The list of screening and severity diagnosis assessments.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7677",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The chapters presented in this International Volcanological Special Issue consider the characteristic features of a single volcano and/or a number of volcanoes worldwide (Jos and Biu Plateau volcanic provinces, Nigeria; Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India; Guamsan Caldera, Cheongsong, Korea; Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Napoli, Italy) in terms of future volcanic activity. The technical methods used are wide, innovative, as well as classic and reflect the knowledge presented in each chapter. The last chapter, however, deals with a new conceptual and methodological approach for the evaluation of volcanic risk. All these volcanoes (except Somma-Vesuvius volcano) are poorly studied so they deserve more attention, which is the goal of this volcanological book. Further studies are welcome to deepen the knowledge of each of the volcanoes presented.",isbn:"978-1-78984-030-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-029-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-710-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77483",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5afd431dd1f4f5081355b017fd17f237",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7677.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6661,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 22nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182871/images/system/182871.jpg",biography:"Angelo Paone received his BS and MS at the Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Italy. He completed an isotopic specialization course at the United States Geological Survey (USGS), Virginia, USA, and obtained his Ph.D. at USGS and the University of Naples Federico II, Italy. He completed a short post-doc at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA; a Marie Curie Fellowship (individual postdoc) at Bristol University, England; and an Italian postdoc at the University of Naples Federico II. Since 2008 he has been a science teacher at Italian College Liceo Ettore Majorana Pozzuoli and a research professor at Pusan National University (PNU), South Korea.",institutionString:"Pusan National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Pusan National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"183601",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Hyo",middleName:null,surname:"Yun",slug:"sung-hyo-yun",fullName:"Sung-Hyo Yun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183601/images/system/183601.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sung-Hyo Yun is a professor in the Department of Earth Science Education, Pusan National University (PNU), South Korea. He obtained his BSc at the College of Education, PNU, in 1980, and his MEd from the Graduate School, PNU, in 1982. Dr. Yun received his Ph.D. in Geology and Volcanology from the Graduate School, PNU, in 1987. Dr. Yun was the president of the Petrological Society of Korea and the Korean Society of Volcanic Hazards Mitigation.",institutionString:"Pusan National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Pusan National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"658",title:"Volcanology",slug:"volcanology"}],chapters:[{id:"71228",title:"Introductory Chapter: New Advances and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91029",slug:"introductory-chapter-new-advances-and-challenges",totalDownloads:629,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71228",authors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],corrections:null},{id:"65639",title:"Is a Volcanic Eruption Possible in Nigeria?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84253",slug:"is-a-volcanic-eruption-possible-in-nigeria-",totalDownloads:698,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Jos and Biu Plateaux volcanic provinces occupy the northeastern half of Nigeria bordering the Cameroon Volcanic Line, dotted with conspicuously visible number of dormant volcanoes with no reported activity. These dormant volcanoes represent potential future eruption sites. The ejecta materials of these volcanoes are essentially basaltic in composition and consist of sequence of pyroclastic materials, basalts, scoria and ash and are formed by strombolian and effusive styles of eruption. The volcanoes are represented by well-preserved cones and lava flows. In places the lava flows have been lateritized and eroded leaving remnants of weathered basalt boulders and a number of plugs and dome-like outcrops lacking any preserved cones. The basalts display essentially similar compositions consisting of phenocrysts of both olivine, plagioclase (bytownite–labradorite), with minor pyroxene (diopside-augite) embedded in a groundmass of plagioclase laths (labradorite), and accessory magnetite, ilmenite, k-feldspars, and volcanic glass. Geochemical data shows that these basalts are mainly alkaline olivine basalts derived from the deep mantle source enriched in incompatible elements similar to that of the Ocean Island basalts (OIB). Preliminary 40Ar-39Ar ages on the some of the basalts revealed Quaternary ages (Pleistocene epoch). The significant change in the composition of the Pidong Lake marked by decreasing pH is indicative of a probable input of juvenile fluids into the Lake. Also, the several incidences of volcanic eruptions along the close-by Cameroon volcanic line are pointers to the possibility for the reactivation of any of the dormant volcanoes in Nigeria. This work focuses on the need to assess the hazard level of some of these volcanoes for effective monitoring, disaster preparedness and land use planning as more people live and farm in these potentially endangered volcanic prone areas, unaware of the inherent risk.",signatures:"Uriah Lar, Isah Lekmang, Cedric Longpia and Mohammed Tsalha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65639",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65639",authors:[{id:"276892",title:"Prof.",name:"Uriah",surname:"Lar",slug:"uriah-lar",fullName:"Uriah Lar"},{id:"277036",title:"MSc.",name:"Isah",surname:"Lekmang",slug:"isah-lekmang",fullName:"Isah Lekmang"},{id:"277037",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Tsalha",slug:"mohammed-tsalha",fullName:"Mohammed Tsalha"},{id:"289601",title:"MSc.",name:"Cedric",surname:"Longpia",slug:"cedric-longpia",fullName:"Cedric Longpia"}],corrections:null},{id:"66703",title:"P-Wave Teleseismic Tomography: Evidence of Imprints of Deccan Mantle Plume below the Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83738",slug:"p-wave-teleseismic-tomography-evidence-of-imprints-of-deccan-mantle-plume-below-the-kachchh-rift-zon",totalDownloads:2720,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Indian plate had experienced the Deccan volcanism at 65 Ma when it moved over the Re-union hotspot, which has altered lithospheric structure below the Kachchh rift zone (KRZ). To quantify the influence of Deccan volcanism on the crust-mantle, the present chapter focuses on the delineation of the upper mantle structure below the KRZ, through the modeling of crust corrected P-residuals and P-wave teleseismic tomography. The crust corrected normalized P-residuals suggest dominant negative residuals associated with the central KRZ, indicating crustal and lithospheric thinning below the KRZ. A low velocity down to a depth of 170 km below the central KRZ is detected through the teleseismic tomography using these P-residuals. However, these residuals also show positive values for the surrounding un-rifted zones. Note that a low shear velocity zone extending from 100–120 km to 170–220 km depth beneath the central KRZ has already been revealed by the modeling of P-RFs. This reduction in seismic velocity in the upper mantle could be explained by the presence of trapped carbonatite/partial melts related to the Deccan volcanism. The influx of volatile CO2 emanating from the carbonatite melts in the asthenosphere might be generating lower crustal earthquakes occurring in the KRZ.",signatures:"Prantik Mandal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66703",authors:[{id:"279344",title:"Dr.",name:"Prantik",surname:"Mandal",slug:"prantik-mandal",fullName:"Prantik Mandal"}],corrections:null},{id:"65755",title:"Eruption Types and Processes in the Guamsan Caldera, Korea",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84647",slug:"eruption-types-and-processes-in-the-guamsan-caldera-korea",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Guamsan caldera is associated with the Guamsan Tuff and rhyolitic intrusions. The Guamsan Tuff consists of dominant ash-flow tuffs with some volcanic breccias and fallout tuffs. The breccias comprise block and ash-flow breccia near a vent and caldera-collapse breccia near a ring fracture. The lower member of the ash-flow tuffs is produced from pyroclastic flow-forming eruptions with any ash-cloud falls on the flow units, whereas the upper member is formed by many ash-flow from boiling-over eruptions. The rhyolitic intrusions are divided into intracaldera plug and ring dikes. The volcanic activities in the caldera exhibit the volcanic processes along a caldera cycle together with eruption types during 63.77–60.1 Ma. The activities began with pelean eruption that occurred with block and ash-flows from lava dome collapse, progressed through expanded pyroclastic flows and ash-cloud falls by pyroclastic flow-forming eruptions from a single central vent, and transmitted with non-expanded ash-flows from boiling-over eruptions along multiple ring fissure vents. Then the caldera collapse induced any translations into multiple ring fissure vents from an earlier single central vent. The boiling-over eruptions were followed by effusive eruptions along which rhyolitic magma was injected as a small plug and ring dikes with some lava domes on the surface.",signatures:"Sang Koo Hwang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65755",authors:[{id:"280222",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Sang Koo",surname:"Hwang",slug:"sang-koo-hwang",fullName:"Sang Koo Hwang"}],corrections:null},{id:"65681",title:"Toward a New Conceptual and Methodological Approach for the Integral Evaluation of Volcanic Risk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84415",slug:"toward-a-new-conceptual-and-methodological-approach-for-the-integral-evaluation-of-volcanic-risk",totalDownloads:690,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the world, there are very few experiences of studies oriented to the integral evaluation of risks due to natural hazards. In the case of volcanic risk, most of the scientific-technical and economic efforts have been oriented mainly toward the evaluation of threats, with few methodological considerations to assess vulnerability and much less risk. In other cases, the threat and vulnerability are evaluated independently, with many difficulties for the comprehensive risk assessment. Many of the studies called “vulnerability assessments” are only physical and functional characterizations and diagnoses of vital infrastructure and population. These characterizations can hardly be interpreted in terms of georeferenced indices and/or vulnerability maps that represent the spatial and temporal exposure of the elements exposed to each threat and, even less, that represent the intrinsic and extrinsic response capacities of these elements in comparison with the threats. In this chapter, a new conceptual and methodological approach is proposed for the integral evaluation of volcanic risk, which includes the generation and adjustment of a new equation for the determination of volcanic risk, based on the integral assessment of threats and vulnerabilities.",signatures:"Leonel Vega",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65681",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65681",authors:[{id:"143359",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",surname:"Vega",slug:"leonel-vega",fullName:"Leonel Vega"}],corrections:null},{id:"70027",title:"The Somma-Vesuvius Activity with a Focus to the AD 79 Eruption: Hazard and Risk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89989",slug:"the-somma-vesuvius-activity-with-a-focus-to-the-ad-79-eruption-hazard-and-risk",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Somma-Vesuvius is a quiescent stratovolcano with a probability of Plinian style volcanic reactivation. Its stratigraphy is well known in the last 40 ka BP. The volcanic products that are part of the Somma caldera are poorly studied. Conversely, younger products have been deeply studied together with the AD 79 Plinian eruption. The impact of a Plinian eruption has been studied and summarised here. A simplified scheme is presented from what we can understand the volcanic hazard and risk that the volcano poses to the greater Neapolitan population. In the last 40 years, the demography around the Somma-Vesuvius volcano has increased; consequently, the volcanic risk has increased. It would seem that the Italian Civil Protection (ICP) has not influenced the population and the Italian authority with their massive work around Somma-Vesuvius (red zone). People still continue to build houses. Nowadays, the Somma-Vesuvius volcano does not seem to threaten people or the people that live around Vesuvius are not afraid of the volcano. But as it is usual just in this moment that the work done and to be done must be speared to all Neapolitan people, working in the school to reach the family. People around Somma-Vesuvius tend to neglect the volcanic risk appearing around Vesuvio. So ICP, all must be much more attend about the behaviour of this Hazardous volcano.",signatures:"Angelo Paone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70027",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70027",authors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:"progress-in-volcanology",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo 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Goto, Hossein R. Najafabadi, Guilherme C. Duran, Edson K. Ueda, André K. Sato, Thiago C. Martins, Rogério Y. Takimoto, Hossein Gohari, Ahmad Barari and Marcos S.G. Tsuzuki",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. 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Tsuzuki",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10627.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10627.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11665",leadTitle:null,title:"Recent Advances in Wildlife Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tWildlife management deals with relationships of wild species of animals and plants with humans and their habitats. It can cover wildlife conservation, game-keeping, parasites-pests, and predators’ control, and it challenges to balance them using science. It collectively works with biology, chemistry, climatology, ecology, evolution, geography, genetics, mathematics, and natural history. It aims to prevent the loss in biodiversity by using ecological principles, i.e., carrying capacity, disturbance, succession, and environmental conditions including physical geography, paedology, and hydrology. It takes into consideration the ecological principles such as control of the habitats, preservation, reforestation, re-introduction of extinct species, capture and reallocation of abundant species, and management of desirable or undesirable species.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide comprehensive and concise knowledge on wildlife management and focus on important research-oriented pieces of evidence of various advantageous and disadvantageous aspects of wildlife conservation. It is aimed at wildlife managers, zoologists, parasitologists, researchers, scientists, students, growers, field-men, producers, and others that face the challenges imposed by wild species of animals and plants.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-630-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-629-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-631-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"73da0df494a1a56ab9c4faf2ee811899",bookSignature:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11665.jpg",keywords:"Hunting, Trapping, Preservation, Control of Habitat, Reforestation, Goals of Wildlife Management, Phenology, Food Webs, Bioaccumulation, Natural Disturbances, Wildlife Banks, Wildlife Watching",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Perveen is a pioneering researcher in Entomology, Toxicology, and Forensic Entomology. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 books, 9 chapters, and has edited 9 books. Dr. Perveen is a member of the Linnaeus Society and the Pakistan Entomological Society of Karachi.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75563/images/system/75563.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen (FLS; Gold Medalist) obtained her BSc (Hons) and MSc in Entomology from the University of Karachi, Pakistan, and MAS (Monbusho Scholarship) in Agronomy from Nagoya University, Japan, and a Ph.D. in Toxicology from the University of Karachi. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 authored books, 9 chapters, and 9 edited books. She is also a student supervisor. Her fields of interest are entomology, toxicology, forensic entomology.",institutionString:"Classes et Events in Sciences (C.E.S.)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2036",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Advances in Integrated Pest 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54580",title:"The Importance of Cosmology in Culture: Contexts and Consequences",doi:"10.5772/67976",slug:"the-importance-of-cosmology-in-culture-contexts-and-consequences",body:'\nModern scientific cosmology is valuable in itself for what it reveals about the nature of the cosmos we inhabit [1]. It is a demonstration of the power of modern science to transform our understanding of who we are and where we came from. However, most cosmologists focus on scientific questions and are not fully aware of the impact of cosmological theories on culture, including politics and the arts. This chapter introduces this wider context on the basis that both scientists and the public should be aware of the broader importance of their work and its influence on the way we think. Cosmologists often rely on the fascination the subject brings: as Rowe observed in his textbook way back in 1968, ‘In the fields of astronomy and cosmology we live in a period of excitement’ [2]. Cosmology therefore both impacts culture and is described and represented by it. This chapter explores some ways in which this happens. As Muriel Rukeyser wrote, ‘The universe is made of stories, not of atoms’ [3]; see also Impey [4].
\nIf we select four fundamental causes of changes in our perceptions of the world in the last century, then they would be first relativity, second quantum mechanics, third the expanding universe and fourth, the space programme. The first three date from a fairly narrow time band, if we date special relativity from 1905, general relativity from 1915, that the universe is expanding and is much bigger than previous thought from Edwin Hubble’s publications from 1924 to around 1930 and quantum mechanics from Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg’s formulation of the Copenhagen interpretation in 1925–1927 [5]. This epic revision of scientific knowledge of underlying structures of the universe was therefore concentrated into just a quarter of a century. The dramatic period of the human space programme was concentrated into just over 8 years from the first human space flight in 1961 to the Moon landing in 1969.
\nAll have fundamentally altered the way that we think about life here on Earth. Often these changes are taken for granted. For example, mobile phone technology, dependent as it is on satellite networks, is transforming not only the social lives of teenagers in the west, but also the economic muscle of poor farmers across the third world. Meanwhile, super‐fast quantum computing makes use of phenomena such as entanglement and is driving the development of artificial intelligence, and hence of robotics. The implications for society over the next few decades are potentially enormous. The most important conclusion to be drawn from this combination of revolutionary changes is the role of the observer: as the basis of differing perspectives of time and space in relativity, an influence on the world (at least, at the sub‐atomic level) in quantum mechanics, and the witness for the first time, of the spherical earth, hanging in space, in photographs taken by Apollo astronauts in 1968. Such ideas and experiences have decisively underpinned modern ideas that one person’s complete individual experience or perception is as equally valid as anyone else’s. Einstein is held particularly responsible for these ideas [6, 7] as a result of popular equations between relativity on the one hand, and cultural relativism (the idea that no one culture is superior or inferior to another) on the other. Moral relativism (the idea that no one culture is morally superior or inferior to another) is controversial and widely rejected, but cultural relativism does have beneficial scholarly consequences. This is especially the case in the new field of cultural anthropology in which academic rigour requires that in order to better understand other cultures, researchers must abandon any idea that one culture is superior or inferior to another.
\nThe term cosmology can be traced to the 1730s, although its appearance in a scientific sense dates from only after the Second World War [8]. The
Anthropological cosmologies are based on the proposition that ideas about the cosmos are integral part of human cultural and social systems. For example, the archaeologist Timothy Darvill talks of a cosmology as being, ‘The world view and belief system of a community based upon their understanding of order in the universe’ [13]. George Gumerman and Miranda Warburton argued that ‘… to truly comprehend a culture we must have some sense of its cosmology – the group’s conception of themselves in relation to the heavens’ [14]. And without diminishing the scientific status of modern cosmology, ideas do not come from theory and experiment alone, but can be inspired by wider cultural influences, as Holton [15] illustrates in relation to Einstein’s reading and education before he formulated the theory of special relativity. Heisenberg [16] actually argued that science and art are parallel attempts to describe the world, and may both be part of a wider cultural picture. Bell [17] then talks of ‘complex subsystems of cosmic exchange’ which underpin mundane systems of behaviour, such as socio‐economic exchange, but are designed to reinforce individual and social existence within the cosmos.
\nThe philosopher Terry Eagleton concluded, ‘“Culture” is said to be one of the two or three most complex words in the English language’ [18]. A good working definition, though, is offered by the anthropologist Clifford Geertz, who argued that culture is ‘an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge of and attitudes toward life’ [19]. The influence of cosmology on culture then becomes a matter of exploring its impact on political and religious ideas, and its use in the arts, perhaps mainly in literature, painting and film. Michael Rowan‐Robinson wrote that ‘the intellectual horizon of the human race at any time has always been inextricably bound up with the scale of the universe… there can be little doubt that a people’s perceived scale of the universe must play a fundamental role in its culture and consciousness’ [20]. He could equally have said that culture and consciousness are bound up with conceptions of the universe as a whole. It was Einstein himself who made the case for the cosmologist intervening in culture. In 1936 he wrote, ‘the physicist cannot simply surrender to the philosopher the critical contemplation of the theoretical foundations’ of the universe, and ‘the critical thinking of the physicist cannot possibly be restricted to examination of his own field. He cannot proceed without considering critically a much more difficult problem, the problem of analysing the nature of everyday thinking’ [21]. Mostly the cosmologist does not intervene directly in modern culture. Instead other people interpret and represent cosmological ideas.
\nCosmology has had a substantial impact on political theory and continues to do so. We can therefore talk about ‘political cosmology’ [22]. The earliest recorded societies used the stars or planets to represent their rulers or guide their actions, functions which tended to overlap with religion. The Egyptians and Inca saw their rulers embodied in the Sun, the Chinese in the Pole Star, and in Babylon the chief god, Marduk, was represented by Jupiter. On a practical level, most pre‐modern cultures structured their religious sanctuaries, and sometimes their urban communities, according to their conceptions of the cosmos. Hence we may speak of ‘cosmopolises’ or ‘cosmograms’. A ‘cosmic state’ is one in which the entire state is organized to embody the structure of the cosmos.
\nThe significant step into modelling politics on the cosmos as an organised system was taken by the Greek philosopher Plato (ca. 428/7?–348/7). Plato’s cosmos emanated out of a single consciousness which existed in a realm of unchanging eternity. The material world was then an imperfect representation of the world of Ideas (Plato spoke of the physical world being embedded in the world‐soul) and was governed by time, the mathematically regulated, harmonious rhythms measurable by the motions of the planets. Plato’s mathematical universe provides a rationale for scientific speculation to the present day [23, 24].
\nPlato advocated an education emphasising such subjects as music, mathematics and geometry, and a political system based on rule by philosophers, all designed to harmonise society with the cosmos, for the common good. This concept of the perfect society underpins the entire history of utopianism down to the present day. There were two main consequences of Plato’s system, with consequences down to the present day. First, the perfect ruler was envisioned as the Philosopher King, whose right to rule was justified by his wisdom and understanding of cosmic principles. Second, the system tended to be authoritarian because, being founded on cosmic principle, it could brook no opposition. Plato’s ideas were revived in Renaissance Europe and were to become extremely influential. The notion of human history as the progressive unfolding of the world soul towards a final, perfect condition was central to the ideas of Georg Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831). Hegel’s influence on Karl Marx (1818–1883) led the twentieth century philosopher of science, Popper [25], to see Plato’s thought as the foundation of modern totalitarianism: where Plato influenced Marx, via Hegel, was in the notion that history has an inescapable trajectory, founded in the structure of the cosmos itself. For revolutionary Marxists, such as Lenin, Stalin and Mao Tse‐tung, it was then inconceivable that anyone could oppose their rule, for to do so was to oppose the cosmos.
\nSeparate to the platonic strand in European political cosmology, the astronomical discoveries from Copernicus onwards all helped shape western politics. Copernicus’ argument that the Sun, not the Earth, is the centre of the universe (or the solar system as we would now say) was attached to the ancient idea that the Sun is associated with kings. It was then used to support claims that, just as the entire universe orbits the Sun, so the whole of society orbits the king [26]. Propaganda in support of absolute monarchy then reached its height in the iconography of the French king Louis XIV. Such authoritarian ideas were directly countered by what I have called Political Newtonianism [22]. This held that, just as Newton had argued that one law governed the whole universe, so the same principle must apply to terrestrial affairs and one law must govern the whole of human society. In principle, then, all people were equal, and there was no justification for monarchy. Such ideas were influential among both the American revolutionaries of 1776 [27] and the French in 1789.
\nNewtonianism was taken one step further by Auguste Comte (1798–1857), the founder of sociology. Adding Galileo and Kepler to Newton as sources of authority, Comte [28] argued that if the entire universe was a mathematically regulated mechanism, so human society must also be governed by the same principle. If planets moved in mathematically determined patterns, Comte reasoned, so must people. By collecting and analysing data on human behaviour, Comte concluded, the same laws that controlled the wider universe should be discovered in human affairs. And in turn the state, governed by experts who were the modern equivalent of Plato’s philosophers, could be managed for the good of all. This remains the foundation of twenty‐first century sociology.
\nThere have been a few attempts, for example, to identify Einsteinian relativity either as a form of political discourse, or to draw political implications from it. As far as the former is concerned, I refer to the French feminist and social theorist Luce Irigaray who has identified the theory of relativity as a political rather than scientific formula [29]. Sokal and Bricmont [28], meanwhile, noted how the notion of relativity in time and space was used by postmodern theorists in order to advocate cultural relativity on the grounds that, if the universe has no single centre, neither does culture.
\nThe anthropologist Falzon [30] has defended multi‐sited ethnography against the charge of lack of depth by arguing that it takes into account shifting perceptions of space and time. The anthropologist Marcus [31] refers to ‘space‐time compression’, in which the essential difference between space and time contracts in light of the recognition that both are socially produced as a result of what Falzon calls ‘a product of interrelations’; Marcus derived his understanding from special relativity, and so directly from his understanding of Einstein. Elsewhere, Einstein’s call for humanity in general to take on the implications of the new cosmology has been used to advocate a collaborative global order in which international problems are solved thought global institutions rather than war [32].
\nThe consequences of Newtonianism (the belief that the entire universe is mathematically regulated) permeate western thought wherever there has been a search for a universal law based on supposedly hard data. Psychology is a prime example. When the word ‘psychology’ was coined around 1800, it was thought that, since Newtonian science explained everything that exists and occurs in the material world, there could and should be just one science explaining what exists and occurs in the psychological world. As Gilbert Ryle wrote, ‘“Psychology” was supposed to be the title of the empirical study of “mental phenomena”’, a counterpart to Newtonian celestial mechanics [33]. Concepts such as normality and deviation have dominated some of the major schools of western psychology, their roots in Newtonian cosmology’s devotion to predictable order unrecognised and forgotten. The measurement and mathematical analysis of the human mind then became the basis of much psychiatry and academic psychology. Even the notion developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), that psychic—or psychological—material can be ‘repressed’, as if by some kind of downward pressure, is derived from Newtonian mechanics through the influential German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) [34]. The goal of Freudian psychoanalysis is for the patient to become aware of such repressed material through the so‐called talking cure, the conversations which take place during sessions with the psychoanalyst, thus releasing in downward pressure.
\nFreud’s student C.G. Jung opened a radically different strand of thought in modern psychology which is highly influential in many schools of psychotherapy and counselling practiced in society as a whole, although usually outside the academic system. Jung revived the Platonic theory that everything in the world is a manifestation of an original pure idea or archetype. Jung’s system, known as analytical psychology, adheres to a kind of archetypal philosophy in which all psychological types correspond to an archetype, such as the eternal youth (the puer aeternus), anima (female principle) or senex (wise old man), which exist in the collective unconscious, Jung’s update of the Platonic world‐soul. The aim of Jung’s therapeutic model is for the individual to become truly themselves by recognising the role of the archetypes in their lives and, in effect, understanding their true connections to the cosmos. The idea that one can become one who truly is also relates back to Aristotelian cosmology in which it was thought that the four elements (fire, earth, air and water) all try to find their natural place in the world. This, Aristotle thought, was why flames go up to the sky, where fire belongs, and water falls to the ground, because that is where it finds its natural home. In Aristotelian politics, kings are at the top of society and peasants at the bottom, because that is the natural state of affairs; in Aristotelian psychology every individual then has a natural way of being. Jung, though, was equally concerned with the latest science, and formed a collaboration and friendship with the quantum physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) [35]. Together they formulated the concept of synchronicity by which meaningful events are connected because they take place at the same time, without any causal connection [36]. Newtonian psychology—the belief that all mental states can be measured—survives in university departments and psychiatry. But in the wider world, where increasing numbers of people seek counselling and psychotherapy, Einstein is taken as the inspiration for the argument that therapists and analysts must be ‘less concerned with the basic nature of time and more with the human experience of it’ [37].
\nOne of the major genres of writing in western culture goes under the name ‘celestial journey literature’, derived from ancient texts on the soul’s journey. The soul’s journey was secularised in Dante’s (1265–1321) ‘Divine Comedy’ [38]. Inspired by Plato’s myth of Er, Dante is guided by the poet Virgil and his love, Beatrice, through the spheres of Hell, Purgatory and Paradise (Hell and Purgatory are structured in spheres analogous to the spheres on which the planets and stars orbit). The last great example of the celestial journey of the soul or a dream world was Johannes Kepler’s ‘Somnium’, an account of lunar astronomy written in 1608 but published in 1634, and sometimes referred to as the first work of science fiction. The genre took a decisive step forward in Francis Godwin’s ‘Man in the Moon’ [39], published in 1638. Like Dante, Godwin used his story to describe the structure of the cosmos, now, after Johannes Kepler and Galileo, rejecting the planetary spheres and challenging the Aristotelian idea that all things have their natural place. Godwin departed from the old idea of a journey of the soul or a dream world. Instead, his hero, Gonzales, flies to the Moon carried by giant geese. From Godwin onwards the celestial journey becomes physical, arriving at the Moon rocket in Jules Verne’s 1865 novel, ‘From the Earth to the Moon’. Verne’s book was one of the inspirations for what may be the first space film, Georges Méliès’ ‘Le Voyage dans la Lune’—in English ‘A Trip to the Moon’—after which astronomy and cosmology have a regular presence in film culture [40]. In Méliès’ film, the astronomers encounter the inhabitants of the Moon, known as Selenites, in what is clearly a parable for European colonialism: the film was released midway through the so‐called ‘Scramble for Africa’, the final face of the European take‐over of Africa from the 1880s to 1914. From Méliès on, the major celestial journey novels have often been filmed. Perhaps the most famous is Stanley Kubrick’s film of Arthur C. Clarke’s ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’. Clarke’s metaphysical story is vividly portrayed first through the transition from ape to human, and then, in the final scene, the transformation of the dying astronaut into the star child. Accompanied by the stirring music of Wagner’s ‘Also sprach Zarathustra’, Kubrick created a vivid evocation of both ancient beliefs in the soul’s ascent to the stars and modern ideas that human destiny may take us to realms beyond our current imagination.
\nWhile celestial journey films can be enjoyed as simple adventures, they often contain deeper meanings. The 1951 movie ‘The Day the Earth Stood Still’ exploited the current public interest in Flying Saucers. Released at a time when the Cold War was reaching its height with the conflict in Korea, the story featured a wise alien who arrived from space in order to reveal to humanity the error of its ways. The rejection of the alien’s words of wisdom presented a gloomy view of humanity as incapable of solving its problems. Cosmology, through film, then becomes a means of commenting on societal change. ‘Star Trek’, the biggest celestial journey TV franchise of them all, was launched in 1966. ‘Star Trek’ was altogether more sophisticated than ‘Lost in Space’ and was entirely more optimistic. It is set in a utopian future in which there is one world government, collaborating with other worlds through United Federation of Planets, and money has been abolished. In the crew’s adventures, the European voyages of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are replayed in a universe of an infinite number of galaxies, except that now alien cultures are to be respected and preserved rather than conquered and destroyed. The values espoused by the Federation were American: freedom from tyranny, freedom of expression and respect for minorities. Compared to ‘Star Trek’, the blockbuster film franchise, ‘Star Wars’, launched in 1976 and still going strong forty years later, projects into space a simpler version of the endless struggle for freedom against an evil empire, very much an update of anti‐Nazi war films. In all such cases the cosmos is seen as a blank slate, a tabula rasa, on which human concerns are imposed.
\nThere is a constant strand of literary comment on cosmology in the nineteenth century. Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), often known as the author of the first detective novel, wrote a remarkable work which he called ‘Eureka’ [41], deliberately suggesting an imaginative breakthrough in the understanding of the cosmos. Poe realised that in a Newtonian universe the stars are likely to collapse in on each other, and that therefore the universe must be evolving [42]. Thomas Hardy (1840–1928) was as fascinated by cosmology as Poe, but unlike him lived to see the publication of Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’ in 1959 (when he was just 19). For Hardy evolution was a reality. He combined his encyclopaedic knowledge of myth, astronomy and cosmology into a ‘moral astrophysics’ [43] which provided the background for the individual conflicts and tragedies in novels such as ‘Far from the Madding Crowd’ (1874) and ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles’ (1891/1892). Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) used Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the expanding universe in the 1920s as a metaphor for personal and political insecurity in the 1930s. In Woolf’s view, as we all live together on the same delicate, vulnerable planet in a vastness of space, it is incumbent upon us to live together rather than fight [44]. The Marxist playwright Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956) looked back to an earlier cosmology but equally wanted to illustrate a modern point in his 1938 play, ‘Galileo’. His portrayal of Galileo as the heroic intellectual defending Copernicus, struggling against an obscurantist Inquisition (inaccurate because many in the senior Catholic hierarchy were Copernicans), was an allegory of the revolutionary struggles of the 1930s.
\nOne of the other familiar tropes derived from modern cosmology is time travel, a topic rarely dealt with in ‘Star Trek’, in spite of the regular use of faster‐than‐light travel. There is now a considerable literature which draws on Gerald Feinberg’s 1967 paper ‘Possibility of faster‐than‐light particles’, which proposed the existence of the tachyon [45]. This hypothetical particle, the tachyon, might as Martin Rees [46], says alter the order of events, if a signal from a tachyon arrived before it was sent. The genre’s earliest notable example was Wells’ novel ‘The Time Machine’ (1895) [47]. Wells coined the phrase time machine to describe a time‐travelling vehicle which moved because the fourth dimension was of time rather than space. Wells was a utopian socialist and his main preoccupation was to explore varieties of human society, considering whether progress inevitably resulted in human improvement: it’s clear that he didn’t think that this was the case, and that ignorance and superstition could easily flourish in the future. Neither does ‘Dr Who’, the most successful TV time travel franchise, explain how it is possible to travel to the distant past or future. The time machine, the TARDIS (short for Time and Relative Dimensions in Space), is bigger inside than outside and references Einstein by referencing relativity in its name. The Doctor himself is increasingly represented as a lonely figure, destined to exist in perpetual sadness caused by the death or departure of his companions.
\nThe concept of alienation is developed by Alan Lightman in his ‘Einstein’s Dreams’ [48], a journal set in 1905—the ‘annus mirabilis’ when Einstein developed the theory of Special Relativity. Lightman’s character experiences the alienation of a world in which any particular point in space‐time is delicate, temporary and liable to vanish, an ‘exile in time’ [48]. In a later entry, Lightman’s diarist writes ‘There is a place where time stands still. Raindrops hang motionless in air. Pendulums of clocks float mid‐swing’ [49]. At the centre of space‐time nothing moves. The concept that all time exists simultaneously actually has a long lineage. It is central to Plato’s cosmology, occurs in the Bible (Ecclesiastes 3.15), and was elaborated by St. Augustine (V.9) in the fifth century [50]. He described a universal paradox whereby even if a future event in our individual lives already exists, it depends on an act of our free‐will in order to take place. T.S. Elliot, impressed by Einstein, combined the lessons of relativity with Plato, Ecclesiastes and Augustine. Following Einstein’s English visit in 1921, the year he won the Nobel Prize, Elliot wrote, ‘Einstein the Great has visited England (and) has taken his place in the newspapers with the comet, the sunspots, the poisonous xxx‐jellyfish and octopus at Margate, and other natural phenomena’ [51].
\nIn two poems composed in the 1930s, and published in 1941–1942, Elliot considered the conundrum of time for the human condition. In ‘Burnt Norton’ he wrote that ‘All time is unredeemable’, for if the past exists in the future and the future exists in the past, all possibilities are eternally present, and in ‘East Coker’ he wrote the famous line ‘In my beginning is my end’ [52]. Elliot’s speculations on time were shared by Priestly in such metaphysical plays as ‘Time and the Conways’ (1937) and, perhaps his most famous work, ‘An Inspector Calls’ (1947), in which a detective from the future extracts confessions of guilt for a poor girl’s suicide from a comfortable middle class family. Priestley’s immediate inspiration was Dunne’s [53] work on time, which drew on Einstein (a cautiously supportive note was included by Arthur Eddington in the appendix to the third edition) in order to explain why the future could be predicted by precognition.
\nThe popular end of such speculation is best represented by the collected works of Philip K. Dick (1928–1982). Like Elliot, Dick was inspired by ancient philosophy and modern science, especially the conclusions of quantum mechanics as expressed in Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and Erwin Schrȍdinger’s famous thought‐experiment with the cat (1935), ideas responsible for modern multi‐verse theory. If one cannot tell both where a particle is and where it is travelling to, whether it is even a particle at all (or a wave), and how far the act of observing it has altered its state, how can one ever trust what appears to be real. For example, in the ‘The Cosmic Puppets’ (1957), an ordinary suburban couple return to their hometown after a gap of several years to find that everyone and everything has changed, and nobody recognises them. The novel then shifts into a traditional religious mode, located in the Zoroastrian (Persian) struggle between the good god Ormazd and his evil rival Ahriman. Eventually Ormazd triumphs, the illusory world created by Ahriman is removed, and reality returns. In Dick’s award‐winning counter‐factual history, ‘The Man in the High Castle’ (1962), the ability of the observer to act on—and change—the material world is described via the lead characters’ use of the Chinese oracle, the I Ching, to alter the future.
\nDick’s intensity is absent from the most whimsical of recent cosmological fiction, that of Italo Calvino (1923–1985). Calvino took cosmological ideas and exaggerated them until they were absurd. His short story, ‘The Form of Space’ (2002), points out that if one fell in curved space, one would logically fall for ever, while ‘the Distance of the Moon’ imagines a time in the distant past when the Moon was closer to the Earth, close enough for people to jump up to it and gather such delicacies as Moon‐milk.
\nRepresentations of the sky, stars or cosmos in visual form date back to the Stone Age and are familiar throughout the ancient world. They may be symbolic, as in Egyptian astronomical‐ceilings, or take on human form, as in Roman images of planetary deities. Later they might be decorative, as in Renaissance star maps, or attempt accuracy, as in modern star maps, or be entirely abstract, as in twentieth century surrealism. The Sun and Moon make regular appearances in western painting, as one would expect. The cosmological statements, though, are often simple. Often the Sun and Moon are poetic additions, symbolising time or heaven in medieval and Renaissance art, casting light or embodying the power of nature, and even serve as political satire in the nineteenth century [54]. Cosmological changes encouraged the new spirit: the philosopher Berlin [55] argued that the astronomical revolution’s abandonment of the old crystalline planetary spheres in favour of a universe without boundaries encouraged the emergence of the chaos and adventurism of Romantic art. Painting began the shift towards the abstract with the extraordinary work of Joseph Turner, who drew on both esoteric wisdom and the latest science in his portrayal of light [56, 57]. Perhaps the most famous example of nineteenth century astronomical art is van Gogh’s 1889 masterpiece ‘The Starry Night’, a painting partly inspired by the pre‐dawn rising of Venus, but easily interpreted as representing the swirling chaos of van Gogh’s inner world.
\nThe relationship between modern art movements and science is complicated by many artists’ multiple affiliations. For example, many notable early twentieth century painters were followers of Theosophy, a spiritual teaching highly indebted to Plato, Renaissance alchemy and Freudian psychoanalysis, all of which could deal with unseen realities and the interdependence of all things in the cosmos. It is therefore not easy to distinguish scientific influences on twentieth art from mystical or magic ones and it is up to art historians to interpret [58]. However, it is clear that the new physics encouraged the move towards radical, abstract forms of expression. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle appears to have supported the playful, apparently chaotic, practices of Dada, in which nothing is quite as it seems. When Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968) displayed a urinal in 1917 he was making a radical statement that, if art is not what one imagines it is, neither is anything else.
\nAndré Breton (1896–1966), the poet and author of the Surrealist Manifesto, singled out Einstein (along with Freud) as significant in 1922. J.W. Dunne’s adaptation of Einstein to precognition and psychology was popular with the surrealists, as it as with Priestley. That the observer stands at the centre of time and space, as popular conceptions of relativity and quantum mechanics assume, underpins the playful juxtaposition of images and ideas, sense and nonsense, which runs through the entire history of modern abstract and conceptual art. When Joan Miro paints a picture such as ‘Dog barking at the Moon’ (1926), he is alluding to ideas that the Moon makes one mad— lunatic—as well as departing significantly from naturalism, but also raising a smile.
\nA separate strand of painting drew on mathematical conceptions of the universe, as did Duchamp’s earlier painting ‘Nude Descending a Staircase’ (1912), or Man Ray’s (1890–1976) geometrical models, such as ‘Polyèdres’ (1934–1936). The distinctive angular lines of Picasso’s painting were also decisively influenced by the idea of multi‐dimensional mathematics as explained by Miller [59]. By contrast, the whirling lines in Max Ernst’s ‘…sur le plan de la Physique’ (1943) evoke the spinning of atoms. And for Klee [60], writing in 1920, movement in painting was essential because everything in the universe is characterised by motion. Perhaps the most famous portrayals of the new physics are Salvador Dali’s (1904–1989) paintings of bent clocks as representations of distorted space‐time, as in ‘The Persistence of the Disintegration of Memory’ (1952).
\nIt is well understood that the photographs of the whole Earth taken by the Apollo astronauts encouraged concepts of the global village, a world devoid of racial divisions, religious schism and political boundaries [61, 62]. The first major use of the Apollo photographs was on the cover of the first Whole Earth Catalogue in 1968, placed there by the editor, political activist Stewart Brand. Subsequently, the photographs became an inspiration for the emerging environmental movement.
\nSince 1968/1969 we have been able to look down on our sky from space. The euphoric consequences of this experience, still enjoyed by a few hundred people, was named the ‘Overview Effect’ by Frank White in 1987 [63]. Interviewed on BBC Radio 4’s iPM programme on 25 May 2013, the astronaut Geoff Hoffman described his own experience of the effect [64]. He recalled the strange sensation of looking down at the Earth, watching the terrestrial sky from above instead of from below, witnessing the flash of lightning storms and streaks of light as meteors plunged into the atmosphere. He saw the world as one, drawing salutary ecological lessons from the visible deforestation of tropical areas. Inspired by the ethereal nature of the Earth’s halo, Hoffman hesitated to use the word ‘spiritual’, put to him by his interviewer in a leading question, but was happy to describe the condition he experienced on his mission as being a ‘state of grace’, words which he said had been suggested to him by a Jesuit priest. Shamans, Pharaohs and Platonic souls may have seen the Earth in their imaginations, but astronauts experience it physically.
\nThe ‘Overview Effect’ has been institutionalised in the Overview Institute, whose purpose is to utilise the Effect for the common good. The Institute’s apocalyptic and utopian agenda draws a direct connection between the experience of space travel and the need to save the Earth: ‘We live at a critical moment in human history. The challenges of climate change, food, water and energy shortages as well as the increasing disparity between the developed and developing nations are testing our will to unite, while differences in religions, cultures, and politics continue to keep us apart. The creation of a ‘global village’ through satellite TV and the Internet is still struggling to connect the world into one community. At this critical moment, our greatest need is for a global vision of planetary unity and purpose for humanity as a whole’ [65]. In this sense, the institute completes the earlier visions of Virginia Woolf and Stewart Brand.
\nModern scientific cosmology needs to be valued not just for what it tells us about the universe, but for how what it tells us informs the ways that people think and behave in wider culture. A number of themes emerge, including the vastness of space as a metaphor for loneliness and insecurity, and the new physics as a source of freedom and adventure. Scientific cosmology’s wider significance needs to be more widely acknowledged, for modern society still benefits from ‘complex subsystems of cosmic exchange’ between scientists —cosmologists—and the general public.
\nDrug dependence has become a worldwide issue, and 31 million individuals are suffering from its negative effect [1]. Even worse, according to National Center for Health Statistics, 70,630 people were killed by drug-involved overdose in 2019 [2]. Moreover, yearly economy effect from illicit drug use is around 193 billion dollars in the United States [3]. It is important for drug dependences to receive interventions and treatments in time. Before receiving treatments, an effective screening or diagnosis assessment is necessary [4]. This review covers quantitative assessment methods for drug dependences and the corresponding treatments. It concluded more than 20 quantitative instruments that are put into three main categories, screening, severity diagnosis assessments, and treatment outcomes assessments. In addition, three different types of treatments, conventional treatments, emergency treatments, and novel treatment, are discussed.
Screening instruments usually are brief and easy to conduct. They are considered as “flagging,” because it’s the fundament of further assessments or treatments [5, 6]. The screening instruments tend to diagnose the presence of potential drug use–related disorders in specific fields, such as psychopathology, physiology, and social ability. The answers of screening questions are usually “yes” or “no.”
World Health Organization (WHO) developed The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) to screen and manage substance use and related issues. ASSIST has eight items to detect more than nine types of substance and scored 0.58–0.90 in test-retest reliability [7, 8]. Brown et al. proposed a two-phase assessment, A Two-item Conjoint Screen for Alcohol and Other Drug Problems (TICS) for screening alcohol and drug disorders [9]. TICS has nine questions in phase 1 and five questions in phase 2. One item’s answer is positive or negative, and the rest is never, rarely, sometimes, or often. TICS can screen around 80% drug dependences [9]. There is an approach, named Prenatal Substance Abuse Screen (5Ps), developed for prenatal females. The woman needs treatments if there is a “yes” in any of the five items. The overall accuracy of whether the woman needs treatments in 5Ps 0.776 [10].
Some screening techniques would contain more items to obtain more information. Skinner designed The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST), as a screening and treatment evaluation instrument for drug dependences [11]. It has 28 items, including background, drug use history, social stability, and psychology. The answer for each item is “yes” or “no” and scored 1 point for “yes,” 0 for “no,” except for items 4,5, and 7, for which a “no” response is given a score of “1.” The cutoff point is 6 and 12. If the score of a patient is larger than 5 or larger than 11, they will be considered to be “might” or “definitely” have drug use disorders, respectively. The reliability of DAST was 0.86–0.91 in Internal Consistency Reliability [11]. DAST-10 and DAST-20 are two shortened versions of DAST and drug use disorders can be screened faster in these two [12]. Another one is CAGE-adapted to Include Drugs (CAGE-AID) [13]. CAGE is derived from four sections: Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, and Eye-opener. The result indicates clinical significance, if two or greater questions are “yes” [13]. CAGE-AID had general good to excellent performance in different subjects [14, 15].
Severity diagnosis assessments are to recognize the drug use–related disorders and estimate the level of the disorders. These assessments contain multiple items and have score for each item. Usually, the higher score represents the greater level of severity. Since 1970s, scientists have been studying on the assessments to diagnose the severity of drug dependence. After 40 years, a number of addiction severity assessments have been developed. Addiction severity index (ASI) is one of the most famous ones. ASI was proposed by A. Thomas McLellan and his colleagues (1980). It is a structured clinical interview, focusing on several areas, including medical status, employment status, alcohol use, drug use, legal status, family relationships, social relationships, and psychological functioning. Higher score in ASI means the higher level of severity and greater indication of accepting treatment [16]. This instrument has been used more than 30 years and is considered as gold standard in measuring the severity of drug addiction. The reliability of ASI has been tested by different studies. For example, both McLellan et al. and Hodgins et al. claim that ASI is generally reliable, and most parts are good to excellent, in addiction severity assessment [17, 18]. Now, ASI has developed into sixth version, ASI-6. There are also several adjusted versions of ASI, such as The Addiction Severity Index, Lite version (ASI-Lite) [19] and Addiction Severity Index self-report form (ASI-SR) [20].
Psychiatric disorders are the main concerned part in drug dependence severity assessments. Some psychological disorders assessments are directly utilized in drug dependence. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is an assessment for psychiatric disorders. The first version of DSM, DSM-1, was designed by American Psychiatric Association in 1952, and then it has been adjusted into several versions, DSM-II, DSM-III, DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, DSM-IV-TR, and DSM-5 [21]. Although DSM series were developed to measure mental disorders, they were widely used in drug disorders [22] and as a benchmark or to compare with other drug-dependent severity assessments [23, 24]. DSM series are reliable in drug dependence severity assessments. For example, DSM-5 performed good to excellent in alcohol, opioid, cocaine, and cannabis use disorders [25]. DSM-III-R and DSM-IV had good to excellent reliability in most items in opiates, cannabis, and cocaine [26]. Composite International Diagnostic Interview Substance Abuse Module (CIDI-SAM) is derived from another famous interview psychiatric instrument CICI. CIDI-SAM can be utilized to test alcohol, tobacco, and nine classes of psychoactive drug disorders. The performance of CIDI-SAM was excellent in most target substance in the reliability test [23].
Based on DSM series, some other drug dependence scales have been developed. Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS) is to test drug dependences’ mental disorders, based on DSM-IV and ICD (mental health tests), as well as drug use history, such as frequency, recency, and amount of consumption in last 30 days [24]. It has 11 items to assess the severity and frequency, scored from 0 to 49, and higher score means higher severity level. SDSS had excellent performance in most items in alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives in test-retest. Semi-structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) and The Chemical, Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD) are also DSM-based instruments. SSADDA has seven criteria to test a large range of indexes, including drug use history, social activities, and physical and psychological problems. SSADDA performed excellent in nicotine and opioid dependence, good in alcohol and cocaine, and fair in cannabis, sedatives, and stimulants [27]. CUAD relies heavily on the American Psychiatric Association’s (1987) Diagnostic and DSM-III-R for substance use disorders [28, 29]. CUAD has maximum 80 items and has Substance Severity Score for each substance they used and Total Severity Score for all substance they used. Different from assessments mentioned above, CUAD has different score weight for different items. For example, for items 16 and 17, each item scores 4 points, but 3 points for item 15, if they are true. In test-retest reliability, CUAD performed with excellence [29].
Evaluating the severity of withdrawal symptoms is as important as assessing the severity when patients are using drugs. There are a group of assessments focusing on the severity of opiate dependence in withdrawal. Severity of Opiate Dependence Questionnaire (SODQ) is a self-completion questionnaire that contains five sections for opiate dependence. It assesses opiate use, physical and affective symptoms in withdrawal, withdrawal-relief drug use, and rapidity of reinstatement of withdrawal symptoms after a period of abstinence. This assessment concerns more about the severity in withdrawal. The reliability was from 0.70 to 0.88 in Cronbach’s alpha [30]. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) is an 11-item clinician-administered instrument to assess opioid withdrawal severity [31]. COWS also has different score weights on different items. The possible maximum score is 48. The score represents the level of severity, 5–12 points: “mild,” 13–24: “moderate,” 25–36: “moderately severe,” and more than 36: severe (more than 36, 33). The reliability of overall items in Cronbach’s alpha is 0.78 [31]. There are several similar withdrawal scales focusing on opiates, such as The Himmelsbach Scale, The Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Objective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Short Opiate Withdrawal Scale, and The Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Questionnaire [32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Clinical Drug Use Scale (DUS) can assess the drug dependence severity in different stages. It is a self-report instrument with excellent reliability to scale abstinence, consumption without impairment, abuse, dependence, and dependence with institutionalization [37, 38].
Some instruments tend to use a large number of questions to obtain detailed information from drug dependences and some tend to use a small number of items to diagnose patients’ severity as soon as possible. Similar to CUAD, 80 items, Substance Abuse Outcomes Module (SAOM) is a 113-item self-report scale. It covers patient characteristic, patient outcomes, and process of care. This assessment takes 20 minutes on average [39]. On the other hand, The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS), Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ), SDSS, Drug use disorder (DUD), and COWS have much fewer items. SDS has five items to measure the level of drug dependence, mainly focusing on psychological components [40]. (LDQ) has 10 self-completion items, which are sensitive to severity change over time in opiate and alcohol dependences [41]. In both SDS and LDQ , each of the items can be scored from 0 to 3 and higher score represents higher level of drug dependence [40, 41]. DUD is a self-report measurement to assess drug use and dependence criteria for marijuana, cocaine, and painkiller. It tried to minimize the subjects’ bias while designing [42]. The number of items does not represent the reliability. No matter large number items assessments, CUAD and SAOM or small number items SDS, LDQ , DUD, and COWS, both had good to excellent performance in reliability test, details in Table 1.
Assessments | Target substance | Number of items | Approach | Reliability* |
---|---|---|---|---|
Screening assessments | ||||
CAGE-AID | Drugs | 4 sectionsa | Self-report | Generally good to excellent |
Prenatal substance abuse screen (5Ps) | alcohol and drugs | 5 items | self-report | not tested |
The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) | alcohol, cigarettes and drugs | 8 items | Self-report | 0.58–0.90 |
The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) | alcohol and drugs | 28 items | Self-report | 0.86–0.91 in Internal Consistency Reliability |
Two-item conjoint screening (TICS) | alcohol and drugs, particularly sensitive to polysubstance | 5 items | Semi-structured interview | Can screen nearly 80% drug dependences with disorders |
Severity diagnoses assessments | ||||
Addiction Severity Index (ASI) | Alcohol and drugs | Covering 7 problem areas | Semi-structured interview | Generally reliable, good to excellent |
Clinical Drug Use Scale (DUS) | Drugs | 5 sections | Self-report | Generally excellent |
Composite International Diagnostic Interview Substance Abuse Module (CIDI-SAM) | Alcohol, tobacco and nine classes of psychoactive drugs | Fully-structured interview | Generally excellent | |
Drug Use Scale (DUS) | Drugs | 5 items | Self-report | Generally excellent |
DSM series | Drugs | — | Interviews | Most items were good to excellent in DSM-IV and 5 |
Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ) | Alcohol and opiates | 10 items | Self-report | 0.70–0.90 |
Semi-structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) | Drugs, particular for cocaine and opioid | 7 sections | Semi-structured interview | Excellent in cocaine and opioids, fair to good in other drugs, fair to good in psychiatric disorders |
Severity of Opiate Dependence Questionnaire (SODQ) | Opiates | 5 sections | Self-report | 0.70–0.88 in Cronbach’s alpha test |
Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS) | Alcohol and drugs | 11 items | Semi-structured interview | Most items were excellent in alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives |
The Chemical, Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD) | Alcohol and drugs | Minimum 2 items, maximum 80 items | Semi-structured interview | Generally excellent |
The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) | Buprenorphine, opiates and opioids | 11 items | Self-report | 0.78 in Cronbach’s alpha |
The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) | Drugs | 5 items | Self-report | 0.8–0.9 in Cronbach’s alpha |
The Substance Abuse Treatment Scale (SATS) | Drugs | 8 scales | Semi-structured interview | Generally excellent |
Treatment outcomes assessments | ||||
Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP) | Alcohol and drugs | 22 items | Excellent in most items | |
Drug Use Disorder (DUD) | Marijuana, cocaine and painkillers | 12 items | Self-report | 0.88–0.95 in Cronbach’s a coefficient |
Drug Use Disorder (DUD) | Marijuana, cocaine and painkillers | 12 items | Self-report | 0.88–0.95 in Cronbach’s a coefficient |
Substance Abuse Outcomes Module (SAOM) | Alcohol and drugs | 113 items | Self-report | Moderate to high |
Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP) | Drugs | 38 items | Fully-structured interview | Eight items below 0.6 and eight more than 0.75 |
Objective severity scoring index (OSSI) | Narcotics | An equation | — | Not tested |
The list of screening and severity diagnosis assessments.
the reliability test is test-retest, if there is no indication; the coefficient is larger than 0.75, the reliability is excellent, 0.6–0.74 is good and 0.4–0.59 is fair.
one section might contain more than one item.
Evaluating drug use–related disorders during treatment is crucial and treatments can be according to this. The assessments mentioned in severity diagnosis assessments can also be utilized during treatment. However, here are some methods that have been designed for it. SAOM, The Substance Abuse Treatment Scale (SATS), Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP), Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP) are focusing on the treatment outcomes in drug dependences. SATS measures the treatment progress for drug dependences. SATS and TOP monitor and assess patients with eight scales and 38 items, respectively [43, 44]. TOP covers more fields including substance use, health risk behavior, offending, and health and social functioning. In reliability test [45], SAT had excellence in test-retest [43]. Eight items of TOP reached 0.75, and eight items are below 0.6 [45]. ATOP was proposed by Australia researchers to assess alcohol or drug use and its risk profile, general health, and well-being. ATOP contains 22 items and averagely scored more than 0.7 in test-retest [46]. In test-retest, ATOP had 19 items excellent, 1 item good, and 2 poor.
Zilm and Sellers (1978) proposed a quantitative technique to assess the level of physical dependence of narcotics, with administering naloxone [47]. They gave an equation of objective severity scoring index (OSSI). However, this method has not been tested in reliability or validity, and Zilm and Sellers claim it relies on the experience of executors.
All assessments are listed in Table 1. It concludes the target substance, number of questions, assessment approach, and reliability. The reliability is from test-retest, and the reliability coefficient below 0.40 is Poor; 0.40 to 0.59 is Fair, 0.60–0.74 is Good, and 0.75–1.00 is Excellent [48]. There are other assessments, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, CIDI, General Health Questionnaire, Primary Care Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Screen, Health of the Nation Outcome Scales, and Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test, designed for psychological or alcoholic diagnosis and are not discussed in detail in this review.
Two main approaches of drug use disorder severity assessments are interview and self-report. In terms of reliability, there is no significant difference between interview and self-report. Several studies have proved that self-report assessments are as reliable as interview ones [49, 50, 51]. Compared with interview, self-report is more cost-effective and convenient, but the understanding of questions might affect the accuracy of self-report. Moreover, self-report instrument is more likely to collect honest answers and face-to-face interview might be unsuccessful to, because the questions would make the interviewees uncomfortable [52]. In interview assessments, there are two types, semi-structured and fully structured. Both of them have advantages and disadvantages. Fully structured interview does not need clinical judgment, and as a result, it does not need experienced clinicians. Semi-structured interview, in contrast, can obtain more detailed information of patients’ status, but more human cost and time cost [53].
Specific to each instrument, the reliability has been listed above, and all assessments are generally reliable. Some studies compared different assessments and found no significant difference in general, but disagreement in specific field [54, 55]. For example, the reliabilities of SDSS for alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives were excellent, but for cannabis, it was just fair [24]. SSADDA is more sensitive to cocaine and opioid [27]. In addition, the validity of assessments may not vary between different races. Taking DSM-IV as an example, Horton et al. reported that there is no significant difference between African-Americans and Caucasians, when using this assessment [55]. Taken together, when screening instruments or severity assessments were selected, factors, including genders, different stages of drug use or withdrawal, reliability in different drugs, time, human resource and economic cost, and the condition of patients, should be considered. It is important to choose one or more assessments, based on patients’ conditions to get accurate results.
The treatments for drug dependence can be classified into three categories, conventional treatments (non-emergency), emergency (overdose) treatments, and novel treatments. Psychosocial interventions and medication managing are the most common techniques in conventional treatments. Patients need pharmacological intervention to reverse death when they are in overdose. In addition, physical activities, brain stimulation, virtual reality (VR), and mindfulness are considered as novel treatments for drug dependence. The drug dependences may need a combined treatment to make the therapeutic process more effective.
WHO and The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime gave the standards of the treatments for drug use disorders (Standards). In order to screen out unqualified (ineffective, even harmful) treatments, Standards required the treatments of drug disorders to meet: (1) stopping or dropping drug use; (2) improving health, well-being, and social functioning of the affected individuals; (3) preventing future harms by reducing the risk of complications and relapse [4]. According to Standards, the traditional treatments can be categorized into psychosocial interventions, medication managing treatments and overdose or emergency treatments.
Psychosocial interventions are to address psychological and psychosocial issues related to drug use disorders. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps patients identify self-defeating thoughts and behaviors. It can contribute to address mental illnesses caused or related to drug use [4, 56]. Previous studies provided data-based evidence to support the effectiveness of CBT in drug dependence [57, 58, 59]. Contingency management (CM) is to reinforce patients’ positive behaviors, such as keeping abstinence, treatment attendance, and compliance with medication, by providing them rewards. Different from other treatments, the effect of CM may be not directly shown in drug use reduction, but shown in combined treatments [4, 60].
Moreover, building connection with other individuals and obtaining supports from others are crucial in psychological therapy. Family-orientated treatment approaches (FOTAs) are to realize the importance of family relationships and cultures. FOTA has been proved that it can be an effective and promising method for drug use disorders [61]. Mutual-help groups (MHP) are frequently used in drug rehabilitation centers, and there are famous drug-focused mutual-help groups, such as Narcotics Anonymous and Cocaine Anonymous. Twelve-step oriented MHP is a nonprofessional, mental support, emphasizing “sharing” and peer-led treatment [4, 62]. Evidence from different types of studies, meta-analysis, randomized controlled trials, and observational studies illustrated the effects of MHP, including reducing drug use, improving mental health, and decreasing relapse rate [63, 64, 65]. There are also some other psychosocial interventions, such as contingency management, the community reinforcement approach, and motivational interviewing and motivational enhancement therapy.
Medication managing, also called substitution therapy, is useful and effective in managing and treating drug-related disorders. Pharmacological techniques treat drug disorders, usually through agonist approaches, antagonist approaches, targeting negative reinforcement of drugs, and targeting psychiatric and cognitive disorders [66]. Different drugs have different targeted medicines. For opioid dependence, WHO suggests two main pharmacological treatments: (1) opioid agonist maintenance treatment with long-acting opioids (extended-release opioids), methadone and buprenorphine, this method should be combined with psychosocial treatments; (2) detoxification, with naltrexone, an opioid antagonist [67]. Some other synthetic oral opioids such as L-alpha-acetyl-methadol and slow-release morphine are also considered as effective agents for opioids withdrawal [68]. Long-acting benzodiazepine is a helpful medicine for sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal. In addition, for methamphetamine and cocaine withdrawal, Provigil and immunotherapies would be the most useful agents, respectively [68, 69, 70, 71]. These medicines will reduce withdrawal symptoms and reduce drug use, rather than being an alternative addiction for another [72].
The conventional treatments do not have a specific program for patients in different levels of severity. Taking cocaine dependence as example, Hser et al. claim that different treatments, including outpatient methadone maintenance, outpatient drug-free, long-term residential and short-term inpatient, did not have significant difference on different severity of cocaine [73]. In general, a combined treatment is more effective. Drug-free treatments are more suitable for less severe drug dependence, and high level of drug dependence is challenge for any treatments.
Different groups may need different treatments. For pregnant women, almost all pharmacological treatments, except methadone, are unavailable, and stimulants and cannabis substitution drug is very limited, even nonexistent [74, 75]. Psychosocial intervention might be a better method [75]. Moreover, the treatments should be changed based on different ages. Treatment Improvement Protocol suggests that the elderly with drug addiction should accept age-specific treatments and combined pharmacological and psychosocial treatment is necessary. Building and rebuilding of self-esteem and social support network are important [76]. Adolescents with drug addiction may confront worse psychiatric comorbidity, and this issue is more common in family having alcohol and drug problems and mental health problems [77, 78]. Family dysfunction and mental health problems are more common and worse in girls, compared with boys [79, 80]. Therefore, the treatments for adolescents may focus more on psychiatric issues, and solving family issues would benefit the treatment outcomes, especially for female adolescents.
Treatments also need to consider about ethical issues. A large proportion of dependences are not willing to accept or seek treatments [45, 81]. Compulsory drug treatment is not legal in some nations, and how to convince drug dependences to receive treatments is a challenge. Johnson intervention, which is an organized and rehearsed meeting to let the drug dependence understand the treatment benefits and nontreatment risks, can be a choice [82]. In addition, patients should choose the treatments they prefer. For example, according to Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study, cocaine dependent did not like methadone maintenance. Patients who have used but are not dependent on heroin and cocaine like drug-free treatments more. Heroin dependence, or cocaine and heroin dependence, tends to be treated in methadone maintenance program [73].
Opioids and stimulants overdose can cause irreversible damage, even death. Opioid dependences are more likely to experience overdose, especially using it by injection [4]. WHO suggests that naloxone, a life-saving drug, can be timely administrated to reserve the opioid overdose [83]. For stimulants overdose, WHO recommends using benzodiazepines and sometimes antipsychotic medications to manage syndromes and ameliorate symptoms [4]. Gorelick claim that pharmacokinetic, which is to maintain the target drug under its minimum effective concentration at the site of action, treatment can be effective for acute drug overdose [84]. The immunotherapies are antagonizing the effects of drug through pharmacokinetic mechanisms. This approach involves the use of nicotine-specific antibodies that bind nicotine in serum, resulting in a decrease in nicotine distribution to the brain and an increase in nicotine’s elimination half-life [85].
Psychosocial and pharmacological interventions are treating drug disorders through reducing negative symptoms, decreasing craving, or managing the effect of target drugs. New treatment methods bring prospects for the cure of addiction, and it is helpful for developing personalized and comprehensive treatment.
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of brain stimulation as an innovative, safe, and cost-effective treatment for some SUDs. These include: (i) transcranial electrical stimulation; (ii) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS); (iii) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS); and (iv) deep brain stimulation (DBS). Stimulation therapies may achieve their effect through direct or indirect modulation of brain regions involved in addiction, either acutely or through plastic changes in neuronal transmission. Although these mechanisms are not well understood, further identification of the underlying neurobiology of addiction and rigorous evaluation of brain stimulation methods has the potential for unlocking an effective, long-term treatment of addiction.
Exercise may also provide a new treatment idea. In recent years, exercises are considered as a novel treatment for drug addiction. Lynch et al. concluded that exercises can reduce the reinforcing effects of drugs and may prevent the relapse [86]. Exercise can increase dopamine level in several parts of brain [87], bring happiness [88], and improve mental health and self-esteem [89]. More importantly, some studies found that exercises can affect dopamine in the reward pathway, even repair the decreased dopamine receptors [86, 90, 91, 92]. Furthermore, the side effects that resulted by drug use are not only psychiatric disorders and brain damage, but also the physical impairment, such as impaired respiratory system and bone loss [93, 94]. Exercise can benefit the physical health is well known. Drug dependences should accept the risk evaluation of exercise before having physical activities. The effects of exercises on drug use disorders still need more clinical studies, especially on the dopamine system. Besides, depending on the age, type of drug, age of onset, it is necessary to design appropriate exercise plans according to individual health characteristics [95]. It reported a significant increase in glutamate and GABA signaling in the visual cortex following exercise, as well as an increase in glutamate in the ACC after exercise in adult rats, and exercise-induced expansion of cortical pools can be seen for both glutamate and GABA neurons [96]. Additional, high-intensity interval training has been noted to possess benefits even greater than those of standard moderate exercise [97]. However, appropriate exercise intensity and exercise mode for patient with different age, gender, type of drug still need more in-depth research.
Besides, VR technology has emerged as a powerful tool for the research and intervention of addiction [98]. It’s a tool to study how proximal multi-sensorial cues, contextual environmental cues, as well as their interaction (complex cues), modulate addictive behaviors. Moreover, VR simulations can be personalized. They are currently refined for psychotherapeutic interventions. Embodiment, eye-tracking, and neurobiological factors represent novel future directions. The progress of VR applications has bred auspicious ways to advance the understanding of treatment mechanisms underlying addictions.
Last but not least, mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP) has been shown as effective in treating substance use disorders [99]. Study results suggest that mindfulness meditation practice may produce endogenous theta stimulation in the prefrontal cortex, thereby enhancing inhibitory control over opioid dose escalation behaviors [100]. However, it necessary to examine the following mediators of intervention outcome: mindfulness skills, emotion regulation skills, executive functioning skills, savoring, and positive and negative affect.
For more than 40 years, the instruments to assess the severity of drug dependence have been developed well, and different quantitative methods can cover almost every field of the symptoms in different periods and stages of drug addiction. Patients, medical workers, or researchers can choose suitable assessments, based on their conditions. The comprehensive and convenient techniques might leave one problem that is how to convince the dependences to do the screening or diagnosis tests. As mentioned in Treatments section, most drug dependences do not want to accept treatments. This needs efforts from drug dependences themselves, their family, the community, and whole society.
Drug addiction is a chronic disease [101], it needs chronic treatments. The interventions or treatments for drug dependence might be in a dilemma caused by medical development. Existing treatments are focusing on addressing the symptoms of drug use–related disorders, rather than the root of addiction. Drug addiction, also called drug use disorders, is defined as a complex, but treatable, disease that affects brain functions modulated by genetic, developmental, and environmental factors. People with addiction use drugs often tend to continue despite harmful consequences [101, 102]. The brain function damage caused by drug use has been proved. For example, chronic methamphetamine use can result in hippocampal volumes decrease and severe gray-matter deficits [103]. Moreover, dopamine receptors and transporters deficits are the consequence of drug use [104, 105]. Conventional treatments, psychosocial interventions, and medicines can only ameliorate withdrawal symptoms, reduce craving or improve psychological health, but not repair the brain or dopamine functions. Exercise or brain stimulation might be a supportive method to contribute to brain system recovering. So far, it is far more from the real rehabilitation. We need more novel treatments to contribute to the functional recovery. Furthermore, existing treatments do not subdivide patients of different level of severity or different groups of patients. Future work can design treatments based on the characteristics of the patients.
This work was supported by Anhui University Natural Science Research Project (No. KJ2020A1057), the major science and technology projects in Anhui Province (No. 202103a07020004).
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68007",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85036",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cellulase is an enzyme which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"66110",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84770",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:2034,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"66428",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84833",title:"Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE",slug:"review-of-biofuel-technologies-in-wtl-and-wte",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Processing of biomass feedstocks to produce energy, fuels, and chemicals via a combination of different applied technologies is considered a promising pathway to achieve sustainable waste management, with many environmental and economic benefits. In this chapter, we review the current state of the main processes associated with energy recovery and biofuel production under the concept of waste biorefineries. The reviewed technologies are classified into thermochemical, biological, and chemical, including combustion, gasification, steam explosion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and torrefaction; anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzymatic treatment, and microbial electrolysis; and hydrolysis, solvent extraction, transesterification, and supercritical conversion. Their brief history, current status, and future developments are discussed within a perspective of valorization and managing of current waste streams with no solution.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Bruno B. 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The aim of the URBANREC project is to implement an eco-innovative, integrated system of bulky waste management and demonstrate its effectiveness in various regions of Europe. The project has received funding from the European Union. In this chapter, the LCA environmental analysis was performed for the technology of grinding bulky waste using a water jet by the Ecofrag company. The calculations were carried out using SimaPro 8.5.2.0. The LCA analysis shows that the reuse of foams and mattresses contributes to the avoidance of their targeted production, which is related with the reduction of greenhouse gas emission and consumption of fossil raw materials.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Izabela Samson-Bręk, Marta Gabryszewska, Justyna Wrzosek and Barbara Gworek",authors:[{id:"281239",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Samson-Brek",slug:"izabela-samson-brek",fullName:"Izabela Samson-Brek"},{id:"290299",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Gabryszewska",slug:"marta-gabryszewska",fullName:"Marta Gabryszewska"},{id:"290300",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Wrzosek",slug:"justyna-wrzosek",fullName:"Justyna Wrzosek"},{id:"290301",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Gworek",slug:"barbara-gworek",fullName:"Barbara Gworek"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66110",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:2038,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"56708",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1775,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. 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Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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