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Italy, and Greece, is estimated at about 50% per year [EC Statistics, 1998]. The remainder has chemical or sensory defects that, depending on their intensity, must be classified as virgin olive oil (VOO), ordinary virgin olive oil (OVOO), or lampante virgin olive oil (LVOO) according to EEC-Regulation 2568/91 or International Olive Council (IOC) Standard. Olive oil is one of the most controlled vegetable oils in the world. Nevertheless, the EU classified olive oil as one of the most adulterated food products, although it is subject to a number of EC regulations [1].
Olive oil is one of the few fruit oils, along with avocado oil and palm oil. Most vegetable oils known to us are seed oils. The olive fruit goes through many important steps on its way “from tree to bottle” that can affect its quality. The fruit itself belongs to a range of well over 500 different varieties. They differ in the size of the fruit, size and type of leaves, ripening, kernel/pulp ratio, amount of oil, unusual minor components, and among other things, especially in taste. Some varieties are used only as table olives, others for both purposes, but most are processed into oil. In the plantations, the olive trees are planted traditionally, intensively, and super intensively. The spacing between trees has decreased from 7.50 × 7.50 m (traditional) to 3.50 × 3.50 m (intensive) to trellis-like cultivation as in the case of wine (super intensive). The main reasons for this type of cultivation are an improvement in yield and the use of harvesting machinery. Harvesting is the most expensive part. The most important factor for a good-quality oil is the right time of harvesting or the optimal ripeness of the fruit. After harvesting, the quality of the fruit can only decrease, as fermentative degradation processes begin immediately after harvesting. Picking the olives by hand is often the only way to harvest the fruit, as the cultivated areas make it impossible to use harvesting machines. It is important that the fruit is not damaged during harvesting, and the waiting time before pressing or extraction in the decanter should not exceed 24–48 hours. Pressing requirements range from high quantities of olives in a correspondingly short time to achieving a particular quality—regardless of quantity—with pressing temperatures or conditions during extraction in the decanter, high polyphenol content, and excellent aroma and flavor.
Ultimately, each of the above processing steps results in a wide range of different qualities in terms of aroma (smell and taste), complexity, nutritional composition, and oxidation stability.
When the oil is ready for marketing, each producer follows his own way of marketing. Depending on the size of the crop, some producers handle storage, bottling, labeling, and marketing themselves. For other producers, local cooperatives handle the larger quantities of oil. In many cases, there are buyers, brokers, and sellers who sell or buy large quantities to large bottling companies in the producing countries. These producing and bottling companies work for large food chains in Europe and around the world. Up to 80% of EVOO is sold as so-called “private labels” in discount stores and large grocery chains, at least in Europe (Figure 1). However, where large volumes are marketed, the trade tries to buy the oils at a minimum price. Inevitably, quality can suffer as a result, especially for EVOO grades marketed as part of so-called borderline oils. These include really bad tasting and sometimes slightly defective oils, which consequently would have to be officially retested to get clarity for the classification.
80% of EVOO is sold as “private label” to supermarkets and discounter chains.
The views of market participants and consumers must be differentiated, with the question of supply and demand and the requirements for quality and price in the foreground. In the various countries, the share of olive oils in the different categories varies greatly. There are countries where on average 80% EVOO and only 20% VOO and OO are consumed. In other countries, it is even only 30% EVOO and 70% virgin olive oil, refined olive oil, and olive pomace oil. The classification is carried out by the legislator within the framework of a marketing regulation. The classification is based on the data of chemical and sensory analysis (Figure 2). Although the technology of oil extraction (pressing, malaxation [2], decantation), the climatic conditions, and the possibilities of chemical analysis have changed considerably in the last 30 years, there have been only minor adjustments to the legal regulations in this respect—especially with regard to the chemical control parameters. The classification is granted on the basis of the 1991 regulations in force, if the chemical analysis (officially 27 parameters) meets the requirements and the sensory test in the so-called panel test (PT) have been passed. The PT is performed by a regional, national, EC, or IOC accredited official panel of 8–12 trained olive oil tasters. It is used to verify conformity with the requirements of Regulation (EC) 2568/91, as amended [1]. Before receiving EC approval, panels must be accredited according to EN ISO 17025 (2018) and require approval by national authorities [3] and subsequently by the European Commission. The methodology and range of requirements for sensory evaluation are also defined by the International Olive Council (IOC) [4].
IOC/EC-organoleptic criteria for olive oil classification [
Based on the panel test, the classification of the olive oil is done without prejudice to possible unauthorized material changes of the oil such as thermal posttreatment (adulteration), which cannot be detected in the panel test [5]. The aim of the panel test is the qualitative detection of negative attributes as well as positive attributes such as fruitiness (plus green-fruity or ripe-fruity), bitterness and pungency, and their quantification. The individual results of the panelists are statistically evaluated in order to obtain a sensory result that is valid and as objective as possible.
According to the currently valid criteria of the Regulation, samples that show a median for the negative attributes of “0” and also show a low fruitiness of only around 1.2 are already classified as “extra virgin.” Olive oils with a fruitiness intensity of more than 5 until 7 or 8 receive the same classification. In the case of sensory defects, a distinction is also made according to the intensity of the defects. If the median for a sensory defect is between 2.5 and 3.4 in intensity, the oil still belongs to the VOO category. But if it is a rancid defect, the oil becomes the grade lampante virgin olive oil (LVOO) in a couple of weeks or months. Generally, the consumer cannot tell from the name “virgin” that this oil has a defect such as fusty or rancid. The consumer thinks more of a lower quality than of a real defect or a bad taste without being aware of the risk of spoilage. According to the current food regulations in the EC, such foodstuffs have to be labeled accordingly. In our eyes, this is a weakness of the IOC Method No. T20, No. 14/2021 or Reg. (EEC) 2568/91 in its current version, that all olive oils classified as EVOO (on an annual average more than 1.2 million tons) belong to the highest quality segment in the sense of the regulation. EVOO is not a consumer product such as pasta, milk, or potatoes; it is a food ingredient and can in many ways turn cold, hot, or warm dishes into a delicious (and nutritious) experience or even spoil in case of a sensory error. Due to its unique organoleptic properties, it requires a more objective overall assessment, including differentiation in quality that is more recognizable to the consumer, in addition to its classification.
An adequate approach in order to achieve more differentiation in the category of EVOO, it was found in olive oil competitions organized mainly for premium olive oils. These competitions are not subject to any official regulation but are initiatives of national associations and organizers such as the IOC for the Mario Solinas Competition [6]. In the new test sheet for this competition, the parameter harmony has to be evaluated three times (olfactive, retronasal/gustatory, and global). With all due respect to olive oil competitions, it should be noted that the IOC holds a demanding annual competition for practically less than 2% of the EVOO produced worldwide. In these kinds of competitions, the producers are awarded with gold and silver medals, certificates, and recommendations. The result is valuable top-quality oils, tasty delicacies with a high content of healthy fatty substances [7]. But because not all olives of a producer can be picked in one day and because nature does not wait for olives to ripen continuously, in most cases, only smaller quantities of these high-value oils are available to about 15–20% of the somewhat better-off consumers. These awards are only given for exceptional commitment on the part of the producers, which work with extraordinary engagement down to the last detail. Accidentally, for the remaining rest of 98% (!) of the EVOO, no qualitative distinction is foreseen although even these oils have different, more or less characteristic flavors.
Unfortunately, the consumer’s knowledge of olive oil is not very common. Generally the consumer is unable to differentiate between terms such as varieties [8], cold-extracted, virgin or extra virgin, acid values. This is exploited by the trade in many countries and tolerated or supported by the legislator. Below the top qualities, there is no differentiation any more apart from mainly emotional arguments. Especially in this more affordable but very important mass market segment—which means for 80% of the consumer—a better differentiation is needed. It would help more consumers to gain confidence in a somewhat more expensive but recommendable oil.
The trade is dominated by price competition that often ignores quality aspects. For example, the 2015 IGO study [9] showed that out of 70 rather cheap samples from 15 different EU countries intentionally labeled as Extra Virgin, only 41.4% (29/70) could be confirmed as EVOO. 58.6% (41/70) had to be downgraded to the VOO category. The origin of the samples was reported as 58% EU blend, 23% Spanish blend, and 9% Italian blend.
Unlike food from certain countries such as honey or wine, olive oils from one country can be blended with oils from other countries within the EU and marketed as EU-Blends. The publication “EU-Blend” on the label is obligatory in such cases as well as all other origins from EVOO. The consumer must pay close attention to labels, including the brand name, as it is now mandatory to provide information on the label about the actual origin of the oil. Despite the wealth of information, many consumers lose their bearings and trust their personal shopping source more.
Regardless of this fact, we still assume that a not insignificant percentage of the oils sold worldwide as EVOO actually belong more to the VOO category due to sensory deficiencies. Some manufacturing companies simply refer to this type of EVOO as “borderline” EVOO. A practice that unfortunately cannot be ruled out is that olive oils with slight sensory defects are blended with extra virgin olive oils in such a way that the defects are very difficult to detect in a panel test. This means that for this type of EVOO in different panel tests (PT) different results such as VOO or EVOO can arise. The unofficial trade-declaration “borderline” depends on the requests of local stakeholders and the willingness of some suppliers, especially in those countries where the food control for olive oil is not yet so developed.
The German Olive Oil Panel (DOP), established in 1999 as a “virtual” panel [10] with the approval and support of the IOC, addressed the issue of different qualities within the EVOO category. The DOP was recognized by the IOC from 2001 to 2005 [11]. Since 2007, the DOP has been accredited according to EN ISO/IEC 17025 [3]. From 2011 to 2021, it is recognized by the German authorities, the European Commission, and the IOC [12].
The IOC has defined several guidelines and instructions for organoleptic assessment, which are continuously adapted. They include methodological aspects such as the necessary number of tasters (8–12), the basic vocabulary, the use of the profile sheet, test glasses, booth, etc. All details are described in depth in the IOC standards T20 No.14/2021 [4] and Reg. (EC) 2568/91 in their current version [1].
As mentioned in Chapter 1.2 of the introduction, the Panel test (PT) result in the European Union and third countries is only used to classify whether the oil is “extra virgin,” “virgin” (“ordinary”), or “lampante.” This study is concentrating on those samples only which gained the classification extra virgin.
The idea to extend the official sensory evaluation of olive oil was developed in the DOP by the panel leader Dieter Oberg already in 2003 in order to further differentiate the quality within the highest category “extra virgin.” For this purpose, it was necessary to extend the sensory test and as a consequence as well the profile sheet. A further parameter “harmony” was added at the end of the sheet analogous to the testing in many olive oils competitions. The official criteria defects, fruitiness, bitterness, and pungency remain unchanged. The tester follows the Reg. of EC/IOC for the result for the classification. But then it has to be decided for one additional but very important parameter “harmony” (QHV) in the same session.
The new QHV method [13] shows a mark in the middle of the additional line on the profile sheet (Figures 3 and 4), which indicates the mark “5” to the taster. Around this mark is a standard quality in the sense of an average quality or the cheapest offer often found in German supermarkets and discounters. A quality without sensory defects, but with a decent average in terms of character, flavor, or pleasant persistence, for example. Only 15–30% of the EVOO in the world reach values of more than 5.5 in the harmony scale. Values of more than 7 are only achieved by qualities, which are in a range of premium products. On the left side from the value “5” between 3.5 and 4.5, one finds oils with a sensory profile, which is “not sufficient” until “bad”—depending on if a panel did not decide for a median of defect. Many of the so-called borderline oils are further left around 2.8–3.8. Oils with a recognizable sensory defect are only rated around 3 and, depending on the intensity of the defect, even lower or 0. Finally, it is the PSV who can along the results of the panel test decide if a median for a defect is reached and then will set the factor harmony to “0.” In the training of tasters, the new criterion of harmony attempts to distinguish the fruitiness of an oil not only as present or absent, ripe or green. Now, for example, the differences between the olfactory impression (clean, clear, or less) and the subsequent taste impression (harmonious or strange, unexpectedly good in the sense of the relevant criteria or not) are additionally included in the quantified result for harmony. The tasters are asked as well to recognize particular aromas in olive oils. Aromas appear to the taster as the scent of a large bouquet of flowers or as clearly recognizable individual aromas of certain leaves, fruits, vegetables, or spices. Beyond this, the persistence and mouthfeel of the sensory impression create an overall impression in the taster, which is then translated numerically. This requires a special training of the tasters, as they are not limited any more to the official criteria such as fruity-bitter-pungent but can recognize additional sensory characteristic aspects of an oil, similar to wine. There are more than 500 olive varieties [8] grown in different ways in more than 20 countries. The goal is to produce oils with a certain sensory profile, even below the premium class. Only the additional criteria of harmony can fulfill this ambition.
Excerpt from the profile sheet with additional line for harmony evaluation.
Rough division of the red curve (enlarged) of
The official methodology for determining the QHV value includes four steps, which are described below and can be trained and performed using the feature-benefit formula in Figure 5. The feature-benefit diagram is a path on the way to the decision for a certain value for the taster’s QHV. The taster is referred to all four additional sensory characteristics (A–D) to be evaluated, can roughly tick the differently strong or less strong expression of the individual criteria, and thus arrive at a quantified overall result, which will be sent to the PSV.
The first impression of the fruitiness via nose is the basic for purity and diversity of elements, which includes already the intensity. It feeds expectations for a similar retronasal impression. The second impression via palate (retronasal) can match the impression (plus/minus) or the taster has an unexpected impression with positive or negative olfactive elements.
This balance increases if at the end bitterness and pungency are in a balanced relation to the fruitiness—preferably with a long persistency. Less balance means if bitterness or pungency is too dominant, and the positive impression of the fruitiness is more or less disturbed. The decision for the intensity of bitterness and/or pungency needs time.
A sample can offer more positively a diversity of aromas in different intensities or just one single aroma—also in a lower intensity. A sample gives more negatively the impression of not clearly to defined aromas and/or aromas, which have not a perfect purity or not clear to defined aromas. Some aromas can be detected retronasal only.
Complexity increases with the number/intensities of aromas and the flavor.
A long and pleasant persistency of the flavor is positive.
A more long texture is more positive than a short texture.
Feature/benefit chart as an aid to getting started with the decision way for the additional QHV.
A rough description of an example: The tester decides for A with +, for B with +, for C with -, for D with ±. In the “Quantification” column of this theoretical sample, the tester first might decide mentally on the range “around 5” and then his final score 4.8. He enters this result on the profile sheet and passes it on to the PSV. Admittedly, a tester’s decision for a QHV quality “not sufficient, “upper standard,“ or “very good“ is as exact as a decision for the intensity of fruitiness or a defect. Ultimately, homogeneity in a panel for all attributes must be intensively practiced for a non-scaled line. Since so-called “outliers” can be eliminated by the PSV (see QHV methodology), the QHV evaluation with the median is as accurate as the official panel test. All the factors to be evaluated are well known to the international olive oil experts and tasters. Only the aroma designations may differ from tester to tester and from country to country, because not all aromas are common to every tester. Regardless, however, an individual aroma or aroma bouquet can be recognized by the tester in each country, as well as the evaluation of clarity and flavor. But even better, if the tasters stay longer in the panel, the continuous training and practice allow the summary of all mentioned criteria on one additional line (Figures 3 and 4) at the end of the official profile sheet. This means that the taster makes his evaluation in one operation first for the classification according to Reg. (EEC) 2568/91 in its current version (or the corresponding IOC standard) and then finally his decision for the value for the QHV (method DOP-2007-2).
The idea of this additional parameter harmony is to assign oils with the classification EVOO to additionally defined quality groups (Figure 6). This additional quality criterion is not regulated by law. However, the trade now has the possibility to select oils according to the requirements of the market in terms of price and quality.
Definition of QHV quality levels for the different grades of EVOO with the method DOP-2007-2.
The unofficial assessment of QHV in the panel test should not be mandatory, but it should be an important option for the trade. Basically, the quality of an olive oil does not remain constant, but deteriorates slightly over the course of 18 months due to decreasing fruitiness and freshness. This and the fact that in the mass market new batches have to be compiled again and again during the year due to the large quantities require constant sensory control also on the basis of specifications from the trade. These specifications must not be utopian, but must be based on realistic values depending on the season.
The QHV methodology also includes the following guidelines [13]:
The valid median must have a robust coefficient of variation (CVr) below 10%.
Single results that exceed from the median by 1.5 or more have to be eliminated by the PSV. In case of a panel with eight tasters, only at least six from eight tasters need to have a valid result for the median of the QHV.
Suggestion of including the control of the Z-Score for the QHV in connection with the results of the PT for every taster.
The PSV is as well able to moderate single results of the QHV only.
In case a valid median of a defect is reached, the harmony value is set to zero (0) by the PSV.
The repeatability
The application of this new criterion in sensory analysis since 2011 has led to a clearly recognizable improvement in the quality of olive oils on the German-speaking market as the figures from the IGO/DOP do prove. Every year, the DOP tests about 1000 samples according to this scheme, including harmony. Figure 7 illustrates that at the beginning in 2011, only 26% of the EVOO were rated >5.0–10 on the scale (from “higher standard” to “excellent”). By 2020, this figure had already risen to 75.6%. A measurable success for quality and thus for consumer protection. The trend from 2013 to 2020 in particular shows the remarkable way with a significant decrease in very poor qualities (QHV between 3.1 and 4.4) and also in the range of 4.5–5.0 (“lower standard”). The standard quality originally ranged from 4.5 to 5.4, but since more than 50% of all samples were in this segment, the standard quality was divided into lower (4.5–5.0) and upper standard (5.1–5.4). As a result, traders with their supporters focused only on the upper standard quality. The columns also show a remarkable increase in the range of 5.5–6.4 (QHV “good quality”) for the first wave of 2017, which seems remarkable as 2017 was a difficult year in terms of harvest in different producing countries.
QHV results 2011–.2021(%) in Germany (source: IGO/DOP), n = 7500, results 2021 preliminary).
The QHV value is still unofficial and not part of the regulation, but it is firmly established in practice in German-speaking countries and is slowly gaining more and more acceptance among other importing and supporting companies. In the first years, the introduction process of the QHV was somewhat tough. Since 2011, the method has been presented to the professional public in further workshops and congresses [14, 15, 16] and backed up with initial figures. In countries with strong trade groups such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and others, the trade began to take an interest in the QHV, as media such as TV and the press—partly justified—were constantly looking for points of attack to devalue the olive oil quality at supermarket chains and discounters. The Information Office Olive Oil [17] in Germany (IGO) has therefore organized seminars at almost all relevant food companies since 2005, in which the QHV was explained as an important additional parameter. In the first years, the trade was content with at least reaching the level of >4.5 (standard quality) on the QHV scale. After a few years, the next level followed with 5.0—5.4 (upper standard). This was certainly due to the fact that the national control medium Stiftung Warentest considered the QHV as a co-decisive criterion in their comparative tests for the quality of an olive oil. This has also led to interest in this type of assessment on the part of bottlers, traders, and producers. At the request of the trade, introductory seminars were also held in the producer countries by the IGO. This led to further quality improvements in the trade, as now the quality became measurable with the help of the QHV method, which has also been accredited by the official German inspection body (DAkkS) since 2015. Now the trade is able to demand specified sensory quality requirements (intensities of fruity, bitter, spicy plus QHV) from its suppliers. However, due to the annually fluctuating characteristics of olive oils and the natural decrease of the individual intensities, the requirements have to be redefined every year or adapted to the annual rhythm by neutral experts.
Of course, thought was given to including the QHV on the label. However, for various reasons, this was not done and the responsibility was left to the trade. On the one hand, the label for EVOO is already very extensive due to numerous legal requirements. Since the QHV would entail an additional need for explanation for the consumer and it is also only used in a few countries, this idea had to be abandoned for the time being.
But in addition the type of fruitiness—green, green/ripe, or ripe fruitiness—became also part of the EC/IOC regulation in the framework of the panel test. Our investigations showed that these differences also had an impact on the assessment of the QHV. The graphic (Figure 8) shows an example from Greek oils in 2018: EVOO with green flavor received QHV scores in the range of 5.6–6.4 (very good) due to aroma richness and more intense fruitiness. For oils with green and ripe taste, i.e., from fruits with advanced ripeness, most QHV scores were between 5.1 and 6.4 (upper standard to very good). Oils with a more mature taste from ripe harvested fruits mostly reached QHV values of 4.5–5.4 (standard), partly because the fruit intensity is milder and the aromas are sweeter. In the latter EVOO, the polyphenol values are already significantly lower, which, among other parameters, also affects the stability of the oil. Due to natural conditions—ripening is a continuous process—harvesting times have been moved forward somewhat in some countries to increase the proportion of green or green/ripe olives. This is also in order to gain more green aromas, a higher nutritional value, and as a consequence, a slightly higher QHV value.
Type of fruitiness and relevance for the QHV, grün = green; grün-reif = green-ripe; reif = ripe, source: 2018, n = 157 Greek samples, IGO [
The effect of the QHV also opens the consumer’s senses for special characteristics of blended and country-specific oils—and that also for more affordable oils in the so-called mass market. To this end, we have broken down certain parts of the DOP test results of the last 7 years country by country to show differences and improvements. *The reader may pay attention to the fact that the calibration of the intensity of fruitiness in the DOP panel has changed 2021 to a slightly higher level. This step was initiated and practiced by a modified method in the framework of an IOC workshop and started in year 2021, but the process for the DOP panel has not yet been finalized.
(9a) Fruitiness rating Spain, 2015–2021 (%), n = 65–265, (9b) QHV rating Spain, 2015–2021 (%), n = 65–265. Source: IGO/DOP.
(10a) Fruitiness rating Italy, −2015-2021 (%), n = 50–76, (10b) QHV rating Italy, 2015–2021, (%) n = 50–76. Source: IGO/DOP.
In contrast to the above named countries,
(11a) Fruitiness rating Greece, 2015–2021(%) n = 95–166, (11b) QHV rating Greece, 2015–2021 (%), n = 95–166. Source: IGO/DOP.
(12a) Fruitiness rating EU blend 2015–2021, (%), (12b) QHV rating EU blend 2015–2021 (%). Source: IGO/DOP.
Correspondingly, the value 4.5–5.0 (lower standard) dropped from 34.1–18%. EU blends are often the “price entry quality” for many nationally active traders.
The origin from the yearly up to 1000 DOP samples is roughly 20% Greek oil, 10% Italian, 30% from Spain, and 40% EU Blend. The figures for 2021 are not yet complete. In connection with all the above results, equally excellent EVOO were tested, some of which also won prizes in international competitions. These results have not been broken down by country, but they have a negligible impact on the above results, as they only account for 5–7% of the total number of samples per year. Values above 8.5–9, even up to 10, are extremely rare. But as already mentioned: “The higher the quality, the lower the quantity available in the trade”—therefore only a few oils can reach this segment.
Samples from other countries such as Portugal, Tunisia, Turkey, Croatia, Slovenia, and Palestine were also evaluated, but the number of samples per country was not sufficient for serious statistics.
The results for the individual production countries, as well as for all samples together, undeniably show the way to a quality improvement over a long period of time that was hardly thought possible. This is true not only in German-speaking countries, where during the previous years around 1000 panel tests are conducted annually, but also for production and distribution of some international brands. Last but not least, it was the trade that took up the idea in order to get olive oil out of the headlines of the negative press. After all, olive oil was once in the top group of food products that drew attention to themselves through fraud and adulteration. But the figures on which this study is based speak primarily for Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. In these countries, the control policy of the trade often still goes far beyond the requirements of the government or the European Commission. This also applies to the sensory analysis of olive oil taste, a decisive criterion for the consumer.
With the QHV, the trade received an additional quality parameter that closes the gap between the best classification (EVOO) and measurable quality grades for this classification. The trade—in the meantime also instructed in the QHV method—works out a profile for its various olive oils with expert advisors and passes it on to the producers. These—as well QHV trained—receive thus specifications for the production or blending. This helps the trade to the same extent with the so-called “borderline problem” between the two grades EVOO and VOO. With EVOO there are good and bad ones, with VOO there are always a median of defect with intensities up to 3.5. The QHV would certify a bad EVOO a very low rating and thus inform the buyer accordingly. However, the results also show that it is possible to achieve a certain good quality level with the QHV even with supermarket and discount chains—i.e., with very large quantities. Whether to achieve “upper standard” or “very good” is up to the retailer in each country to decide. But thanks to QHV, the desired level is quantifiable.
The evidence gathered since the QHV presentation in September 2019 to the IOC Expert Group on Sensory Items held in Madrid does not indicate that the QHV method will be adopted globally. However, it may be introduced on a country-by-country basis or applied by nongovernmental bodies at the request of operators. It was found that in some olive oil producing countries, there is a kind of creeping path for improving the field of processing from agriculture via harvesting, malaxation [2] to extraction.
The QHV method was developed with a focus on the transparent presentation of the different qualities of the “extra virgin” grade of this exceptional product olive oil. Since 2011, attempts have been made to show the possibilities of the QHV to the IOC as well [13, 19] in order to start joint international trials that would enable its possible use in other countries. While the Commission in Brussels accepts or nationally tolerates some member countries’ own initiatives—especially against the background of consumer protection with simultaneous proper production—the seemingly unassailable IOC seems to be pursuing its own policy under the protective shield of the UN. The national and economic benefits of olive oil are of undisputed importance in the producing countries. But it should also be transparent in the importing countries and compatible with the qualitative and legal requirements of consumers in their countries.
The QHV provides security in the assessment of EVOO qualities, it creates measurable transparency in the field of marginal oils, it limits the possibilities of fraud and helps in the detection of adulteration. With the QHV, there are fewer complaints and more satisfied customers.
QHV | Quantified Harmony Value |
EVOO | Extra Virgin Olive Oil |
VOO | Virgin Olive Oil |
LVOO | Lampante Virgin Olive Oil |
OO | Olive Oil (Refined Olive Oil Plus EVOO) |
PT | Panel Test |
IOC | International Olive Council |
DOP | German Olive Oil Panel |
PSV | Panel Supervisor/Panel Leader |
In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel throughout the world to present our publications and support our Authors and Academic Editors. We attend international symposia, conferences, workshops and book fairs as well as business meetings with science, academic and publishing professionals. Take a look at the current events.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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