase over the previous decade. The countries that will most significantly increase their production records will be the United States, Brazil, the European Union, India, and Russia [1]. In 2030, the world will need millions more tons of meat, especially poultry, whose consumption will almost quadruple according to FAO estimates.

On the other hand, chicken is considered a perishable food because of its high-water activity (Aw) and should be stored under conditions where microbial growth is slow or does not take place [2]. In addition, as chicken meat production increases, so do food safety risks. Chicken meat is exposed to several types of hazards, such as biological, chemical, and physical hazards, which may be in the food and pose harm to the consumer’s health when ingested [3]. In relation to biological hazards, these microorganisms can be pathogenic and cause foodborne diseases or STDs [4], depending on their pathogenicity and the number and concentration of bacteria in the product [5].

Foodborne diseases are a growing public health problem. It is estimated that every year, some 600 million people in the world—almost 1 out of every 10 inhabitants—fall ill from eating contaminated food and that 420,000 die from the same cause. Diarrheal infections, which are most commonly associated with the consumption of contaminated food, make about 550 million people sick each year and cause 230,000 deaths [6].

The objective of this work is to identify and analyze hazards and CCPs (Critical Control Points) in each of the stages that make up the poultry chain. Additionally, and based on the results, the corrective and risk control measures applicable to the processes are defined.

2. Methodology

The study was carried out by observing the production processes of the different plants (hatchery, fattening farm, slaughter plant, depressing plant, and consumption site), with information provided by the different actors in the chain (operating personnel of the company, consumers, company managers, experts, vendors, suppliers, transporters, among others), and by verifying all the documents required during the visits.

Some principles of the HACCP system were used as a tool, since it allows the identification of CCPs and the subsequent definition of corrective and control measures throughout the processes.

3. Results and analysis

The results are presented below according to the stated objective:

The chicken meat production chain is made up of the stages of incubation, fattening, slaughter, depressing, and consumption. For each of the plants and consumption site, data on the location of the plant such as altitude, surroundings, ambient temperature, and relative humidity are indicated, since these are environmental characteristics that can influence, justify, or be related to the hazards identified throughout the process in the poultry chain.

3.1 Hazard identification and CCPs

For the definition of CCPs, it is analyzed whether the operation exists specifically to eliminate or reduce a hazard, if contamination reaches unacceptable levels at that stage, or if a subsequent operation does not eliminate or reduce the hazard to acceptable levels. This is in accordance with the 1993 Codex Committee’s Guide for the Application of HACCP.

The operations that make up each of the stages and the analysis of the hazards (physical, chemical and biological) and CCPs identified are presented in the following graphs.

Incubation:

Plant location data:

Altitude: 288 masl.

Surroundings: Vegetation (grass and trees). It is located 314m from a recreational club, 226 m from a Hacienda, 307 m from a hotel, 683 m from another hotel, and 338 m from a condominium.

Ambient temperature: 27.3–29.3°C (27.3–29.3°F).

Relative Humidity: 66.38%.

Figure 1 of the incubation stage is shown below:

Figure 1.
Incubation stage. Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the hatchery.

The hazards identified in each of the operations of the hatchery stage are detailed in Table 1, as well as the CCPs:

Stage	Danger	Risk factor	PCC
Unloading and reception of eggs	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Egg contaminated by pathogens Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof, since these are activities to be carried out by the egg supplier or owner of the vehicle and which cannot be verified immediately, since there are no verifications using luminometers or similar techniques that generate immediate results and therefore immediate corrective actions. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the environment of the unloading site, personnel equipment, plastic buckets, hands, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. This is due to the fact that there are no disinfection process-verification techniques with immediate results for taking immediate corrective measures.	No
Egg selection	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the sorting site, personnel equipment, plastic buckets, sorting tables, operator hands, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. Likewise, during the visit, no procedures were observed for disinfecting egg trays and sorting tables prior to receiving the eggs.	No
Egg selection	Physical: Presence of feathers and dirt	-Poor cleaning by the supplier. During the visit, the presence of these physical contaminants was evidenced during reception; however, they were rejected and returned.	No
Egg storage	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the storage site, personnel equipment, plastic buckets, temporary storage tables, hands, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. Likewise, during the visit, no procedures were observed for disinfecting egg trays and receiving tables prior to receiving eggs for subsequent storage.	No
Loading eggs into hatchery trays	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the loading site, personnel equipment, plastic buckets, operator’s hands, incubator trays, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	No
Egg incubation	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of incubators and trays. Variation in the required temperature, ventilation, and humidity; however, the recording forms for these variables do not show large fluctuations, and the control of the equipment by the operators can be observed.	No
Egg transport to hatcheries	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the loading site, personnel equipment, operators’ hands, hatcher trays, tray transport carts, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	No
Eggs in hatchers and hatching of chicks	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of hatchers, trays, and operator’s hands and poor hygienic practices. Variation in the required temperature, ventilation, and humidity; however, the recording forms for these variables do not show large fluctuations, and the control of the equipment by the operators can be observed.	No
Chick selection	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, disinfection of operators’ hands, equipment, trays, selection line, and poor hygiene practices of operators. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	No
Chick sexage	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, hands, personnel, trays, sexage line, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	No
Vaccination of chicks	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Incorrect application of the vaccine that does not guarantee the entry of the liquid into the chick’s body and therefore is not effective against the disease. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, disinfection of hands, equipment, trays, vaccination line, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	Yes
Temporary storage of chicks	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the storage site, personnel equipment, plastic buckets, hands, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators.	No
Loading of crates with chicks	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. Also, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection of the loading site, equipment, plastic buckets, hands, bucket transport carts, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators.	No
Transport of chicks to farm	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof.	No

Table 1.

Hazards and CCPs at the hatchery stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the hatchery.

As an open hatchery, it is exposed to environmental and pest contamination, since it is located in a rural area, surrounded by grass and trees, which increases the risk of biological contamination by animals or pests. With a climate between 27 and 29°C, there are more insects, crawling and flying insects, among others. In accordance with the above, there must be a rigorous cleaning and disinfection process before starting the processes.

In egg incubation, the quality of the egg delivered by the supplier is very important, so that it is not contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms, since this determines the contamination from then on in the process.

Biological hazards during this stage are caused by deficient or inadequate disinfection practices, since the disinfectant is not correctly dosed in the water (milliliters of disinfectant per liter of water) or the retention times are not met, and therefore, there is no guarantee of effective elimination of unwanted microorganisms. Likewise, since immediate verifications are not carried out by means of techniques such as luminescence, the effectiveness of disinfection and corrective actions cannot be checked immediately. This, in addition to the fact that during the visit, there was no evidence of compliance with the processes of disinfecting egg trays and tables prior to reception, and some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed. All operations may be affected by cross-contamination due to the lack of hand disinfection, because they are performed manually with direct intervention of the operators.

The variation of temperature, humidity, and time in the incubators and hatchers causes a risk of growth of undesirable microorganisms; however, this equipment has sensors that regulate these variables, and during the visit, the operators were observed keeping records on paper forms for monitoring purposes.

Another risk factor for biohazards is the incorrect preparation of the subcutaneous vaccine or incorrect application of the vaccine, since the vaccine is prepared by plant operators. In relation to the correct application of the vaccine, this liquid has a green color so that this color can be observed in the application area, as evidence of the liquid entering the chick’s body. For vaccination by spraying, there is a risk of exposing the chick to the vaccine for more or less time than allowed, since, although there is a timer, it is an activity performed by an operator.

At this incubation stage, the only CCP identified is vaccination since this vaccination operation has been specifically designed to eliminate a biological hazard such as Marek’s disease, Newcastle disease, and bronchitis. The other operations (egg unloading, egg reception, egg selection, egg sorting, egg temporary storage, loading into setter trays, incubation, transport to hatchers, chick hatching, chick selection, chick sexing, chick temporary storage, chick crates loading to the vehicle, and chick transport to the farm) are not considered CCPs since they are not operations designed to reduce the risk of CCPs. The other operations (unloading eggs, receiving eggs, sorting eggs, selecting chicks, sexing chicks, temporary storage of chicks, loading crates with chicks into the vehicle and transporting chicks to the farm) are not considered CCPs, since they are not operations designed to eliminate a hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level, nor can contamination reach unacceptable levels in these operations.

In relation to physical hazards in the incubation stage, feathers and dirt are present on the eggs; however, they are checked and returned if these quality defects are present.

Fattening:

Plant location data:

Altitude: 2625 masl
Surroundings: Vegetation
Ambient temperature: 14°C average
Relative Humidity: 72%.

Figure 2 of the fattening stage is shown below:

Figure 2.
Fattening stage. Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the farm.

The hazards identified in each of the operations of the fattening stage are detailed in Table 2, as well as the critical control points (CCP) based on the HACCP methodology:

Stage	Danger	Risk factor	PCC
Unloading and reception of chicks	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Pollution contaminated by pathogens or diseased. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof, since these are activities to be carried out by the transporter and which cannot be verified immediately, since there are no verifications by means of luminometers or similar techniques that generate immediate results and therefore immediate corrective actions.	No
Intake and fattening in sheds	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms or diseases.	Chickens that were received contaminated with pathogens or presence of diseases. Transmission of diseases by pests (flies, rats, cockroaches) in the shed.	No
		Feed and water supply. Incorrect administration of the vaccine that does not guarantee the consumption of the beverage and therefore is not effective against the disease.	Yes
		Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the unloading-shed environment, personnel equipment, plastic containers, operator’s hands, container transport carts, brooders, drinkers, feeders, swarf bedding, plastic curtains, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. This is due to the fact that there are no disinfection process verification techniques with immediate results for taking immediate corrective measures.	No
	Chemical: Contamination by antibiotic residues.	Antibiotic residues due to non-compliance with withdrawal time of growth promoters or other medications fed to chickens.	No
Preparation and loading of poultry for transport	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. Also, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the loading shed, personnel equipment, plastic containers, operators’ hands, boots, overalls, drinking troughs, brooders, feeders, plastic curtains, container transport carts, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators.	No
Transport of chickens to the processing plant	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle: pallets, floors, walls, and roof. The above, because of another batch of chicken that was previously transported.	No

Table 2.

Hazards and CCPs in the fattening stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the farm.

When receiving the chicks, it is important to verify the state of health of the bird delivered by the transporter, so that it does not present diseases, since this determines the contamination from then on in the process.

Biological hazards occur at this stage due to the risk of contamination by pathogenic microorganisms either through contaminated water, contaminated feed, transmission by pests, ineffectiveness of the vaccine due to inadequate administration, or poor cleaning and disinfection processes of feeders, drinkers, curtains, and vehicle, among others, and non-compliance with biosecurity measures.

In this fattening stage, the CCP identified is vaccination and feeding, since in the case of vaccination, this operation has been specifically designed to eliminate a biological hazard such as Gumboro, Newcastle, and bronchitis diseases. And in the case of feeding, although this stage is not designed to eliminate or reduce a hazard, contamination can reach unacceptable levels, which are not reduced in subsequent operations. It is also possible to have intervention measures to reduce the danger of contamination by pathogens, through the provision of bacteriophages in the feed or similar. The other operations (unloading and reception of chicks, intake and fattening, feeding, loading and transport of chickens to the processing plant) are not considered CCPs, since they are not operations designed to eliminate a hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level, nor can contamination reach unacceptable levels in these operations.

In relation to chemical hazards, there is a risk of antibiotic residues in chicken meat, due to non-compliance with the withdrawal times of feed containing growth promoters or medicines given to the birds in case of illness.

Sacrifice:

Plant location data:

Altitude: 2625 masl
Surroundings: Paved streets. It is located 427 m from a gas station, 153 m from a chicken distributor, and 406 m from a butcher’s area. In the surrounding area, there are restaurants, transport companies, distribution companies, butcher shops, meat distributors, and meat packing plants, among others.
Distance to main road: Located on main road.
Ambient temperature: 14°C average
Relative Humidity: 72%.

Figure 3 of the slaughtering stage is shown below:

Figure 3.
Sacrifice Stage. Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the slaughter plant.

The hazards identified in each of the operations of the slaughter stage are detailed in Table 3, as well as the critical control points (CCP) based on the HACCP methodology:

Stage	Danger	Risk factor	PCC
Bird discharge	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. Likewise, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the environment, rubber gloves, equipment, poultry houses, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. This is due to the fact that there are no disinfection process verification techniques with immediate results for taking immediate corrective measures. Presence of fecal matter in the baskets where the birds are kept and on the bird itself. The above, given that during the visit, the presence of fecal matter was observed on the floor of the area.	No
Weighing of birds	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scales, gloves, equipment, operators’ hands, poultry houses, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Presence of fecal matter in the cages where the birds are kept and on the bird itself.	No
Ante-mortem inspection	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Birds with presence of pathogenic microorganisms, sick or dead. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, rubber gloves, equipment, poultry crates, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Presence of fecal matter in the cages where the birds are kept and on the bird itself.	No
Hanging of birds	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, rubber gloves, equipment, poultry crates, hanging tunnel, infrastructure, hanging hooks, and poor operator hygiene practices. Presence of fecal matter in the cages where the birds are kept and on the bird itself.	No
Bird desensitization	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, infrastructure, hanging hooks, water tank, and water. Presence of fecal matter on the bird itself.	No
Poultry slaughter	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, rubber gloves, operator equipment, slaughter line, infrastructure, knife, hanging hooks, and poor operator hygiene practices. Presence of fecal matter on the bird itself.	No
Chicken carcass bleeding	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, bleeding line, infrastructure, and hanging hooks. Presence of fecal matter on the bird itself and in blood.	No
Blanching of chicken carcass	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scalding tank, hanging hooks, scalding water, infrastructure, and scalder. Blood in the scalding water. High variations in the defined temperatures and times; however, during the visit, the verification performed by the operators on the thermometers of the equipment was observed. Inhalation of water from scalding if the bird is not dead.	No
Chicken carcass plucking	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, plucking machine, hanging hooks, infrastructure, and plucking line. Contamination by not washing frequently or removing feathers from the equipment. During the visit, the equipment was observed with excess feathers, as well as in the area.	No
	Physical: Feathers	Feathers that were not removed; however, the chicken carcass was observed to be approximately 98% clean.	No
	Chemicals: Disinfectant Residues	Residues of detergents or disinfectants in the plucking machine, since it has spaces that are difficult to access, making cleaning and disinfection difficult.	No
Chicken carcass turning	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, hanging hooks, equipment, rubber gloves, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices. This is due to the fact that hand disinfection was not observed on a constant basis or when there was a change of activity.	No
Chicken carcass turning	Physical: Hair	Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Scalding of carcass legs	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scalding tank, hanging hooks, scalding water, infrastructure, and scalder. High variations in the defined temperatures and times; however, during the visit, the verification performed by the operators on the thermometers of the equipment was observed.	No
Peeling of carcass legs	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, hanging hooks, infrastructure, and equipment (peeler). Also, cross-contamination with the by-product generated. This is due to the accumulation of residues (cuticles) on the floor and in the area in general.	No
Peeling of carcass legs	Physical: Cuticles of legs	Presence of cuticles due to deficient peeling.	No
Cutting of carcass legs	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, hanging hooks, equipment, rubber gloves, knives, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices.	No
Cutting of carcass legs	Physical: Hair	Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Hanging of chicken carcass	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, hanging hooks, equipment, rubber gloves, infrastructure, and poor operator hygiene practices.	No
Hanging of chicken carcass	Physical: Hair	Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Gutting of chicken carcasses	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, rubber gloves, personnel equipment, hanging hooks, infrastructure, knife, pneumatic sewer extraction gun, and poor operator hygiene practices. Contamination with edible and inedible viscera generated. This is due to the fact that during the visit, viscera residues were observed on the floor that were not picked up immediately. Contamination due to gall breakage. Contamination due to rupture of the intestines. Contamination from spoiled viscera. Delay of more than 30 minutes between bleeding and evisceration.	Yes
	Chemicals: Contamination by disinfectants	Incorrect dosage or preparation.	No
	Physical: Hair	Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Pre-cooling and disinfection of chicken carcasses	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, cooling tanks, or contaminated water. High variations in the defined temperatures and times; however, during the visit, the verification performed by the operators on the thermometers of the equipment was observed. Incorrect dosage or preparation of disinfectants that does not guarantee disinfection of the carcass.	Yes
Pre-cooling and disinfection of chicken carcasses	Chemicals: Contamination by disinfectants	Incorrect dosage or preparation of disinfectants.	No
Chicken carcass cooling	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, cooling tanks, or contaminated water or ice. High variations in the defined temperatures and times (higher than 4°C, measured in the center of the muscle mass); however, during the visit, the verification carried out by the operators on the equipment thermometers was observed.	No
Chicken packaging	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, packaging line, bags, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. This is due to the fact that no hand disinfection was observed during change of activity. Contaminated or dirty packaging due to improper storage. Temperature increase in the area (above 12°C).	No
	Chemicals: Contamination with detergent or disinfectant residues	Packaging contaminated by inputs such as disinfectants or detergents due to improper storage.	No
	Physical: Hair, plastics	Fractions or pieces of plastics from packaging. Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Chicken packaging	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, packaging line, bags, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. This is due to the fact that no hand disinfection was observed during change of activity.	No
Chicken packaging	Physical: Hair	Hair of handlers or operators.	No
Weighing of chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scales, gloves, equipment, hands, baskets, infrastructure, and bags and bad hygiene practices of the operators. This is due to the fact that no hand disinfection was observed during change of activity.	No
Loading and transporting chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets,, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Also, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. High variations in defined temperatures and times. In the dispatch area, a temperature above 15°C.	No

Table 3.

Hazards and CCPs in the slaughter stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the slaughter plant.

The location of the slaughter plant in a cold climate mitigates somewhat the risk of contamination by undesirable microorganisms compared to slaughter plants located in warm climates. Likewise, being located in an urban area, the presence of domestic animals, pests, and flying crawlers is reduced compared to a plant located in a rural area with a warm climate.

A critical operation in the slaughter of poultry is the ante-mortem inspection, since there is a danger of biological contamination of birds with pathogenic microorganisms or diseases; therefore, it is necessary to certify disease-free animals from the farm.

Likewise, biological hazards during this stage are caused by deficient or inadequate disinfection practices, since the dosage of the disinfectant in the water (milliliters of disinfectant per liter of water) is not correctly carried out, or the retention times are not met, and therefore, there is no guarantee of effective elimination of undesirable microorganisms. Likewise, since immediate verifications are not carried out by means of techniques such as luminescence, the effectiveness of disinfection and corrective actions cannot be checked immediately. The above, in addition to the fact that during the visit, very poor cleaning and disinfection practices were observed, due to excess feathers in the plucking area, excess cuticles in the leg-peeling area, excess viscera and blood in the evisceration areas, viscera cooling tanks and viscera packaging. This is aggravated considering that there is always the risk of contamination with fecal matter coming from the crates where the live birds arrive and during the operations of unloading of birds, weighing of birds, ante-mortem inspection, hanging of birds, desensitization, slaughter, and bleeding and mainly during the evisceration process due to the rupture of the intestines.

The CCPs identified in the slaughter stage correspond to the evisceration and disinfection of the carcass. In the evisceration operation, specifically, if the intestine ruptures, given that, although the stage was not designed to eliminate or reduce a risk, contamination can reach unacceptable levels, due to contamination with fecal matter from the rupture of the intestine. In the disinfection operation, the step was specifically designed to eliminate or reduce a hazard; therefore, it is considered a CCP.

With respect to chemical hazards, there is contamination by disinfectants, due to incorrect dosage (addition of more disinfectant than defined), longer retention time, or no rinsing (in cases where this should be done). This type of hazard is observed in the plucking process, since the equipment has spaces that are difficult to access, making cleaning and disinfection difficult and leaving disinfectant residues on the equipment. This risk is also present during the evisceration process, since carcasses that have any contact with dirty areas are disinfected, and during pre-cooling, where carcasses are disinfected prior to packaging. Finally, packaging contaminated with detergents or disinfectants may exist; however, this risk is low in the production plant, since there is evidence of packaging storage in separate rooms from the storage of all types of inputs, in compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP).

In relation to physical hazards, feathers are present at the slaughtering stage and are removed by the plucking machine. Subsequently, at the end of the evisceration line and before pre-cooling, there is a process of visual verification of carcass quality, where any feathers that are still present are removed. Another danger is the cuticles that are removed from the legs and can become cross-contaminated with subsequent processes due to excess cuticles in the area without frequent cleaning of the equipment and the area; however, as mentioned, the carcass is visually inspected before pre-cooling. Fractions or pieces of plastic packaging may be present during the packaging process due to quality defects in the packaging supplied by the supplier; however, this risk is low, since there has been no evidence of such contamination by production plant personnel, and there have been no complaints from customers or consumers. Finally, for physical hazards, there are hairs, which can fall in any of the operations that take place outside the slaughter line tunnel and that have direct contact with food handlers, such as the operations of turning the chicken, cutting the legs of the carcass, hanging the chicken carcass, evisceration, packaging, and packing. However, this risk is low, since they wear a cap that completely covers their hair and ears, reducing this risk to a minimum, especially in the packing process.

Depressing:

Plant location data:

Altitude: 2625 masl
Surroundings: Paved streets. It is located 152 m from a gas station. In the surrounding area, there are banks, restaurants, bookstores, transportation companies, distribution companies, cab companies, and clothing stores, among others.
Ambient temperature: 14°C
Relative Humidity: 72%.

Figure 4 of the depressurization stage is shown below:

Figure 4.
Desprese stage. Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the depressing plant.

The hazards identified in each of the operations of the depressurization stage are detailed in Table 4, as well as the critical control points (CCP) based on the HACCP methodology:

Stage	Danger	Risk factor	PCC
Unloading of chicken in carcasses	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. Likewise, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. This is due to the fact that there are no disinfection process verification techniques with immediate results for taking immediate corrective measures.	No
Weighing of chicken carcasses	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scales, gloves, equipment, operators’ hands, baskets, infrastructure, bagging, and bad hygiene practices of the food handler.	No
Chicken carcass reception	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms from slaughter. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scales, gloves, equipment, hands, baskets, infrastructure, bagging, and bad hygiene practices of the food handler. Chicken carcass contaminated with fecal matter residues, although in the last month, the control record forms do not show chicken with this defect.	No
	Physical: Presence of feathers Presence of hair	Deficient plucking during slaughter of the bird. The above, given that during the visit, this defect was observed in one (1) chicken of the sample that was verified. Inadequate use of the cap by the food handler.	No
	Chemicals: Excess of disinfectant (when a chicken falls on the floor, it is disinfected).	Incorrect dosage in the preparation of the disinfectant.	No
Depressing of chicken carcasses	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, cutter, rubber glove, steel glove, equipment, basket, infrastructure, bag, and bad hygiene practices of the food handler. This is due to the fact that during the visit, it was observed that dams were falling to the floor and were not collected “immediately” for disinfection. Increase in the temperature of the area (above 12°C) Temperature increase of the product (above 5°C)	No
	Chemicals: Excess of disinfectant (when a chicken falls on the floor, it is disinfected). Disinfectant residues.	Incorrect dosage in the preparation of the disinfectant. Residues of detergents or disinfectants on the cutter.	No
	Physical: Presence of hair	Inadequate use of the cap by the food handler.	No
Weighing of dams	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, scales, gloves, equipment, hands, baskets, infrastructure, bagging, and bad hygiene practices of the food handler.	No
Storage cooling of dams	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the cold room environment, walls, ceiling, and floors of the cold room; rubber gloves; equipment; baskets; fan; basket transport cart; and poor hygienic practices of the food handler. Temperature increase, higher than −2 and 4°C.	No
Marinating of prey	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment, mixing tanks, marinator, hands, equipment, baskets, rubber gloves, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. During the visit, it was observed that a dam had fallen to the ground, which was only washed but not disinfected.	No
	Chemicals: Excess of brine (salt, phosphates, stabilizer, emulsifier) Contamination of the brine with chemical or cleaning products Excess of disinfectant (when a chicken falls on the floor, it is disinfected) Disinfectant residues	Incorrect dosage in brine preparation. Inadequate brine storage. Incorrect dosage in the preparation of the disinfectant. Residues of detergents or disinfectants in the sealing machine, since this equipment has several areas that are difficult to access and therefore difficult to clean and disinfect.	No
	Physical: Brine mixing and marinating tank nuts fall out	Incorrect preventive maintenance of the mixing and marinating tanks.	No
Storage freezing of dams	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the cold room environment, walls, ceiling, and floors of the cold room; rubber gloves; equipment; baskets; fan; basket transport cart; and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. Temperature increase, higher than −18°C.	No
Packing of dams	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, table and packing tank disinfection, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler.	No
	Chemicals: Excess of disinfectant (when a chicken falls on the floor, it is disinfected) Packaging contamination	Incorrect dosage in the preparation of the disinfectant. Packaging contaminated by inputs such as disinfectants or detergents due to improper storage.
	Physical: Plastic bag waste	Poor quality of packaging by the supplier.	No
Storage freezing of chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the cold room environment, walls, ceiling, and floors of the cold room; rubber gloves; equipment; baskets; fan; basket transport cart; and poor hygienic practices of the food handler. Temperature increase, higher than −18°C.	No
Loading and transporting of chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, rubber gloves, equipment, baskets, basket transport cart, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. Also, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. High variations in defined temperatures and times. In the dispatch area, a temperature above 15°C.	No

Table 4.

Hazards and CCPs in the depressing stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the depressing plant.

The location of the depressing plant in a cold climate mitigates somewhat the risk of contamination by undesirable microorganisms compared to slaughter plants located in warm climates. Likewise, being located in an urban area, the presence of domestic animals, pests, and flying crawlers is reduced compared to a plant located in a rural area with a warm climate.

Biological hazards during this stage are caused by deficient or inadequate disinfection practices (when chicken or dams are dropped on the floor during all operations), since the dosage of disinfectant in the water (milliliters of disinfectant per liter of water) is not correctly carried out, or the retention times of the disinfectant are not met, and therefore, there is no guarantee that microorganisms will be effectively eliminated. In addition, during the visit, it was observed that a dam fell during the depressurization process and was not immediately collected for disinfection and reincorporation into the process. And in the marinating area, when placing the prey in baskets for later storage, one prey was observed to fall and was rinsed with water but not disinfected.

Temperature and time variations in refrigeration and freezing operations are a risk factor for the growth of undesirable microorganisms; however, during the visit, it was observed that the temperature of the cold rooms was monitored by filling out forms, thus demonstrating the control of the risk.

With respect to chemical hazards, there is contamination by disinfectants, due to incorrect dosage (addition of more disinfectant than defined), longer retention time, or no rinsing (in cases where this should be done). This type of hazard is observed throughout all the operations of the stage, since any chicken or prey that accidentally falls on the floor must be disinfected and incorporated back into the process. Likewise, in the depressurization and marinating processes, the cutter and marinating equipment has spaces that are difficult to access, making cleaning and disinfection difficult and leaving disinfectant residues on the equipment. There are also chemical hazards during the marinating process, specifically in the dosage used to prepare the brine. This is because it contains phosphates, stabilizers, and emulsifiers and is mixed with water in exact measures.

Finally, brine as raw material and packaging for final product contaminated with detergents or disinfectants may exist; however, this risk is low in the production plant, since there is evidence of storage of packaging in rooms separate from storage of inputs or raw materials and storage of cleaning and disinfection elements, in compliance with GMP.

In relation to physical hazards, feathers are present in the depressing stage, which are a verification criterion in the reception of the chicken, and if they exceed the limit established in the sampling, the lot is rejected. Another danger is that fractions or pieces of plastic packaging may be present during the packaging process due to quality defects in the packaging supplied by the supplier; however, this risk is low, since there has been no evidence of such contamination by production plant personnel, and no complaints have been filed by customers or consumers.

Although there is a risk of nuts or elements falling from the marinating equipment and mixing tanks, the risk is low, given that they would not be incorporated into the product since the brine is injected through needles. In addition, at the exit of the sealing machine, the dams are manually placed in the baskets, where they are inspected, and any defects are removed. During the visit, it was found that preventive and corrective maintenance of the equipment is carried out at the frequency indicated by the supplier, and no physical contamination has occurred for the aforementioned reason. Finally, for physical hazards, there are hairs, which can fall in any of the operations that have direct contact with food handlers, such as unloading, weighing, receiving, depressurizing, and packaging operations. However, this risk is low, since they wear a cap that completely covers their hair and ears, reducing this risk to a minimum, especially in the packing process.

In the depressing stage, there are no CCPs, since none of the operations were designed to reduce or eliminate a hazard in the first place, nor can contamination reach unacceptable levels in these operations, given that during slaughter (pre-cooling and disinfection), a disinfection process was carried out on the carcass.

Consumption:

Consumption location data:

Altitude: 2625 masl
Surroundings: Paved streets. In its surroundings are located family houses, banks, restaurants, and neighborhood stores, among others.
Ambient temperature: 14°C average
Relative Humidity: 72%.

Figure 5 of the consumption stage is shown below:

Figure 5.
Consumption stage. Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the consumption site.

The hazards identified in each of the operations of the consumption stage are detailed in Table 5, as well as the critical control points (CCP) based on the HACCP methodology:

Stage	Danger	Risk factor	PCC
Unloading and reception of raw de-boned chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Contaminated chicken from the depressing plant. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the vehicle, pallets, floors, walls, and roof. Likewise, cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, rubber gloves, hands, equipment, baskets, bags, infrastructure, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler.	No
Unloading and reception of raw de-boned chicken	Physical: Presence of feathers Presence of hair	Deficient verification of the chicken carcass during packing. Inadequate use of the cap by the food handler.	No
Storage freezing of raw dehydrated chicken	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of refrigerator, rubber gloves, equipment, and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. Cross-contamination by storage with other contaminated products. Temperature increase, higher than −4°C.	No
Defrosting	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Incorrect thawing of the chicken (water at room temperature). Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the kitchen environment, rubber gloves, hands, equipment, and bad hygiene practices of the food handler. Temperature increase, higher than 4°C.	No
Preparation or cooking	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the kitchen environment, pots, utensils, rubber gloves, hands, equipment, knives, and counters and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. Cooking of the food below 74°C in the center of the product.	Yes
	Chemicals: Disinfectant residues	Incorrect dosage or preparation of utensil disinfectant.	No
	Physical: Hair	Inadequate use of the cap by the food handler.	No
Served	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the dining room environment, cutlery, plates, hands, knives, equipment, and counters and poor hygiene practices of the food handler. Cross-contamination with contaminated raw food. Cross-contamination by utensils used with contaminated raw food.	No
	Chemicals: Disinfectant residues	Incorrect dosage or preparation of the disinfectant.	No
	Physical: Hair	Inadequate use of the cap by the food handler.	No
Consumption	Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the dining room environment, cutlery, plates, hands, knives, and dining room and poor hygiene practices of the consumer.	No
Consumption	Chemicals: Disinfectant residues	Incorrect dosage or preparation of the disinfectant.	No

Table 5.

Hazards and CCPs at the consumption stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the consumption site.

Biological hazards during this stage are presented by deficient or inadequate disinfection practices (performed on utensils, tables, environment, i.e., everything that is in contact with the chicken meat) because the dosage of the disinfectant in the water (milliliters of disinfectant per liter of water) is not correctly carried out, or the retention times of the disinfectant are not complied with, and therefore, there is no guarantee that microorganisms will be effectively eliminated.

Temperature and time variations in refrigeration and freezing operations are a risk factor for the growth of undesirable microorganisms; however, during the visit, it was observed that the temperature of the refrigerators was monitored by filling out forms, which shows risk control.

Finally, there is the cooking process, where there is a risk of not reaching a temperature of 74°C in the center of the product, and therefore, the elimination of pathogenic microorganisms would not be achieved.

The only CCP identified during the consumption stage is cooking, since, although it is not an operation specifically designed to eliminate or reduce a hazard, contamination can reach unacceptable levels, which are not eliminated later, given the immediate consumption of the food.

With respect to chemical hazards, there is contamination by disinfectants, due to incorrect dosage (addition of more disinfectant than defined), longer retention time, or no rinsing (in cases where this should be done). This type of hazard is observed throughout all stage operations, when disinfecting refrigerators, tables, utensils, pans, walls, floors, ceilings, cutting boards, knives, plates, spoons, forks, knives, and, in general, all elements that may come into contact with food.

In relation to physical hazards at the consumption stage, feathers are present, and if they are found, they are removed from the chicken prey; however, this type of finding is not frequent, according to the food handlers. Another physical hazard is hair, which can fall in any of the operations that have direct contact with food handlers, such as receiving, cooking, and serving operations.

3.2 Definition of corrective and risk control measures

According to the CCPs identified above, as well as what was evidenced during the visits made to the different plants or sites that make up the chicken meat production chain, the corrective and control measures proposed for the CCPs in each of the stages of this poultry company are defined below, starting with the hatchery stage, as shown in Table 6.

Stage	Risk factor	PCC	Control measures	Frequency	Corrective action
Vaccination	Incorrect application of the vaccine that does not guarantee the entry of the liquid into the chick’s body and therefore is not effective against the disease. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection; disinfection of hands, equipment, and trays; vaccination line; and poor hygiene practices of the operators. Also, during the visit, some empty bottles of hand sanitizer were observed.	Yes	Verify the correct application of the vaccines by checking the back of the neck of the chick, which should be green, confirming the entry of the liquid into the bird.	Each time vaccination is performed	Pass again through the vaccination line.

Table 6.

Corrective and control measures at the hatchery stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the hatchery.

Table 7 shows the corrective and control measures in the fattening stage.

Stage

Danger

Risk factor

PCC

Control measures

Frequency

Corrective action

Intake and fattening in sheds

Biological: Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms or diseases

Cross-contamination by poultry fecal matter: due to deficient or inadequate disinfection (incorrect dosage of disinfectant and/or contact time) of the shed where unloading takes place, staffing of personnel, plastic containers, hands of operators, container transport carts, brooders, drinkers, feeders, chip litter, plastic curtains, and infrastructure, among others.
Presence of pests such as flies that act as a vehicle for transmission.

Deficient biosecurity measures and practices: these reduce the possibility of cross-contamination and consist of restricting visits, use of disinfected equipment, and shower baths for all personnel and visitors, among others.

Contaminated food or water
Incorrect vaccination that does not guarantee protection against the disease.

Yes

Verify compliance with biosecurity measures and cleaning and disinfection practices (curtains, feeders, drinkers, equipment, environment, and, in general, everything in contact with the chick) by the operators.
Prevent the entry of flies.
Use of bacteriophages, acids, or similar with food or drink.
Use of potable water as drinking water for birds.
-

Daily

Change of equipment, new washing, and disinfection of feeding troughs, curtains, drinking fountains, overalls, and boots, among others.
Installation of screens in the shed, since there are only curtains that do not fully cover the shed.

Table 7.

Corrective and control measures at the fattening stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the farm.

For the slaughter stage, corrective and control measures are presented in Table 8.

Stage	Risk factor	PCC	Control measures	Frequency	Corrective action
Gutting of chicken carcasses	-Since in this operation, the viscera are removed, there is a risk of contamination with fecal matter from the cloaca and rupture of the intestines and viscera, where Campylobacter is naturally found. Likewise, there is a risk of cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment and everything in contact with the carcass, including operators.	Yes	Avoid contamination of the carcass with fecal matter or viscera contents.	Continuously on the inspection line at the end of evisceration.	When contamination is visually evident, the entire carcass must be disinfected inside and out by immersion in disinfectant solution for the defined time and returned to the line.
Pre-cooling and disinfection of chicken carcasses	-Taking into account that this operation reduces the temperature from 25–10 °C by immersing the carcass in cold water for 15 minutes, Campylobacter cannot grow or multiply. -In this operation, the disinfection of the carcass is also carried out; therefore, there is a risk of incorrect dosage that does not guarantee its effectiveness and therefore the survival of the microorganism. Cross-contamination risks are present due to deficient or inadequate environmental disinfection, cooling tanks, or contaminated water.	Yes	Reduce the carcass temperature to 10°C. Correct dosage of the disinfectant used.	Measure the outlet temperature of the carcass every hour, verifying that it is at a maximum of 10 °C, and measure the temperature and pH of the water. Also, measure the line speed, confirming that the carcass lasts 15 minutes in the pre-cooling process. This is to ensure that Campylobacter is inactivated. Measure residual chlorine concentration.	If the carcass temperature and line speed are not as required, the water inlet temperature or line speed should be adjusted. Should the temperature or time increase, the skin conditions should be evaluated and a decision made whether to continue on the line or withdraw from the line. If the test strip indicates an incorrect dosage, the disinfectant must be mixed into the water again.

Table 8.

Corrective and control measures at the slaughter stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the slaughter plant.

Table 9 shows the corrective and control measures for the depressurization stage:

Stage	Risk factor	PCC	Control measures	Frequency	Corrective action
Storage cooling of dams	In case of cross-contamination, Campylobacter can survive in food at refrigeration temperatures for 1 to 3 weeks but does not multiply. Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment and of everything that comes into contact with the chicken carcass.	No	Maintain refrigeration temperature (4°C maximum).	Measure the temperature of the cold rooms every hour, in order to identify any deviations.	In the event that the monitoring report generates deviations, the chicken must be moved to another cold room, and the causes that generated the temperature increase (damage to refrigeration equipment, damage to the door of the room, damage to the thermometer, among others) must be identified, in order to take the necessary corrective or preventive measures.
Storage freezing of dams	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment and of everything that comes into contact with the chicken carcass. In case of cross-contamination, freezing does not inactivate Campylobacter jejuni instantly; it can survive from 2 to 5 months at −20°C.	No	Maintain freezing temperature (−18°C maximum).	Measure the temperature of the cold rooms every hour, in order to identify any deviations.	In the event that the monitoring report generates deviations, the chicken must be moved to another cold room, and the causes that generated the temperature increase (damage to refrigeration equipment, damage to the door of the room, damage to the thermometer, among others) must be identified, in order to take the necessary corrective or preventive measures.
Storage freezing of chicken	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment and of everything that comes into contact with the chicken carcass. In case of cross-contamination, freezing does not inactivate C. jejuni instantly; it can survive from 2 to 5 months at −20°C.	No	Maintain freezing temperature (−18°C maximum).	Measure the temperature of the cold rooms every hour, in order to identify any deviations.	In the event that the monitoring report generates deviations, the chicken must be moved to another cold room, and the causes that generated the temperature increase (damage to refrigeration equipment, damage to the door of the room, damage to the thermometer, among others) must be identified, in order to take the necessary corrective or preventive measures.

Table 9.

Corrective and control measures at the depressing stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit to the depressing plant.

As mentioned above, there were no CCPs in the depressurization stage; however, there are control measures in critical stages such as those involving temperature management:

Finally, in relation to the consumption stage, corrective and control measures are presented as detailed in Table 10.

Stage	Risk factor	PCC	Control measures	Frequency	Corrective action
Preparation or cooking	Cross-contamination due to deficient or inadequate disinfection of the environment and of everything that comes into contact with the poultry in dams during preparation. -If cooking is not done above 74°C, there is a risk of Campylobacter survival. This is because Campylobacter is unable to grow above 45°C.	Yes	Cook the chicken, reaching a temperature of 74°C in the center of the product.	Measure the temperature during cooking until the required temperature is reached.	If any of the measurements do not show compliance with the temperature, cooking should be continued, and the temperature should be measured again.

Table 10.

Corrective and control measures at the consumption stage.

Source: Own elaboration based on the visit made to the consumption site.

¹These control and corrective measures were the result of adjustments made with the advice of an expert on the subject (Andrea Varón10F, Lead Instructor training FSPCA - Foreing Supplier Verification Programs - Train the trainer HACCP); however, to carry out their implementation, they must be validated in the different plants through methods that allow checking their effectiveness, especially those related to the use of disinfectants, where they must be verified through microbiological sampling. Likewise, the economic viability of their implementation must be evaluated by means of a cost–benefit analysis.

4. Conclusions

In the stages of the food chain of this poultry company, it was identified that biological hazards corresponded to contamination by pathogenic microorganisms; physical hazards to contamination by feathers, dirt in the eggs, presence of feathers, cuticles, hair, plastic, nuts, and equipment elements, among others; and chemical hazards to contamination by residues of drugs or antibiotics in the meat, residues of disinfectants and detergents in the equipment, and excess dosage of additives such as stabilizers or emulsifiers in the chicken brine. The identification of these hazards makes it possible to contemplate all the possibilities of contamination risk, in order to subsequently generate control and corrective measures in the processes involved.

CCPs along the food chain correspond to vaccination (incubation and fattening), feeding (fattening), evisceration and disinfection (slaughter), and cooking (consumption). These CCPs make it possible to establish critical limits, control frequencies, and corrective measures to be implemented in case of deviation of the variables. Based on the above, the critical operations in the entire chicken meat production chain are the pre-cooling of the slaughter stage where disinfection of the carcass is carried out, ensuring that the growth of pathogenic microorganisms is inhibited, and the preparation or cooking of chicken meat at the consumption stage, since microorganisms such as Campylobacter are destroyed at a temperature of 60°C for 12 seconds.

Deficient GMP practices were observed in the hatchery and slaughter plant, thus increasing biological risks. Depressurization and consumption are the stages where the best GMP practices were evident. GMPs are part of the prerequisite programs for the implementation of the HACCP system, which is why it is so important to comply with them rigorously.

For all stages in the chicken production chain, it is required that the eggs, chicks, poultry, chicken carcasses, or depressed chicken enter the process free of diseases or pathogens, that is, that they have a quality certificate that guarantees their safety.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the poultry company that allowed us to visit their different facilities or plants, making this study possible.

Antoine de Meester

Chapters authored

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