Metals and additives to HZSM-5 for CFP.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5493",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Escherichia coli - Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications",title:"Escherichia coli",subtitle:"Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Escherichia coli is a versatile organism and very diverse. Members of this species vary from very pathogenic agents causing different types of diseases including meningitis, gastroenteritis, and septicemia, just to cite a few, to harmless organisms living in the intestines of both humans and animals. E. coli has also been used as a model organism for most bacteria except a few. For this reason, its study provides a huge advantage and can help understand the mechanisms involved in different processes such as pathogenesis, environmental disinfection, nutrient utilization, antibiotic resistance, and diagnostic/detection methods, and these are indeed the topics discussed in this book. The book has been divided into four main sections representing the different facets of E. coli applications, which include disease, biotechnology, environmental engineering and innovative approaches to detection, and lastly its physiology and cell biology. Such processes can be applied to the study of other organisms as well considering the development of diversity; for example, many organisms are capable of horizontal gene transfer, which is capable of increasing the fitness of the bacterial organisms involved and has a great impact on the control of such bacterial organism.",isbn:"978-953-51-3330-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3329-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4735-0",doi:"10.5772/63146",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",numberOfPages:434,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1ef47003dd99be6a53eaa91efb882dff",bookSignature:"Amidou Samie",publishedDate:"July 12th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5493.jpg",numberOfDownloads:52889,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:118,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:189,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 18th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 20th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"52247",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52247/images/5820_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an associate professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at the category C2 and has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and graduated several MSc and PhD students. His research activities cover mostly topics in infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point of use water treatment technologies using nanoparticles from silver and copper in collaboration with the University of Virginia in the USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"54926",title:"Enterotoxigenic and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli: Survival and Modulation of Virulence in the Human Gastrointestinal Tract",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68309",slug:"enterotoxigenic-and-enterohemorrhagic-i-escherichia-coli-i-survival-and-modulation-of-virulence-in-t",totalDownloads:2044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are major food‐ and water‐borne pathogens that constitute a serious public health threat in low‐income and developed countries, respectively. Survival and expression of virulence genes in the human digestive tract are key features in bacterial pathogenesis, but the mechanisms behind these processes remain largely unknown due to obvious prohibition of human studies. Use of well‐controlled and multi‐parametric in vitro models can aid in addressing knowledge gaps in ETEC and EHEC pathogenesis. After a general description of the physiopathology of ETEC and EHEC infections, this chapter will give an overview of all the in vitro studies that have investigated the effect of the main physicochemical and biotic parameters of the human gut on pathogen survival and expression of virulence factors. We bring a picture of how ETEC and EHEC are able to adapt to each of the successive environments of the human gastrointestinal tract by reading many cues provided by both the host and the gut microbiota.",signatures:"Charlène Roussel, Charlotte Cordonnier, Valérie Livrelli, Tom Van de\nWiele and Stéphanie Blanquet‐Diot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54926",authors:[{id:"120350",title:"Prof.",name:"Tom",surname:"Van De Wiele",slug:"tom-van-de-wiele",fullName:"Tom Van De Wiele"},{id:"191864",title:"Dr.",name:"Stéphanie",surname:"Blanquet-Diot",slug:"stephanie-blanquet-diot",fullName:"Stéphanie Blanquet-Diot"},{id:"191866",title:"Mrs.",name:"Charlène",surname:"Roussel",slug:"charlene-roussel",fullName:"Charlène Roussel"},{id:"191867",title:"Dr.",name:"Charlotte",surname:"Cordonnier",slug:"charlotte-cordonnier",fullName:"Charlotte Cordonnier"},{id:"197027",title:"Prof.",name:"Valérie",surname:"Livrelli",slug:"valerie-livrelli",fullName:"Valérie Livrelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"54475",title:"Virulence Factors and Innovative Strategies for the Treatment and Control of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/67778",slug:"virulence-factors-and-innovative-strategies-for-the-treatment-and-control-of-uropathogenic-i-escheri",totalDownloads:1531,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are considered to be the most frequent bacterial infections. Escherichia coli is the major factor of community-acquired UTI (80–90%) and a large part of nosocomial UTI (30%), including cystitis, pyelonephritis, prostatitis, and asymptomatic bacteriuria. Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) shows a variety of virulence factors that allow their transition from the intestinal tract to the urinary tract and causing infection. The virulence factors responsible for pathogenesis outside the gastrointestinal tract belong to various functional groups. Antimicrobial resistance among E. coli causing UTIs is increasing in many countries around the world. This paper presents key virulence factors of UPEC such as adhesins, toxins, iron acquisition systems, and biofilm formation by UPEC, which are major problems in patients with long-term catheterization. The resistance of UPEC to antibiotics and innovative strategies of treatment and control of UPEC including drug therapy, preventive vaccines, probiotics, cranberry as source of antimicrobial metabolites, bacteriophages, new therapeutic antibiofilm treatment such as engineered phages, nanoparticles, and plant-derived antibacterial agents are also presented.",signatures:"Barbara Kot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54475",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54475",authors:[{id:"189685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"}],corrections:null},{id:"56154",title:"The Pathogenesis of Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69030",slug:"the-pathogenesis-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-urinary-tract-infection",totalDownloads:3808,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the commonest human bacterial infections and are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality, resulting in increased healthcare costs. Most UTIs are caused by specialized Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains referred to as uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC). UPEC possess a variety of virulence factors (VFs), which the organism uses to attach, invade, and injure the host. These VFs include adhesins, toxins, iron acquisition factors, lipopolysacharide capsules, and other invasins. Most studies on UTI pathogenesis have targeted VFs. The source of UPEC is the host’s fecal flora. According to the pathogenicity theory, UPEC strains with special VFs move from the host’s fecal flora to the urogenital tract and cause UTI. However, another theory states that the numerically abundant strain is responsible for UTI. Effective UTI management is hampered by the recent rise in antibiotic resistance, specifically, the recent emergence of multidrug-resistant E. coli sequence type 131. The distribution of VFs and other bacterial characteristics among different patient groups and UTI syndromes, is crucial understanding UTI pathogenesis, which would guide clinical decision making. For ST131 clonal group, further epidemiological studies are needed to clarify transmission pathways, risk factors for spread, and reservoirs, so that effective control measures can be devised.",signatures:"Timothy Kudinha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56154",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56154",authors:[{id:"192136",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",surname:"Kudinha",slug:"timothy-kudinha",fullName:"Timothy Kudinha"}],corrections:null},{id:"54978",title:"Effect of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli on Human Sperm Function and Male Fertility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68312",slug:"effect-of-uropathogenic-i-escherichia-coli-i-on-human-sperm-function-and-male-fertility",totalDownloads:1562,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Infections of the reproductive tract represent nearly 15% of male infertility cases. The most frequently isolated bacterium in the ejaculate of infertile men is Escherichia coli (E. coli), which causes between 60 and 85% of cases of chronic bacterial prostatitis leading to sperm damage. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the negative effects of E. coli on sperm quality and male fertility. The E. coli isolated from semen is uropathogenic (UPEC) and can damage sperm in different ways. UPEC induces activation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes with the release of cytokines and reactive oxygen species, the latter being harmful due to their ability to induce lipid peroxidation and early sperm capacitation. Also, UPEC decreases sperm motility, vitality and mitochondrial membrane potential through direct contact or mediated by its soluble metabolites. The negative effects are higher with strains with specific characteristics such as hemolytic capacity. In vivo studies with mice models have shown that UPEC inoculated into the epididymis induces inflammatory damage with testicular mass decrease and low sperm concentration. Future studies are needed to clarify the molecular mechanisms by which E. coli damages sperm. This knowledge will make it possible to take measures to avoid deleterious consequences on the fertilizing potential of men.",signatures:"Juana V. Villegas, Rodrigo Boguen and Pamela Uribe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54978",authors:[{id:"191444",title:"Dr.",name:"Juana V.",surname:"Villegas",slug:"juana-v.-villegas",fullName:"Juana V. Villegas"},{id:"191447",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Boguen",slug:"rodrigo-boguen",fullName:"Rodrigo Boguen"},{id:"192019",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",surname:"Uribe",slug:"pamela-uribe",fullName:"Pamela Uribe"}],corrections:null},{id:"54056",title:"Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/67363",slug:"antimicrobial-mechanisms-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:2509,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Increasing antimicrobial resistance in strains of Escherichia coli is having a major impact on the healthcare industry worldwide. The appearance of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) strains has caused clinicians to worry that these strains might become as deadly as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains. It is vital that physicians have resources available to help keep them updated on these bacteria and the potential impact on healthcare. This chapter reviews the major strains of E. coli (intestinal and urinary), along with a review of the virulence factors, main diseases caused, and pertinent pathogenesis. The chapter then discusses antimicrobial therapy, what drugs are effective against these E. coli strains, and the development of resistance to these specific drug classes. Lastly, the molecular aspects of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in this organism are discussed. This information will be especially helpful for physicians in providing them with a concise review of E. coli and an understanding of what is involved in antimicrobial resistance. Hopefully this information can be used to improve the outcomes for patients with E. coli infections.",signatures:"Wanda C. Reygaert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54056",authors:[{id:"190201",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanda",surname:"Reygaert",slug:"wanda-reygaert",fullName:"Wanda Reygaert"}],corrections:null},{id:"54220",title:"Antibiotic Resistance among Escherichia coli: Isolates and Novel Approaches to the Control of E. coli Infections",doi:"10.5772/67400",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-among-i-escherichia-coli-i-isolates-and-novel-approaches-to-the-control-of-i-e",totalDownloads:2464,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bacteria are the microorganisms that most frequently cause infectious diseases in humans. The synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has attracted interest due to the new and different physical and chemical characteristics with applications in new fields. AgNPs, alone or supported on ceramic, are used as antimicrobial fillers in textiles and polymers for food-packaging and biomedical applications, for antimicrobial paints, and potentially for drug delivery. The evaluation of mesoporous nanostructures or nanocomposites as FDU-12/lignin/silver was effective in inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Candida albicans. The best results were achieved against the inhibition of E. coli and with the structures FDU-12/silver. In plates with FDU-12/lignin/silver, FDU-12, FDU-12/lignin, and the positive control, it was enumerated at 0, 6, 14, and 27 colonies, respectively. While the development of resistance to a new antibiotic is expected, the time course and degree of resistance are uncertain and depend on various factors. The application of AgNPs as nanocomposites can alter the expression of bacterial proteins and could be used for inactivation. This review explores such aspects and a number of factors arising like the use of nanostructures against E. coli, from the knowledge acquired.",signatures:"Henrique C. Alves, Felipe de P. N. Cruz, Pamela C. P. de Assis, José D.\nC. Pessoa, Luis C. Trevelin, Angela M. de O. Leal and Cristina P. de\nSousa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54220",authors:[{id:"192008",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Paiva De Sousa",slug:"cristina-paiva-de-sousa",fullName:"Cristina Paiva De Sousa"},{id:"192009",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique",surname:"Cezar Alves",slug:"henrique-cezar-alves",fullName:"Henrique Cezar Alves"},{id:"192010",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Dalton",surname:"Cruz Pessoa",slug:"jose-dalton-cruz-pessoa",fullName:"Jose Dalton Cruz Pessoa"},{id:"192011",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Carlos",surname:"Trevelin",slug:"luis-carlos-trevelin",fullName:"Luis Carlos Trevelin"},{id:"192012",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",surname:"Merici De Oliveira Leal",slug:"angela-merici-de-oliveira-leal",fullName:"Angela Merici De Oliveira Leal"},{id:"195264",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",surname:"de Paula Nogueira Cruz",slug:"felipe-de-paula-nogueira-cruz",fullName:"Felipe de Paula Nogueira Cruz"},{id:"195370",title:"BSc.",name:"Pamela Carla",surname:"Pereira De Assis",slug:"pamela-carla-pereira-de-assis",fullName:"Pamela Carla Pereira De Assis"}],corrections:null},{id:"53957",title:"E. coli as an Indicator of Contamination and Health Risk in Environmental Waters",doi:"10.5772/67330",slug:"-i-e-coli-i-as-an-indicator-of-contamination-and-health-risk-in-environmental-waters",totalDownloads:3006,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Good public health depends on regular monitoring of water quality as faecal contamination is a serious problem due to the potential for contracting disease. Bacterial contamination in water is measured using indicator organisms, notably Escherichia coli and Enterococci which are used as primary indicators of contamination in fresh and marine water quality, respectively, rather than the total coliforms present. Although most E. coli and Enterococci strains cause only mild infections, their presence is indicative of the potential presence of other more pathogenic organisms which are a danger to human health. The acceptable levels of indicator organisms are defined in legislation and are set for drinking, river, well and marine water. This chapter will consider current gold standard culture methods of analysis for E. coli and compare them with molecular DNA procedures. Established culture methods use β‐D-glucuronidase to identify E. coli and β‐D-galactosidase to detect coliforms. Emphasis will be placed on newer procedures that can be used onsite supported by laboratory procedures used for confirmation. Available rapid fluorimetric procedures which have been developed for use in the field, based on the assay of β‐D-glucuronidase, will be discussed. The rapid advances in procedures using a molecular approach will be considered and compared with the more established methods for determining E. coli in water. It is essential that all these methods should be quantitative in order to comply with legal norms, and in this regard, the potential involvement of biosensor technology will be of great value in successfully transferring laboratory procedures to the field.",signatures:"Robert G. Price and Dirk Wildeboer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53957",authors:[{id:"190960",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Price",slug:"robert-price",fullName:"Robert Price"}],corrections:null},{id:"55322",title:"Detection Methods for Lipopolysaccharides: Past and Present",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68311",slug:"detection-methods-for-lipopolysaccharides-past-and-present",totalDownloads:3126,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the primary component of the outer membrane of Gram‐negativebacteria. LPS aids in protecting bacterial cells, and also defines the unique serogroups used to classify bacteria. Additionally, LPS is an endotoxin and the primary stimulator of innate immune cells in mammals, making it an ideal candidate for early detection of pathogens. However, the majority of methods for detection of LPS focus on detection of the endotoxic component of the molecule, lipid A. Since lipid A is largely conserved among bacterial species and serogroups, these detection approaches are highly nonspecific. Thus, the importance of identifying the O‐polysaccharide antigenic portion of LPS, which confers serogroup specificity, has received a great deal of attention in recent years. However, methods that are highly selective to the O‐antigens are typically less sensitive than those that target the endotoxin. Here we present a history and comparison of the sensitivity of these methods and their value for detecting bacteria in a variety of different sample types.",signatures:"Loreen R. Stromberg, Heather M. Mendez and Harshini Mukundan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55322",authors:[{id:"45308",title:"Dr.",name:"harshini",surname:"mukundan",slug:"harshini-mukundan",fullName:"harshini mukundan"},{id:"195105",title:"Dr.",name:"Loreen",surname:"Stromberg",slug:"loreen-stromberg",fullName:"Loreen Stromberg"},{id:"195106",title:"Mrs.",name:"Heather",surname:"Mendez",slug:"heather-mendez",fullName:"Heather Mendez"}],corrections:null},{id:"54599",title:"Effect of Environmental Conditions on Escherichia coli Survival in Seawater",doi:"10.5772/67912",slug:"effect-of-environmental-conditions-on-i-escherichia-coli-i-survival-in-seawater",totalDownloads:1405,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"We investigated separate and simultaneous effect of temperature, salinity and solar radiation, as well as bacterial strain and origin on Escherichia coli (E. coli) survival in seawater in experimental conditions. The experiments were carried out by placing the bottles filled with seawater of different salinity (15.0, 30.0 and 36.5 psu) and contaminated by bacterial cultures in three light‐protected air incubators set to different temperatures (6, 12, 18 and 24°C), or by placing the bottles in plastic containers filled with water of controlled temperature and exposing them to direct solar light. In experiments in the dark, two typed and two wild E. coli strains were tested. The mean T90 values were 33.55 h for E. coli ATCC 8739, 42.50 h for E. coli ATCC 35218, 72.8 h for E. coli originating from seagull feces and 278.6 h for E. coli originating from sewage, indicating differences between survival abilities among strains. The effect of temperature on T90 was significant only in seagull E. coli at 36.5 psu and sewage E. coli at 30.0 psu and was positive. The effect of salinity was significant only in seagull strain and also was positive. No interactive effect of temperature and salinity was recorded. Experiments in the presence of solar radiation, carried out with two ATCC E. coli strains, demonstrated its dominate harmful effect on bacterial cells, reducing T90 of both strains to 0.30–0.82 h for E. coli ATCC 35218 and 0.31–5.93 h for E. coli ATCC 8739. Within the ultraviolet A (UVA) and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) spectrum of solar radiation, the wavelengths of 320–360 nm were found as most bactericidal. By comparing survival of cultivated E. coli cells to those in natural seawater samples, significantly higher survival E. coli cells in natural seawater samples was found.",signatures:"Slaven Jozić and Mladen Šolić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54599",authors:[{id:"190668",title:"Dr.",name:"Slaven",surname:"Jozić",slug:"slaven-jozic",fullName:"Slaven Jozić"},{id:"193627",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",surname:"Šolić",slug:"mladen-solic",fullName:"Mladen Šolić"}],corrections:null},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",doi:"10.5772/67390",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6102,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. Given different options, the best E. coli research design, however, should try as much as possible to shorten the length of time to outcomes.",signatures:"Athumani Msalale Lupindu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54411",authors:[{id:"185959",title:"Dr.",name:"Athumani",surname:"Lupindu",slug:"athumani-lupindu",fullName:"Athumani Lupindu"}],corrections:null},{id:"54927",title:"Escherichia coli Inactivation Using Pressurized Carbon Dioxide as an Innovative Method for Water Disinfection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68310",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-inactivation-using-pressurized-carbon-dioxide-as-an-innovative-method-for-wate",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced water disinfection technologies that do not produce harmful by-products would be highly desirable. This study presents results for the use of pressurized carbon dioxide (CO2) and a liquid-film-forming apparatus for disinfection of seawater. The sensitivity of Escherichia coli to the pressurized CO2 was examined for various conditions of pressure, temperature, working volume ratios (WVRs), flow rates, and pressure cycling. Morphology of E. coli was observed by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A strong correlation between the E. coli inactivation efficiency and pressure cycling was detected (p < 0.001). The frequency and magnitude of pressure cycling were the key factors responsible for high rates of E. coli inactivation during the pressurized CO2 treatment. The results from linear regression analyses suggest that the model can explain about 91% of the E. coli inactivation efficiency (p < 0.001). The pressurized CO2 treatment (at 0.7 MPa, 20°C, 50% WVR) in the process involving pressure cycling (∆P = 0.12 MPa, 15 cycles) resulted in complete inactivation (5.2 log reduction) of E. coli within 3 min. These findings suggest that pressurized CO2 could be a potentially useful disinfection method for water treatment.",signatures:"Tsuyoshi Imai and Thanh-Loc Thi Dang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54927",authors:[{id:"49754",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",surname:"Imai",slug:"tsuyoshi-imai",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Imai"},{id:"192033",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh-Loc Thi",surname:"Dang",slug:"thanh-loc-thi-dang",fullName:"Thanh-Loc Thi Dang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54393",title:"Evaluating Meta-Analysis Research of Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/67337",slug:"evaluating-meta-analysis-research-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the progress in Escherichia coli research that used the meta-analysis approach. Using systematic searches for E. coli literature, we tracked meta-analysis publications and analyzed them based on a number of parameters. These included subject/topic (epidemiology, clinical/intervention/prevention and environmental), geographical region (the Americas, Europe and Australasia) and clinical syndrome (enteric, renal, and sepsis/meningitis). These parameters were plotted in terms of time span to obtain a sense of dynamic change or its absence through the years since the turn of the twentieth century. In terms of region, topic and syndrome, highest meta-analysis productivity was attributed to the Americas, clinical/intervention/prevention and enteric, all of which took place in the last 5 years (2011–2016). Over the combined time span of 16 years, the Americas significantly dominated meta-analysis outputs when compared to Europe and Australasia (P = 0.003). In conclusion, our findings facilitate awareness of the progress in this field wherein the studied parameters were analyzed for patterns over time and differential rates of publication productivity.",signatures:"Noel Pabalan, Eloisa Singian, Lani Tabangay and Hamdi Jarjanazi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54393",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54393",authors:[{id:"190341",title:"Dr.",name:"Noel",surname:"Pabalan",slug:"noel-pabalan",fullName:"Noel Pabalan"},{id:"195013",title:"MSc.",name:"Eloisa",surname:"Singian",slug:"eloisa-singian",fullName:"Eloisa Singian"},{id:"195014",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdi",surname:"Jarjanazi",slug:"hamdi-jarjanazi",fullName:"Hamdi Jarjanazi"},{id:"195015",title:"MSc.",name:"Lani",surname:"Tabangay",slug:"lani-tabangay",fullName:"Lani Tabangay"}],corrections:null},{id:"53916",title:"Escherichia coli as a Model Organism and Its Application in Biotechnology",doi:"10.5772/67306",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-as-a-model-organism-and-its-application-in-biotechnology",totalDownloads:5568,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Without a doubt, in the past 20 or so years, we have achieved the power of biology in different ways. In the present, we have many tools for developing novel technologies and applications for organism modifications that ultimately let us know many aspects of organisms’ biology and, therefore, apply that knowledge for technological purposes. Of all the model organisms and tools for genetic modification available, Escherichia coli stands out as a model organism and what we would like to call “molecular biologist tool box.” In the present chapter, we aim to review our current knowledge regarding genetic modifications and tools for modifying E. coli to generate plasmid vectors, single and multiple gene knockouts, whole genome editing, biosensor generation and applications and synthetic gene circuits and genomes.",signatures:"Vargas-Maya Naurú Idalia and Franco Bernardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53916",authors:[{id:"191984",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardo",surname:"Franco",slug:"bernardo-franco",fullName:"Bernardo Franco"},{id:"191985",title:"Dr.",name:"Naurú Idalia",surname:"Vargas-Maya",slug:"nauru-idalia-vargas-maya",fullName:"Naurú Idalia Vargas-Maya"}],corrections:null},{id:"54261",title:"Biosensor Platforms for Rapid Detection of E. coli Bacteria",doi:"10.5772/67392",slug:"biosensor-platforms-for-rapid-detection-of-i-e-coli-i-bacteria",totalDownloads:6905,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Risks of contamination with the well-known food pathogen Escherichia coli are increasing over the years. Therefore, rapid and portable technologies using different types of advanced devices named biosensors with various transduction capabilities (electrochemical, optical, or acoustic) were developed and seem to offer the most elegant solutions for research communities and final users-humans. Thus, integration of microfluidic biochips/biosensors into smartphones offer the real-time detection of any infection with E. coli, helping doctors in proceeding immediately with the clinical treatment. The present chapter will discuss about the analytical performances of biosensors and microfluidics such as selection of substrates, type of (bio)functionalization, low limit of detection, specificity, and response time for monitoring different E. coli strains. Thus, it is possible to rapidly identify (30–90 s) very low concentrations of E. coli (101 CFU/mL) down to a single bacterium in real samples (water, urine, milk, beef-meat) by simple integration of an angle scatter method and microfluidic-cellulosic pads (μPAD) loaded with micro-/nanoparticles functionalized with either polyclonal anti E. coli antibodies or with DNA strains into a portable device—a smartphone. Such biosensor configuration can also be used for the detection of other types of microorganisms with potential human and animal health concerns.",signatures:"Rodica Elena Ionescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54261",authors:[{id:"190834",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rodica",surname:"Ionescu",slug:"rodica-ionescu",fullName:"Rodica Ionescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"54674",title:"Essential Oils: The Ultimate Solution to Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli?",doi:"10.5772/67776",slug:"essential-oils-the-ultimate-solution-to-antimicrobial-resistance-in-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is on the rise; the only solution for overcoming this is through accelerated drug discovery. At current, bacterial evolutionary rates is still clearly the undisputed winner in this war. To circumvent this, evolution of resistance need to be curbed and this can only be effective via novel approaches, one of which includes the use of a resistance modifying agent. The criterion to qualify as a resistance modifier necessitates the co-administration of the agent with an inhibitor that deactivates the bacterial resistance mechanism, restoring its original effectiveness. Natural products such as plant extracts and essential oils (EOs) have been viewed as a privileged group for investigation of their potential roles to combat antibiotic resistance, due to their compositions of active chemical compounds. The route for multidrug resistance development in Gram‐negative bacteria is primarily mediated by the sophisticated inner and outer membrane barriers, which function to protect the cell against external toxic compounds; hence, bypass of these bacterial membranes would successfully restore or improve efficacy of the antimicrobials. The aim of this chapter is to concisely describe some examples for recent strategies used in the screening of possible resistance modifiers from essential oils specifically against MDR Escherichia coli.",signatures:"Polly Soo Xi Yap, Shun Kai Yang, Kok Song Lai and Swee Hua Erin\nLim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54674",authors:[{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim"},{id:"195385",title:"MSc.",name:"Polly Soo Xi",surname:"Yap",slug:"polly-soo-xi-yap",fullName:"Polly Soo Xi Yap"},{id:"195386",title:"BSc.",name:"Shun Kai",surname:"Yang",slug:"shun-kai-yang",fullName:"Shun Kai Yang"},{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai"}],corrections:null},{id:"54823",title:"Horizontal Gene Transfer and the Diversity of Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68307",slug:"horizontal-gene-transfer-and-the-diversity-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:1885,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains are normal flora of human gastrointestinal tract. The evolution encoded by horizontally-transferred genetic (HGT) elements has been perceived in several species. E. coli strains have acquired virulence potential factors by attainment of particular loci through HGT, transposons or phages. The heterogeneous nature of these strains is because of HGT through mobile genetic elements. These genetic exchanges that occur in bacteria provide the genetic diversity.",signatures:"Maryam Javadi, Saeid Bouzari and Mana Oloomi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54823",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54823",authors:[{id:"141443",title:"Prof.",name:"Mana",surname:"Oloomi",slug:"mana-oloomi",fullName:"Mana Oloomi"},{id:"191998",title:"Prof.",name:"Saeid",surname:"Bouzari",slug:"saeid-bouzari",fullName:"Saeid Bouzari"},{id:"191999",title:"MSc.",name:"Maryam",surname:"Javadi",slug:"maryam-javadi",fullName:"Maryam Javadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53934",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of Phosphate Homeostasis in Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/67283",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-phosphate-homeostasis-in-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Life’s processes absolutely require inorganic phosphate for structural and energetic purposes. Escherichia coli has developed sophisticated mechanisms to acquire phosphate and to maintain intracellular amounts at optimal levels. The processes by which these simple cells maintain stable intracellular concentrations of phosphate are termed phosphate homeostasis, which involves mechanisms to balance the import, assimilation, sequestration, and export of phosphate. This chapter introduces the proteins involved in phosphate homeostasis and reviews information concerning the multiple phosphate transporters and the mechanisms by which they are regulated. It also introduces new concepts of how this bacterium responds to elevated extracellular levels of phosphate and presents a model for the integration of all of these processes to achieve homeostasis. The predominant importers are PitA, PitB, and the PstSCAB complex. Assimilation, or the incorporation of Pi into organic molecules, occurs primarily through the formation of ATP. Gene regulation relies on the PhoB/PhoR two-component system and the formation of a signaling complex at the membrane. The amount of intracellular phosphate can be fine-tuned through the formation or degradation of polyphosphate. Polyphosphate formation requires adequate supplies of ATP. In addition, when intracellular phosphate levels become too high, phosphate can be exported through PitA, PitB, or the YjbB transporters.",signatures:"William R. McCleary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53934",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53934",authors:[{id:"191441",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"McCleary",slug:"william-mccleary",fullName:"William McCleary"}],corrections:null},{id:"54277",title:"From Biology to Biotechnology: Disulfide Bond Formation in Escherichia coli",doi:"10.5772/67393",slug:"from-biology-to-biotechnology-disulfide-bond-formation-in-i-escherichia-coli-i-",totalDownloads:1583,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Disulfide bonds formed between a pair of oxidized cysteines are important to the structural integrity and proper folding of many proteins. Accordingly, Nature has evolved several systems for the genesis and maintenance of such bonds. Beginning with the discovery of protein disulfide isomerase, which provided the first evidence for enzyme-catalyzed disulfide-bond formation, many years of research have resulted in the explication of the complex network of electron transport pathways needed for this process. Herein, we take a historical approach in describing the elucidation of disulfide-bond formation in E. coli. We frame this topic in the context of genome sequencing eras. The first section describes the discovery of eukaryotic protein disulfide isomerase and the subsequent research that followed from the early 1960s to the early 1990s, a time period we have named the pre-genomic sequencing era. The second section details the renaissance in research on disulfide-bond formation in the periplasm of prokaryotes, fueled by bacterial genetic screens and the development of genomic sequencing technology. Accordingly, we have named this section the genomic sequencing era, which ranges from the early 1990s to approximately 2010. The final section outlines the use of bacterial genetic screens to select for new oxidoreductase enzymes and their potential uses in biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. This era we have dubbed the post-genomic sequencing era, and we envision it to represent the future of research on oxidative folding.",signatures:"Bradley J. Landgraf, Guoping Ren, Thorsten Masuch, Dana Boyd and\nMehmet Berkmen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54277",authors:[{id:"190999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Berkmen",slug:"mehmet-berkmen",fullName:"Mehmet Berkmen"}],corrections:null},{id:"54396",title:"Survival Strategy of Escherichia coli in Stationary Phase: Involvement of σE-Dependent Programmed Cell Death",doi:"10.5772/67672",slug:"survival-strategy-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-in-stationary-phase-involvement-of-e-dependent-programmed-",totalDownloads:1520,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In a natural habitat, microbes respond to alterations in the amounts of nutrients or to stresses such as osmotic stress and stresses caused by low or high pH, salt, heat, and antibiotics by changing their mode for proliferation or survival. Similarly, Escherichia coli cells in a test tube change the growth mode according to environmental conditions when they enter a stationary phase. Until a sufficient supply of nutrients, the organism survives under such stressful and nutrient-limited conditions by altering gene expression to be more protective against such conditions. The definite trigger of the onset of stationary phase is still unclear, but several lines of evidence indicate that the regulation mechanism is very complicated and involves several transcriptional factors including alternative sigma factors, σE and σS. In addition, E. coli cells behave as a community of species and give rise to programmed cell death (PCD) for ensuring survival by controlling the cell number and supplying nutrients to sibling cells in long-term stationary phase (LTSP). The main PCD is probably performed by σE in E. coli. In this chapter, physiological functions of σE and PCD are introduced and reviewed and their possible involvement in survival mechanisms in stationary phase, especially LTSP, is shown.",signatures:"Tomoyuki Kosaka, Masayuki Murata and Mamoru Yamada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54396",authors:[{id:"105925",title:"Prof.",name:"Mamoru",surname:"Yamada",slug:"mamoru-yamada",fullName:"Mamoru Yamada"}],corrections:null},{id:"54626",title:"Survival of Escherichia coli under Nutrient-Deprived Conditions: Effect on Cell Envelope Subproteome",doi:"10.5772/67777",slug:"survival-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-under-nutrient-deprived-conditions-effect-on-cell-envelope-subprote",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the aquatic ecosystems, microorganisms are exposed to seasonal and circadian cycles. Abiotic factors (e.g. low temperature, nutrient deprivation) can cause morphological and physiological changes in bacteria, thereby facilitating cell survival. While representing the interface between the cells and external environment, the cell envelope plays a major role in bacterial response to stress and characterization of the changes it undergoes can help to understand the adaptation process. In this study, analysis of the morphological and physiological changes as well as variations in protein composition of the Escherichia coli cell envelope was carried out for populations maintained for 21 days under nutrient deprivation and suboptimal temperatures (4°C and 20°C). It was found that the absence of nutrients led to a temperature-dependent reduction of cell culturability but had no effect on cell viability and integrity. The concentration of membrane proteins playing the key roles in cellular transport, maintenance of cell structure or bioenergetics processes remained mainly unchanged. In contrast, the level of several proteins such as the elongation factor EFTu 1, components of Bam complex or proteins implicated in chemotaxis was altered, thus indicating that cells were readily responding and adapting to stress.",signatures:"Maite Orruño, Claudia Parada, Vladimir R. Kaberdin and Inés Arana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54626",authors:[{id:"190260",title:"Dr.",name:"Inés",surname:"Arana",slug:"ines-arana",fullName:"Inés Arana"},{id:"190272",title:"Dr.",name:"Maite",surname:"Orruño",slug:"maite-orruno",fullName:"Maite Orruño"},{id:"190273",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Parada",slug:"claudia-parada",fullName:"Claudia Parada"},{id:"190275",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Kaberdin",slug:"vladimir-kaberdin",fullName:"Vladimir Kaberdin"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Annous and Joshua B. Gurtler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2061.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101172",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",surname:"Annous",slug:"bassam-annous",fullName:"Bassam Annous"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"971",title:"Malaria Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7a9d672f9988a6d5b059aed14188896",slug:"malaria-parasites",bookSignature:"Omolade O. 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Menossi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5956",type:"chapter",title:"Microarray Data Mining for Biological Pathway Analysis",slug:"microarray_data_mining_for_biological_pathway_analysis",totalDownloads:4450,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Miyoung Shin and Jaeyoung Kim",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5957",type:"chapter",title:"Development of Microsatellite Markers by Data Mining from DNA Sequences",slug:"development_of_microsatellite_markers_by_data_mining_from_dna_sequences",totalDownloads:4071,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jingou Tong, Dan Wang and Lei Cheng",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5958",type:"chapter",title:"Quality Improvement using Data Mining in Manufacturing Processes",slug:"quality_improvement_using_data_mining_in_manufacturing_processes",totalDownloads:7294,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Shu-guang He, Zhen He, G. Alan Wang and Li Li",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5959",type:"chapter",title:"The Deployment of Data Mining into Operational Business Processes",slug:"the_deployment_of_data_mining_into_operational_business_processes",totalDownloads:6272,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Rok Rupnik and Jurij Jaklič",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5960",type:"chapter",title:"Data Mining Applied to the Instrumentation Data Analysis of a Large Dam",slug:"data_mining_applied_to_the_instrumentation_data_analysis_of_a_large_dam",totalDownloads:3364,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rosangela Villwock, Maria Teresinha Arns Steiner, Andrea Sell Dyminski and Anselmo Chaves Neto",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5961",type:"chapter",title:"A Data Mining Algorithm for Monitoring PCB Assembly Quality",slug:"a_data_mining_algorithm_for_monitoring_pcb_assembly_quality",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Feng Zhang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]},{id:"5962",type:"chapter",title:"An Overview of Data Mining Techniques Applied to Power Systems",slug:"an_overview_of_data_mining_techniques_applied_to_power_systems",totalDownloads:6456,totalCrossrefCites:10,signatures:"Jefferson Morais, Yomara Pires, Claudomir Cardoso and Aldebaro Klautau",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5687",title:"Pattern Recognition",subtitle:"Techniques, Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"776a1270a14ebea65bf567dd6dfea1de",slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",bookSignature:"Peng-Yeng Yin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5687.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5693",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Yeng",surname:"Yin",slug:"peng-yeng-yin",fullName:"Peng-Yeng Yin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"5779",title:"Local Energy Variability as a Generic Measure of Bottom-Up Salience",slug:"local_energy_variability_as_a_generic_measure_of_bottom-up_salience",signatures:"Anton Garcia-Diaz, Xose R. 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Demand for pX is driven by the global polyester growth. Global polyester consumption is currently around 80 million tonnes/year. Using application of PET in fiber, this polyester is produced in 57.7 million metric tonne in 2019. Since 2008, the average growth in production has an annual increase of 5.9% (see Figure 1) [1]. Industry forecasts are that polyester will continue to grow at approximately 4% annually. While there is also increased focus on recycling polyester (a.k.a. rPET), most industry experts also see continued demand growth in virgin material due to limits on the availability of recycled polyester and need for virgin material to meet quality and specifications of many applications. Over the span between 2008 and 2019, rPET produced has ranged from 2 to 9% of total global PET for fiber applications. Currently, PTA is produced from pX where 0.58 tonnes of pX are required to produce one tonne of polyester, resulting in global demand for pX of about 50 mm tonnes (Figure 2).
Annual PET Fiber produced from 2008 to 2019.
Pathway from p-xylene to polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Figure 3 displays the supply chain to produce PET. Virtually all PET is produced from fossil fuel resources. pX is produced from mixed xylenes that are derived from crude oil, and MEG is produced from ethylene primarily derived from natural gas. There is a commercial bio-based route to MEG that starts from ethanol produced from biomass by dehydration to ethylene, oxygenation to ethylene oxide, and hydrolysis to MEG. Bio-based MEG is used to produce a partial bio (~30%) PET. At the current time, there are no commercial routes to bio-pX.
Supply chain to PET.
Conventional pX technology is based on the isomerization of mixed xylenes which has been practiced commercially for decades. The mixed xylenes are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha, which produces a C8 stream that includes the three xylene isomers and ethylbenzene. Other routes to mixed xylenes are from the pyrolysis gasoline stream produced in a naphtha steam cracker. The main commercial routes used to separate the pX isomer are crystallization, which takes advantage of the different freeze points of the ortho-, meta- and para- isomers, or via selective adsorption separation processes.
As a result of growing concerns about climate change, companies, governments, and consumers are increasing their focus on ways to reduce the carbon footprint of materials and offer more sustainable products. Consequently, companies are looking at new and innovative technologies to produce pX from renewable biomass resources rather than from crude oil, to enable production of a 100% bio polyester product. This report focuses catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) of lignocellulose to bio-oils which are refined to bio-pX with the objective to reduce carbon footprint in comparison to petro-pX. There are other processes currently being developed for bio-pX, but a discussion of these processes are beyond the scope of this paper.
As the world is emerging from the global pandemic of 2020–2021, increasingly, big companies have turned their focus on sustainability and establishing aggressive targets to reduce the carbon footprint of their products and over time move toward a net-zero carbon profile. It was earlier in 2009 Coca-Cola announced their rollout of the PlantBottle™ [2]. Coca-Cola’s mission is to reduce reliance on non-renewable resources, and reduce CO2 emission in polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Currently, only 30% of the PET in PlantBottle™ is made from bio-MEG. A commercialized process for bio-PTA process would enable Coca-Cola (and others) to produce 100% bio-PET PlantBottle™. Advantageously, bio-PET production would be a “drop-in” into existing PET assets. By 2012, Coca-Cola, Ford, Heinz, Nike, and Procter & Gamble founded the “Plant PET Technology Collaborative” and announced their mission [3]:
“PTC members are committed to supporting and championing research, expanding knowledge and accelerating technology development to enable commercially viable, more sustainably sourced 100% plant-based PET plastic while reducing the use of fossil fuels”. Similarly, Danone, Nestlé Waters, Origin Materials and PepsiCo formed the NaturALL Bottle Alliance in 2018. Since Coca-Cola’s 2009 announcement, many have gravitated to the challenge to develop bio-PTA.
The reduced carbon footprint of bio-pX, and consequently bio-polyester, can contribute to meeting these carbon reduction goals for companies that participate in the polyester value chain, and this is the key business driver behind the increasing interest in routes to bio pX. The bottom line: once bio-pX is available, oxidation of bio-pX to bio-PTA would produce 100% bio-PET.
Anellotech, a Pearl, NY start-up chemical company founded in 2008, has developed a feedstock flexible, in situ catalytic fast pyrolysis process to convert low-cost lignocellulosic biomass solids to a range of hydrocarbons containing valuable benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX). These monoaromatics are further refined to produce bio-pX which are valuable feedstocks for bio-PTA [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. In situ CFP technology was originally developed by Dr. George W. Huber, Harvey Spangler Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Anellotech has partnered with Suntory, a global consumer beverage company. The technology has been jointly developed by IFPEN, Axen (a subsidiary of IFPEN), and Johnson Matthey. IFPEN is tasked with scale-up, Axen for technology marketing, and Johnson Matthey for catalyst development. On May 6, 2019, Anellotech announced successful six months of operations of their Bio-TCatTM continuous process in their Silsbee, TX pilot plant. The bio-pX process yield ranged from 22 to 24%, 98% C6+ aromatics. Currently, Anellotech is seeking partners and funding to construct their first commercial CFP based bio-pX plant (500 bone-dry tonnes/day of loblolly pine and target production of 40,000 tonnes BTX and C9+ aromatics per year).
Pyrolysis is an extraordinarily complex, thermochemical reaction which can be operated in slow or fast mode to yield products ranging from solids to liquids and gas. Pyrolysis is challenged by high feedstock complexity and the multiphasic nature of this process. More than 300 compounds are found in an acidic, aqueous, unstable, and viscous heterogeneous mixture (a.k.a. pyrolysis oil) of esters, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids [14, 15, 16]. By themselves, these oxygenates have little fuel value. However, they can be catalytically upgraded to aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly bio-pX. The upgrading catalyst must maintain stability and tolerate wide range of oxygenates [17]. CFP can convert the entire plant, not just sugars, which makes this thermochemical process advantageous to fermentation [18].
Zeolites, particularly HZMS-5, have proven to be effective catalysts for pyrolysis oil upgrading to benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX). Crystalline zeolites have well-defined microporous structures with pore sizes ranging from 5 to 12 Å. Zeolites are acidic materials with controllable acid site densities. CFP must operate under O2-free, optionally ambient pressure, and does not require H2 (a.k.a. hydroprocessing), but operating under H2 atmosphere might offer advantage of decreased coking (discussed later in this chapter).
Temperature is an important parameter. In CFP, a moderate temperature of approximately 450 to 550 °C is optimum to produce mainly liquids, but the heating and subsequent cooling rates must be extremely high. The biomass must be ground to a finely divided material with averaged particle sizes of less than 3 mm. The cost of the process is inversely proportional to the averaged particle size. The pyrolysis vapor must condense quickly to avoid unwanted secondary reactions such as cracking. Alkali and alkaline earth metal ions in biomass feed pose substantial challenges to the process (addressed in Pretreatment) [17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
There are two process schemes that can be employed in CFP: in situ and ex situ [32, 34]. Pyrolysis and catalytic upgrading that occur in the same zone is in situ. This “one-pot” process is lower in cost than ex situ. However, in situ CFP is sensitive biomass feed content of inorganics, and minimum catalyst/biomass ratio where 10:1 gives highest yield of aromatics [35].
Pyrolysis and catalytic vapor upgrade that occur in separate zones (two-stage) is ex situ CFP. This mode of operation affords the advantage to exclude biochar and metallic ionic impurities from the catalyst which can extend catalyst lifetime. Additionally, the temperature of pyrolysis and vapor upgrade can be independently controlled, an option not available for in situ CFP. BioBTX operates an ex situ pyrolysis process, and has developed an integrated cascading pyrolysis reactor. Their two-stage process excludes non-volatile impurities from entering catalyst pores and this provides the benefit of improved catalyst vapor contact [26].
A comparison of in situ and ex situ CFP of hybrid poplar at 700 °C was conducted in a microreactor. In situ CFP produced 5.4% olefins and 26.1% aromatics. While operating in an ex situ mode, up to 17.4% olefins and 18.9% aromatics were made. The carbonaceous material yields for in situ and ex situ were 31.3% and 18.6%, respectively. Temperature strongly influenced the product distribution in ex situ. A comparison of both modes of operations in a mini-plant for CFP of pinewood was conducted [36]. An analysis of ex situ economics has also been published [37].
Fast pyrolysis rapidly depolymerizes lignocellulose to its constituents: hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Under these conditions, cellulose is depolymerized to glucose, hemicellulose to C5 sugars, and lignin to phenolic compounds [22, 38, 39]. Once glucose is made, it is quickly dehydrated to anhydrosugars which are then converted to furanics. Furanics are diffused into zeolite pores where it is combined with in situ olefins and undergoe Diels Alder cyclization and dehydration to aromatics. Zeolite imparts a “confinement effect” for chemicals undergoing dehydrocyclization within the catalyst interior and once formed, monoaromatics exit the catalyst [40]. At a molecular level, at 450–600 °C, the furanic oxygen coordinates to Al of the zeolite. Deoxygenation of organics result in elimination of CO2, CO, and H2O. As a test of this hypothesis, furan and olefins were used as models in HZSM-5 catalyzed upgrading. HZSM-5 has a three-dimensional pore structure with intersecting systems of 10-membered ring pores. The dimension of ring pores is nearly ideal for production of pX: 5.1 x 5.5 Å (sinusoidal pores), and 5.3 x 5.6 Å (straight pores) [41]. HZM-5’s utility in conversion of oxygenates to aromatics was demonstrated by Mobil’s commercial methanol-to-gasoline process. Within HZSM-5, ethylene and furan did not yield benzene, but replacement of ethylene by propylene led to toluene [42]. Likewise, 2-methylfuran and propylene produced xylenes. In the absence of olefins, Diels Alder dimerization and dehydration of furan results in benzofuran (Eq. (1)). Graphitic coke was also deposited onto the catalyst, which contributed to catalyst deactivation in about 30 minutes. When the upgrading temperature was increased to 650 °C, the selectivity was shifted to olefins.
Other investigators have examined conversion of methylated furan over Ga/HZSM-5 [43]. Even though model compounds were used, the reaction network was extremely complex due to numerous secondary reactions at 300–500 °C. Coking became a dominant reaction at temperature above 500 °C.
A “technical catalyst” such as extruded Al2O3 -HZSM-5 was explored in CFP of pine wood and cellulose at 500 °C [44]. The focus of the study was on effect of pyrolysis temperature. The type of coke made was highly dependent on the feedstock. Yet, even by 2020, the mechanism of CFP remained elusive. Gaps still exist between theoretical models and applied pyrolysis. Thus far, there is still insufficient information generated from a single biomass source [45]. High aromatics selectivity and strong resistance to catalyst deactivation are keys to the success of CFP for bio-pX. Therefore, extensive efforts have been directed toward zeolite modifications.
Zeolites are microporous crystalline materials of SiO2 and Al2O3 that have Brønsted and Lewis acidic sites [17, 46]. HZSM-5 also have ordered structure microporous structures. In the refining process, zeolites are integral to crude oil conversions in the gas phase. The feed for these refining processes are bereft of minerals, oxygenates, and water. Under these conditions, zeolite lifetimes are quite long. However, conversion of biomass occurs in a condensed, aqueous phase, which are highly challenging conditions for zeolites. Oxygenate conversions are difficult to achieve because of their tendency to coke. In addition to BTX, CFP produces a very large volume of wide variety of hydrocarbons, valuable for fuel (fuel gas, gasoline and diesel blendstock). Therefore, the literature on CFP catalyst development is quite voluminous due to interests in bio-fuels.
A comparison of HZSM-5, HY, H-BEA, and H-mordenite for pyrolysis oil upgrading has been made [37, 47]. A method to evaluate catalysts for ex situ vapor upgrading is the pyroprobe analytical pyrolyzer. This important tool provides high heating rates and means to analyze complex mixtures of products [48]. An examination of feeds ranging from glucose, xylitol, cellulose, to cellobiose was explored with catalyst candidates of HZSM-5, silicalite, H-BEA, HY, and SiO2/Al2O3. Based on this study, HZSM-5 has been found to be the highest performing catalyst. Pore characteristics and shape selectivity for monoaromatics of HZSM-5 are superior to other zeolites. Another comparison study was conducted on HZSM-5, MCM-41, and HY [49]. HZSM-5 was again the most effective zeolite among this group to produce up to 33.1% BTX and 86.4% aromatics selectivity.
The silica-alumina ratio (SAR) of HZSM-5 is also an important parameter for deoxygenation reactions [50]. As the SAR is reduced, the density of Brønsted acids increases. Other zeolites of similar SAR were inferior to HZSM-5 because they were not microporous. Mesoporous zeolites were not selective for aromatics. For example, sulfated ZrO2 is a superacid, a property important for aromatics formation, but this metal oxide was ineffective because of the absence of shape-selectivity. Coupling ZrO2 to MCM-41 resulted in higher levels of pyrolysis vapor deoxygenation and was found to be stable against coking.
Because HZSM-5 plays such a vital role in CFP, numerous investigations have been launched to determine whether modifications of the physical structure can improve aromatics selectivity and minimize coking. Modification of zeolite’s pore mouth sizes can improve the catalyst for improving of BTX selectivities [51, 52]. Specifically, narrowing the pore mouth openings by chemical deposition techniques was explored [53]. The deposited chemicals also covered external acid sites, which can improve pX selectivity [5]. Phosphorous-modified HZSM-5 promoted greater space confinement and increased pX selectivity. A comparison of various deposited silicon materials was conducted by KH550, TEOS, and methyl silicone oil [54, 55]. KH550 modification of HZSM-5 increased furan conversion to 24.5% aromatics vs. 18.8% unmodified HZSM-5 (see reference [5]). Coking of the modified catalyst was also reduced from 44.1 to 26.7%. A decrease in benzene and increase in toluene and naphthalenes selectivities were observed. Chemical liquid depositions of TiO2 to HZSM-5 also resulted in improvements to BTX yields from 17.0 to 23.5%, and reduced levels of coking [56].
The other direction to zeolite modifications is to create mesopores. Unilamellar mesoporous MFI nanosheets (UMN) were tested against another mesoporous material, Al-SBA-15 [57]. UMN has stronger acid sites which result in greater cracking and deoxygenation activities. Ketones and alcohols were converted to furanics and aromatics. Another method to produce mesopores is NaOH desilication of HZSM-5 [58]. This method was successful to create intraparticle mesoporous materials which then improved diffusion. By coupling ZrO2 with desilicated zeolites, a more active zeolite was accompanied with longer catalyst lifetimes [19]. The resulting coke was “softer” (i.e. less aromatic) and was easier to remove. A two-stage microporous and mesoporous vapor upgrading system was examined [59]. In this case, HZSM-5 and MCM-41 (3:1) were evaluated. By increasing the MCM-41 loading, more xylenes were made than toluene. A comparison of chemical liquid deposition (CLD) and acid dealumination (AD) of HZSM-5 was conducted [60]. CLD decreased pore size while AD increased pore size. In both cases, decrease of strong acid sites occurred. CLD boosted BTX yield to 37.2% while AD produced 30.4%. In both cases there was a decrease in indene, naphthalenes, and coke precursors.
Most recently, Li et al. reported development of a core-shell catalyst of HZSM-5@MCM-41 made from an external recrystallization method [61]. HZSM-5@MCM-41 required a lower temperature of 500 °C to produce hydrocarbons, versus 550 °C for unmodified HZSM-5. Monoaromatic hydrocarbons produced from rape straw pyrolysis was as high as 11.43 wt%, which is 2.5 times higher than obtained from HZSM-5. Furthermore, HZSM-5@MCM-41 produced less graphitic coke.
The literature is replete with studies of metals doped HZSM-5 to investigate their effects of CFP catalyst. Zeolites metalated even at low concentrations beneficially resulted in accelerated deoxygenation by decarbonylation, decarboxylation, dehydration, and olefin aromatization of pyrolysis products. In some cases, there were reduced coke formation by decreasing selectivities to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Table 1 summarizes the metals dopant and their references. Among these metals, gallium, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, and copper increased for deoxygenations, dehydrocyclization, and aromatization.
Entry | Metals/Additives | References |
---|---|---|
1 | Ga | [24, 26, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79] |
2 | Fe | [26, 63, 66, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88] |
3 | Pt | [72, 89, 90, 91, 92] |
4 | Zn | [26, 63, 77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 86, 93, 94, 95, 96] |
5 | Mo | [24, 63, 76, 77, 90, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100] |
6 | Ni | [24, 26, 63, 67, 73, 82, 87, 90, 92, 96, 100, 101, 102] |
7 | Co | [26, 63, 73, 80, 85, 90, 92, 96, 102] |
8 | Cu | [63, 92, 96, 97, 101, 103] |
9 | Mn | [63] |
10 | La | [86, 93, 94] |
11 | Mg | [93, 94, 96] |
12 | Ce | [93, 94] |
13 | Ca | [86, 96, 104] |
14 | Pd | [73] |
15 | Sn | [105] |
16 | WO3 | [91] |
17 | Mo2N | [106] |
18 | W2P | [106] |
19 | MoP | [106] |
20 | WP | [106] |
21 | Zn/P | [107] |
22 | Ga-Ni | [63] |
23 | Ni-Cu | [108, 109] |
24 | Ni-HF | [110] |
25 | Fe-Ni | [82] |
26 | Mo-Mg | [111] |
27 | Ni-Mo2N | [112] |
28 | Ce-Zr | [113] |
29 | Ga-Mo | [114] |
30 | Fe-Ca | [115] |
Metals and additives to HZSM-5 for CFP.
Investigators also examined combinations of metals to determine whether there were accumulated benefits in CFP. For example, Ga and Ni are perhaps the most investigated metal additives, and they have been combined for CFP [63]. Ga-Ni reduced acidity, and reduced formation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons which could explain the reduced coking. Another combination is Cu-Ni which was examined in hydroprocessing (CFP under H2 atmosphere) [108]. Ni-Fe produced an additive effect. Individually, Fe increased yields of monoaromatics, while Ni increased yields of naphthalenes [82]. When combined, this catalyst generated more monoaromatics and naphthalenes. The doping of these metals onto HZSM-5 increased the concentration of strong acid sites, but also resulted in more coke formation.
Molybdenum is already a highly active metal when doped in HZSM-5 in zeolites [111]. When Mg was combined with Mo in HZSM-5, higher selectivities to monoaromatic hydrocarbons and decreased polyaromatics selectivities were achieved. Phosphorous modified HZSM-5 and doped with Zn decreased external acidity of catalyst surface while the internal acid sites were left unchanged. This modification resulted in improvements in this CFP catalyst [107]. HF modification of HZSM-5 and later doped by Ni produced a catalyst that increased yields of BTX [110]. The acid modification created mesopores and reduced Brønsted acidity via dealumination.
Certain combinations of metals and nonmetals behaved as “noble-metal-like” catalysts [106]. Therefore Ni-Mo2N was prepared and confirmed that Ni further extended performance of Mo2N [112].
In almost every publication concerning CFP catalyst or process development, investigators have identified catalyst deactivation to be the single greatest challenge to this process. The catalyst lifetime can be as short as minutes. There are three types of deactivations and of which, two are irreversible deactivations. The most common form of deactivation results from coke buildup on acid sites within the zeolite pores and renders the catalyst inactive [116]. Coking is most rapid when the catalyst/biomass ratio is less than one and particularly at low SAR. The second type of deactivation results from metal oxides deposited in zeolite which can result in irreversible deactivation if these salts are not removed [117]. Thirdly, zeolite dealumination can occur and result in irreversible deactivation.
Coke deactivation most rapidly occurs among highly acidic zeolites of low silica/alumina ratio (SAR) [118]. Ironically, low zeolite SAR are most active for aromatics [82, 119]. Individual lignocellulosic components caused deactivation differently [120]. Depolymerized lignin mainly deactivates by coking on zeolite surfaces because lignin monomers (mostly phenolics) cannot diffuse into the microchannels of HZSM-5 [121]. Cellulose pyrolysis products are responsible for coking within the interior of the zeolite and this leads to occlusion [121]. A study into deactivation mechanism was conducted from in situ CFP pine wood [121]. Fresh catalyst produced mainly aromatics and olefins with no detectable levels of oxygenates. As the campaign progresses, the catalyst/biomass ratio began to decrease, and oxygenates began to breakthrough, including phenolics. When the catalyst/biomass ratio reached 1:3, complete deactivation will have occurred.
Not all oxygenates deactivate HZSM-5 at the same rate [122]. One team examined the effects of upgrading ethanol-only, ethanol+acetic acid, ethanol+ethyl acetate, and ethanol+acetaldehyde. Acetic acid in the vapor strongly adsorbed onto zeolite surfaces and promoted formation of polyaromatic hydrocarbon precursors to coke. Acetaldehyde deactivated 10X more than ethanol. While ethyl acetate did not directly adsorb onto catalyst surfaces, the reaction conditions rapidly hydrolyzed ethyl acetate to acetic acid which then immediately deactivated the catalyst.
An extruded HZSM-5 (a.k.a. “technical catalyst”) containing an alumina binder was also examined in its deactivation in ex situ CFP of cellulose and pinewood [44]. CFP of cellulose generates smaller oxygenates, which diffused into the zeolite to produce a “catalytic coke”, made via a ring-growth mechanism involving H-transfer at temperatures above 200 °C [123]. Initial formation of monoaromatics led to formation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, coke precursors. It is not surprising to learn that the coking mechanism of oxygenates is similar in pathways to coke formation in petroleum refining [118]. Lignin forms “thermal coke” from condensation of lignin monomers, and easier to remove because they accumulate on the surfaces of the zeolite [118]. High temperature combustion readily regenerates coke-deactivated HZSM-5.
The presence of water liberated from the pyrolysis can accumulate in the catalyst [118, 124]. Later, at high regeneration temperature, steaming can result in dealumination of the zeolite via leaching. In addition to removal of strong acid-site aluminum, there can be a loss of surface area even after one regeneration cycle [44, 51]. As a further complication, during the regeneration, hot spots can appear and irreversibly damage the catalyst. Successive regeneration increases the risk of further dealumination and reduction in micropore volumes, particularly at high regeneration temperature of 650–670 °C [118]. Therefore, these investigators recommended limiting the O2 concentration to 15% and include 5% steam to preserve catalyst lifetime [125]. Use of this method was found to preserve catalyst stability for up to 30 regeneration cycles. The formation of aromatics and olefins was stable at about 31.3% [125].
Alkaline and alkaline earth metal ions (AAEMs) are part of the plant’s nutrient to enable the plant to grow [15, 126]. Lignocellulose is comprised of four different types of materials: lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and inorganics. AAEMs and other metal salts are represented by the inorganics fraction. A measurement of ash content provides a direct correlation of mineral concentration in the feed. Mechanistically, alkali metal salts also ion-exchanged with the proton of Brønsted acid sites and this reduces zeolite activity [118]. This was demonstrated from an on-purpose potassium ion exchange with HZSM-5 (up to 2.85 wt%) which resulted in drastic reduction of catalyst acidity, leading to lower yields of carbons [127]. Within the pyrolysis process itself, AAEMs can catalyze unwanted secondary reactions, including cracking, decarboxylation, and dehydration, resulting in a loss of liquid yields [34]. Carbon oxides and water were increased by 10% due to these inorganic components, changing the product distribution [118, 128]. Among the metal ions that are highly detrimental to the process are K > Na > Ca, and the concentration of potassium in the feed is inversely proportional to aromatics [129]. Furthermore, Xiao et al. studied the effect of potassium salts on CFP of a model feed, 2-methylfuran [130]. The experiments were conducted by deposition of potassium salts into HZSM-5. Neutral KCl was less harmful than basic K2CO3 which produced lower yields of aromatic hydrocarbons and gases. The negative effects were due to loss of acidity and erosion of physical structure of HZSM-5, particularly when the K2CO3 concentration was as high as 1.0 wt%.
Magnesium is also present, but it is not as harmful as the other metal ions. Other inorganic ions that need to be monitored include Cl, S, P, and N [131]. Particularly, CFP of guayule, a perennial woody shrub, can produce upgraded products containing 80 to 700 ppm sulfur which can be detrimental to any sulfur sensitive downstream processes [132].
Because of the nature of the process, it is in situ CFP that is most sensitive to AAMEs in the feed. Even at levels as low as 0.1 wt% in the feed, AAEMs can greatly impact the pyrolysis process. Aggravating this situation is the variation of feedstock which also varies the inorganic component concentrations. Switchgrass as a feed results in high ash content [118, 131]. Versus pinewood (0.49 wt%), Switchgrass can contain around 2.6 wt% ash comprised of metal oxides. Crop selection is crucial to preserve performance of CFP [15, 133]. Feed pretreatment can be an option to minimize the deleterious effects of AAEMs.
Two main strategies have been published to combat the challenges of pyrolysis: torrefaction and acid-washing of lignocellulose. Torrefaction is low temperature, slow pyrolysis of less than 60 minutes, and installed upstream to CFP. During torrefaction, removal of undesirable acetic acid and guaiacol from the feed improves the downstream CFP. Typical temperature of torrefaction ranges from 250 to 300 °C [112]. When torrefaction was tested on pinewood conversion at 250 °C, the resulting CFP step produced 30% more aromatics. Other feedstocks such as corn cobs produced a lower O/C ratio in the CFP product [134].
Acid-washing of finely divided lignocellulose can extract AAEMs from the feed. The wash step is conducted under very mild conditions, but it is necessary that thorough drying is conducted prior to CFP [51]. For example, rice husks are washed at 30 °C by acetic acid [84, 135]. Use of acids such as acetic acid or mineral acids can add significant variable costs to the process. One investigator recommended using acetic acid recovered from the pyrolysis process for the wash. Extreme aqueous washing must be avoided as the extraction can result in undesirable changes in hemicellulose and cellulose. Formation of sticky materials can coat catalyst bed particles and risk defluidization [136]. Aqueous HCl washing of the spent catalyst to remove deposited minerals is also necessary to maintain catalyst lifetime [118].
A comparison of both processes was studied to determine their effects on aromatics yield. Acid-leaching promoted the formation of levoglucosan. Torrefaction promoted the formation of catechols and guaicols. It was determined that acid leaching + CFP made less aromatics than torrefaction + CFP [137]. Both processes were conducted in series in the CFP of rice husk [135]. Lower levels of volatiles were made in the pyrolysis result in lower yields of oxygenates and higher yields of aromatics. However, severe torrefaction conditions due to longer residence time can result in cross-linking of lignocellulose, resulting in more charring and reduced formation of aromatics. A combination of both processes did result in higher yields of products [136].
One team of investigators described development of ultrasonic pretreatment [138]. This mechanical method excludes use of toxic chemicals. Ultrasound promotes cleaving of α-O-4 and β-O-4 linkages and overall decreased crystallinity of lignocellulose and increased yield of pyrolysis oils. CFP can accommodate a wide variety of feedstocks. Table 2 summarizes the feedstocks examined, which include woody plants of varying levels of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose. The most frequently studied woody biomass for pyrolysis was pinewood. Also included in this table are references to studies of model feeds.
Beatle killed trees | [139] |
Pine wood | [36, 60, 67, 97, 101, 106, 111, 121, 128, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146] |
Pine bark | [58] |
Pinecones | [145] |
Pinyon juniper | [58] |
Beech wood | [58] |
Maple wood | [148] |
Hybrid poplar | [58, 147] |
Yellow poplar | [76] |
Red oak | [147] |
Oakwood | [149] |
Quercus Mongolia | [74] |
Eucalyptus | [63, 68, 87] |
Willow wood | [66] |
Guayule Bagasse | [150] |
Corn cobs | [141, 151] |
Corn stover residue | [58] |
Corn stalk | [88] |
Straw | [141, 152] |
Sunflower Stalk | [153] |
Switch grass | [58, 127, 131] |
Mandarin residue | [72] |
Citrus unshiu | [119] |
Rice Husk | [84, 109, 135, 154, 155, 156] |
Bamboo sawdust | [56, 157] |
Giant cane | [158] |
Sugarcane bagasse | [147] |
Wheat straw | [91, 98, 159] |
Rape straw | [61] |
Xylitol | [160] |
Cotton stalk | [80] |
Jatroha residues | [73] |
Miscanthus | [57, 161] |
Peanut shells | [162] |
Microalgae | [70, 140] |
Seaweed | [140] |
Fish discards | [140] |
Guaiacol | [52] |
Acetic Acid | [52] |
Furanics | [5, 38, 42, 43, 52, 54, 78, 130, 148, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168] |
Glucose | [148, 160, 169, 170] |
Lignin | [121, 141, 171] |
Hemicellulose | [141, 171] |
Cellulose | [44, 57, 80, 113, 120, 121, 141, 160, 161, 171, 172, 173, 174] |
Cellbios | [160] |
Glycerol | [175, 176] |
Feedstocks used in CFP.
Glucose is one of the intermediate products made in pyrolysis [169]. This monosaccharide is rapidly converted to anhydrosugars before they are dehydrated to furanics and subsequently to aromatics. Sophisticated isotopically labeled glucose experiments permitted an elucidation of the mechanism of glucose conversion [170]. Single ring aromatics contained 13C labels and later these labels began to appear in naphthalene rings, evidence for a ring growth mechanism from monoaromatics to polyaromatics. Other studies included a study of the conversion of other model feeds to aromatics under identical conditions [80, 121, 140, 141, 142, 147, 160, 161, 171]. Glycerol CFP is of interest because of its availability from the production of fatty acid methyl esters for bio-diesel [175, 176].
Investigators recognized that pyrolysis produced improved product quality when a second feed was added to the process [22, 24]. The co-feed can include coal, plastics, tire, and sludge. N.Y. Chen et al. first reported in 1986 that the hydrogen to carbon effective ratio (H/Ceff) can predict the outcome of pyrolysis [177]. This ratio is calculated according to the following formula (Eq. (2)).
When this ratio is less than one, coke is expected to be made in high yields. For example, glucose has a ratio of zero, sorbitol has 0.333, glycerol has 0.667, xylitol has 0.400 and petroleum is greater than two [160]. As a feed, lignocellulose is highly deficient in hydrogen. It might be plausible to increase this ratio by co-feeding a material rich in hydrogen [19, 27]. By increasing this ratio, not only is coke reduced, but higher yields of aromatics and olefins result. Other means to increase this ratio is to pretreat the feed by hydrogenolysis [178]. An ex situ co-pyrolysis strategy to increase BTX yield was cleverly conducted by removing BTX from the product stream to leave behind polyaromatic hydrocarbons. This high molecular weight material was then hydrogenated to produce polycyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons. This hydrogenated fraction was then co-pyrolyzed with glycerol to produce higher yields of BTX [176].
The upgrading of furanics to aromatics was benefitted by the co-addition of olefins [42, 119, 163, 177, 179, 180]. While co-addition of ethylene and propylene was effective to produce more aromatics, investigators recognized that the process must now incorporate flammable gases. An alternative to olefins utilization was to co-add methanol to the pyrolysis. Under the upgrading conditions, methanol to in situ olefins can occur to produce the dienophiles required for furanic Diels Alder reactions. Therefore, 2-methylfuran (2-MF) and methanol co-addition resulted in boosting aromatics yield while coke was reduced [168]. When the MeOH/2-MF ratio was increased from zero to 3:1, 2-MF conversion was increased from 39.8% to as high as 96.5% at an optimal ratio of 2:1. Of course, not all furanics were equally converted. A comparison of 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF), furan, and furfural revealed that electron-rich DMF quickly reacted while the electron-deficient furfural lagged behind: DMF > furan > furfural [94]. In addition to aromatics, CO2, CO, and other olefins were also made at 400–600 °C [38]. Unavoidably, formation of graphitic coke on catalyst surfaces resulted in its deactivation within 30 minutes. Methane was examined as a co-feed in the catalytic upgrading [164]. This co-feed was beneficial, an indication that methane could be activated by this catalyst to yield more aromatics, but coke formation also increased.
CCP was applied to a mixture of sawdust and methanol. This combination reduced coke and char and improved aromatics yields [77, 93, 181]. However, the researchers could not exclude the possibility that a background methanol to aromatics process was also occurring. Another team examined CCP of other co-feeds such as methanol, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and calcium formate with pinewood [182]. Of these three, calcium formate was found to be most effective at calcium formate/pinewood of 3:1. In fact, co-feeding calcium formate did not produce a large increase in aromatics vs. control (10.65% vs. 9.23%), but this co-pyrolysis reduced the polyaromatic hydrocarbons yield (1.94% vs. 2.49%). The authors speculated that the calcium salt helped to maintain catalyst activity within the hydrocarbon pool of the zeolite.
A patent was granted to Anellotech for co-feeding oxygenates such as acetone into pyrolysis to enhanced pX yield [183]. The oxygenates utilized are low value byproducts from other industrial processes. Such oxygenates include acetone from the phenol process, furfural, hexanol, and hexanoic acid from other sources. Furfural was less effective, but the formation of xylenes was enhanced by hexanol and hexanoic acid co-additions. Other oxygenates include fermentation products [184]. Co-pyrolysis of citrus unshiu peel and alcohols, ketones, and furanics has been reported [119]. In this case, two different zeolites were compared: HZSM-5 (23) and HBEA (25). The key difference between both zeolites was that HBEA produced more coke.
Tail Gas Reactive or Recycle Pyrolysis (TGRP) is an interesting process that recycles non-condensable pyrolysis gases to the pyrolysis step [150, 166, 185, 186]. Recycling this gas to pyrolysis provides a reductive, low acidic atmosphere which benefits CFP by increasing the H/Ceff. The condensable gas fraction was separated, including unwanted carboxylic acids and furfural which are detrimental to vapor upgrading. Up to 10X more BTX was produced when TGRP was incorporated in comparison to CFP-only.
Other non-conventional processes could also improve CFP yields. One example is addition of ball bearings to the catalyst bed to increase residence time which provided higher hot surface areas [187]. This modification increased cracking reaction and produced 3X more BTX. The downside is formation of more polyaromatic hydrocarbons. An alternative to thermal heating, microwave energy can also be used. Microwave assisted pyrolysis (MOP) does not require agitation and fluidization [56, 188].
CFP is a rapid process to produce a high volume of hydrocarbons of which BTX is a small fraction. CFP must be co-located with a petroleum refining complex to take in bio-naphtha which could be directed to bio-gasoline production. The refining complex must also include a pX extraction process to separate pX from mX and oX as well as a process to isomerize the pX lean stream. Every means to improve CFP should be taken, including pretreatment, torrefaction, co-pyrolysis with hydrogen-rich feed, and tail gas recycled pyrolysis to increase BTX yields. Investigations into development of an even more active metalated HZSM-5 catalyst to increase monoaromatics selectivity and resistance to coking will remain subjects of intense interests.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen authors on the Global Highly Cited Researchers 2018 list",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
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\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
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\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
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\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
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\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
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\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
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It is a statically approach where we develop the mathematical models through experimental trial runs to predict the possible output on the basis of the given input data or parameters. The aim of this chapter is to stimulate the engineering community to apply Taguchi technique to experimentation, the design of experiments, and to tackle quality problems in industrial chemical processes that they deal with. Based on years of research and applications, Dr. G. Taguchi has standardized the methods for each of these DOE application steps. Thus, DOE using Taguchi approach has become a much more attractive tool to practicing engineers and scientists. And since the last four decades, there were limitations when conventional experimental design techniques were applied to industrial experimentation. And Taguchi, also known as orthogonal array design, adds a new dimension to conventional experimental design. Taguchi method is a broadly accepted method of DOE, which has proven in producing high-quality products at subsequently low cost.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"14634",doi:"10.5772/15998",title:"The Application of FT-IR Spectroscopy in Waste Management",slug:"the-application-of-ft-ir-spectroscopy-in-waste-management",totalDownloads:6617,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1574",slug:"fourier-transforms-new-analytical-approaches-and-ftir-strategies",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - New Analytical Approaches and FTIR Strategies"},signatures:"Ena Smidt, Katharina Böhm and Manfred Schwanninger",authors:[{id:"20376",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Böhm",slug:"katharina-bohm",fullName:"Katharina Böhm"},{id:"22840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ena",middleName:null,surname:"Smidt",slug:"ena-smidt",fullName:"Ena Smidt"},{id:"22915",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Schwanninger",slug:"manfred-schwanninger",fullName:"Manfred Schwanninger"}]},{id:"15157",doi:"10.5772/15959",title:"Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for the Molecular Level Characterization of Natural Organic Matter: Instrument Capabilities, Applications, and Limitations",slug:"fourier-transform-mass-spectrometry-for-the-molecular-level-characterization-of-natural-organic-matt",totalDownloads:4317,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"122",slug:"fourier-transforms-approach-to-scientific-principles",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - Approach to Scientific Principles"},signatures:"Rachel L. Sleighter and Patrick G. Hatcher",authors:[{id:"22676",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel L.",middleName:null,surname:"Sleighter",slug:"rachel-l.-sleighter",fullName:"Rachel L. Sleighter"},{id:"23168",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hatcher",slug:"patrick-g.-hatcher",fullName:"Patrick G. Hatcher"}]},{id:"60097",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75381",title:"Robust Optimization: Concepts and Applications",slug:"robust-optimization-concepts-and-applications",totalDownloads:2513,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Robust optimization is an emerging area in research that allows addressing different optimization problems and specifically industrial optimization problems where there is a degree of uncertainty in some of the variables involved. There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:5300,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:76,abstract:"Experimental design plays an important role in several areas of science and industry. Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1158,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"60864",title:"Statistical Methodology for Evaluating Business Cycles with the Conditions of Their Synchronization and Harmonization",slug:"statistical-methodology-for-evaluating-business-cycles-with-the-conditions-of-their-synchronization-",totalDownloads:1288,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The importance of the topic of business cycle research and their interaction is due to the fact that the cyclical nature of development is a universal feature of the market economy (regardless of the level of development of the country’s economy and the principles of its organization). In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6750,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81892",title:"Perspective Chapter: Lattice Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinearity",slug:"perspective-chapter-lattice-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defo",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104824",abstract:"The fundamental lattice solitons are explored in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity. The band-gap boundaries, soliton profiles, and stability domains of fundamental solitons are investigated comprehensively by the linear stability spectra and nonlinear evolution of the solitons. It is demonstrated that fundamental lattice solitons can stay stable for a wide range of parameters with the weak self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity, while strong self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearities are shortened the propagation distance of evolved solitons. Furthermore, it is observed that when the instability emerges from strong quintic nonlinearity, increasing anisotropy of the medium and modification of lattice depth can be considered as a collapse arrest mechanism.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Theodoros P. Horikis, İlkay Bakırtas and Nalan Antar"},{id:"80460",title:"A Criticality Study of Fast Critical Experimental Benchmarks Using MCNP Code to Qualifying Different Evaluations",slug:"a-criticality-study-of-fast-critical-experimental-benchmarks-using-mcnp-code-to-qualifying-different",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102449",abstract:"In this chapter we present our MCNP modeling, concerning fast critical experimental benchmarks, about qualifying our libraries of cross-sections deduced from the evaluations ENDF/B-VII, JEFF-3.1, JENDL-3.3, JENDL-4 processed by the code NJOY. The benchmarks analyzed are characterized by simple geometries which help to have a precise calculation. In our neutron calculation, we used the MCNP code (version 5), the reference code for the neutron transport calculation with the Monte Carlo method. It is also very efficient for criticality calculation. The cross-section data for all the isotopes that make up the material of the studied benchmarks are processed in ACE format at 300 K temperature using the NJOY 99.9 modular system. A detailed comparison of the criticality results of our simulation was carried out to highlight the influence of these evaluations on the keff calculations.",book:{id:"11501",title:"Qualitative and Computational Aspects of Dynamical Systems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11501.jpg"},signatures:"Sanae El Ouahdani, Hamid Boukhal, El Mahjoub Chakir, Ahmed Gaga, Houda Elyaakoubi, Mustapha Makhloul, Abdelaziz Ahmed, Abdessamad Didi and Mohamed Bencheikh"},{id:"81784",title:"Practical and Optimal Crossover Designs for Clinical Trials",slug:"practical-and-optimal-crossover-designs-for-clinical-trials",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104694",abstract:"Crossover designs have received great attention in clinical trials, as they allow subjects to serve as their own controls and gain such advantage as higher efficiency and smaller sample size over parallel designs, because the within-subject variability is in general smaller than between-subject variability. Response-adaptive crossover designs allow clinical trials to adapt and respond to the information acquired during the trials to achieve various objectives. Adaptive designs have been considered to allocate more subjects to superior treatments, improve statistical efficiency, reduce the sample size for cost savings, increase the sample size to maintain prespecified statistical power, or include auxiliary information. We focus on an adaptive allocation scheme to maximize the benefits from superior treatments, while maintaining a sufficiently high level of statistical efficiency, controlled by a suitable weight parameter. We review and discuss the strategy of incorporating multiple objectives, while advocating a regression type estimation approach via the Generalized Estimating Equations method. We show that the multiple objectives can be successfully incorporated to construct a spectrum of designs, ranging over various efficiencies and trial outcomes of success. Moreover, the adaptive allocation scheme successfully constructs designs with a desired efficiency, as illustrated by practical two- and three-period designs.",book:{id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg"},signatures:"Su Hwan Kim and Keumhee Chough Carriere"},{id:"81710",title:"Spatial Modeling in Epidemiology",slug:"spatial-modeling-in-epidemiology",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104693",abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to present the methodology of some of the models used in the area of epidemiology, which are used to study, understand, model and predict diseases (infectious and non-infectious) occurring in a given region. These models, which belong to the area of geostatistics, are usually composed of a fixed part and a random part. The fixed part includes the explanatory variables of the model and the random part includes, in addition to the error term, a random term that generally has a multivariate Gaussian distribution. Based on the random effect, the spatial correlation (or covariance) structure of the data will be explained. In this way, the spatial variability of the data in the region of interest is accounted for, thus avoiding that this information is added to the model error term. The chapter begins by introducing Gaussian processes, and then looks at their inclusion in generalized spatial linear models, spatial survival analysis and finally in the generalized extreme value distribution for spatial data. The review also mentions some of the main packages that exist in the R statistical software and that help with the implementation of the mentioned spatial models.",book:{id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg"},signatures:"María Guzmán Martínez, Eduardo Pérez-Castro, Ramón Reyes-Carreto and Rocio Acosta-Pech"},{id:"81608",title:"Matrix as an Alternative Solution for Evaluating Sentence Reordering Tasks",slug:"matrix-as-an-alternative-solution-for-evaluating-sentence-reordering-tasks",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102868",abstract:"Although sentence reordering is a popular practice in educational contexts its scoring method has virtually remained ‘all-or-nothing’. The author proposed a more psychologically valid means of partial scoring called MRS (Maximal Relative Sequence) where a point is counted for each ascending run in the answer sequence allowing gaps and the final score reflects the length of the longest sequence of ascending elements. This scoring method, together with an additional consideration of recovery distances, was woven into an executable programme, and then transplanted to Excel without having to understand a programming language. However, the use of Excel was severely limited by the number of columns available. This chapter reviews the past practices of evaluating partial scoring of reordering tasks and proposes an alternative solution LM (Linearity Matrix), also executable on Excel, with far smaller consumption of columns and with the idea of calculating the recovery distances as well as MRS scores. Although LM and MRS are different scoring procedures, they both reflect psychological complexity of the task involved. Furthermore, LM is versatile as to the adjustability of adjacency weights as an extended model of Kendall’s tau. Some reflections on practical application are referred to as well as future directions of the study.",book:{id:"11151",title:"Matrix Theory - Classics and Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11151.jpg"},signatures:"Amma Kazuo"},{id:"81531",title:"Bayesian Inference as a Tool to Optimize Spectral Acquisition in Scattering Experiments",slug:"bayesian-inference-as-a-tool-to-optimize-spectral-acquisition-in-scattering-experiments",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103850",abstract:"Nowadays, an increasing number of scattering measurements rely on the use of large-scale research facilities, which is usually granted after highly competitive peer-reviewing and typically for short-time lapses. The optimal use of the allocated time requires rigorous estimates on the reliability of the data analysis, as inferred from the limited statistical accuracy of the measurement. Bayesian inference approaches can significantly help this endeavor by providing investigators with much-needed guidance under challenging decisions on experimental time management. We propose here a method based on the real-time data analysis of running experiments, which fully exploits the core strengths of Bayes theorem. The procedure is implemented in sequential steps in which the spectral measurement is adjourned by summing to it successive acquisition runs, and the spectral modeling is upgraded accordingly. At each stage, the statistical accuracy of the measurement improves, and a more grounded joint posterior distribution is drawn and used as a prior in the subsequent data acquisition stage. The gradual reduction in the model parameters’ uncertainty down to the targets set a priori by experimenters provides a quantitative “success criterion,” which helps prevent oversampling during acquisition. A similar “on the fly” data modeling, might substantially change the way large-scale facilities operate.",book:{id:"11152",title:"Bayesian Inference",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11152.jpg"},signatures:"Alessio De Francesco, Luisa Scaccia, Martin Bohem and Alessandro Cunsolo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:36},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/36990",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"36990"},fullPath:"/profiles/36990",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()