Amount of carbohydrates from various species of microalgae on a dry matter basis (%) (Becker, 1994)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16655",title:"Analysis of process configurations for bioethanol production from microalgal biomass",doi:"10.5772/17468",slug:"analysis-of-process-configurations-for-bioethanol-production-from-microalgal-biomass",body:'Fossil fuel depletion has become a great concern as the world population is increasing at an alarming rate. Current concerns such as global warming, depletion of fossil fuels and increasing price of petroleum-based fuels have forced the search for alternative and cost-effective energy sources with lesser greenhouse gas emissions. Research into the development of renewable and sustainable fuels has recognised bioethanol as a viable alternative to fossil fuels, owing to its low toxicity, biodegradability, and the ability to effectively blend with gasoline without any engine modifications (Harun et al., 2009, 2010a).
The utilization of crops such as sugar cane, sorghum and corn are considered as traditional approaches for bioethanol production (Harun et al., 2010a). The use of such feedstock for bioethanol production competes in the limited agricultural logistics for food production thus escalating the “food versus fuel debate” (Harun et al., 2010b). There has been a considerable interest in the use of microalgal biomass to replace food-based feedstock for renewable transport fuel production. Microalgae are autotrophic photosynthetic organisms considered as the fastest growing plant species known (Wayman, 1996). They can tolerate a wide range of pH and temperature conditions in diverse habitats including freshwater and sea water (Harun et al., 2010b). Microalgae can store considerable amounts of carbohydrates in the form of starch/cellulose, glycogen, hexoses and pentoses that can be converted into fermentable sugars for bioethanol production via fermentation (Wayman, 1996). Table 1 shows the amount of carbohydrates in various species of microalgae.
Compared to existing edible feedstock, microalgae grow easily with or without soil and offer a very short harvesting cycle (1~10 days) (Harun et al., 2010a). Microalgae also have a high capacity of fixing CO2 via photosynthesis and other greenhouse gases, resulting in an overall reduction in the net gaseous emissions during the entire life cycle of the fuel (Wayman, 1996). Majority of the work reported in literature relies on straightforward sequential application of the production process involving pre-treatment of the biomass, hydrolysis, fermentation and product recovery. Simultaneous occurrences or a combination of these process steps could hugely impact on the process economics of bioethanol production from microalgae. Different process approaches including Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF), Separate Hydrolysis and Co-Fermentation (SHCF), Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF), Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation (SSCF), and Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP).
Carbohydrates (% dry wt) | |
10–17 | |
- | |
21–52 | |
17 | |
12–17 | |
26 | |
33–64 | |
4 | |
32 | |
14–18 | |
25–33 | |
15 | |
40–57 | |
8–14 | |
13–16 | |
15 | |
25–30 |
Amount of carbohydrates from various species of microalgae on a dry matter basis (%) (Becker, 1994)
Biomass pretreatment is a crucial step as it breaks down the crystalline structure of cellulose and releases the fermentable sugars so that the hydrolysis of carbohydrate can be achieved more rapidly and with greater yields (Mosier et al., 2005). An appropriate pretreatment process can also prevent the formation of inhibitors to the subsequent hydrolysis and fermentation (Sun & Cheng, 2002). However, the pretreatment process contributes significantly to the cost of production (Alvira et al., 2010). The main methods include physical treatment (such as milling and grinding), thermo-chemical pretreatment (such as steam explosion) and ammonia fibre explosion. Mechanical comminution can be a combination of chipping, milling and grinding. It aims to reduce the particle size of the biomass to attain a larger surface area for enzyme access. The desired final particle size determines the appropriate technique to apply. For example, chipping is used when 10-30mm particle size is required whilst milling and grinding are for more fine particles (0.2-2mm) (Alvira et al., 2010). The higher energy cost of mechanical comminution especially for large-scale applications makes it an unattractive approach for pretreatment (Hendriks & Zeeman, 2009). However, small lab-scale experiments routinely employ mechanical comminution for biomass pretreatment.
Two main hydrolysis methods are widely used to produce monomeric sugar constituents required for fermentation. These include acid hydrolysis (with dilute and concentrated acids) and enzymatic hydrolysis (Saha et al., 2005). The acid pretreatment process dissolves the hemicellulosic component of the biomass and disassembles the cellulose into fermentable sugars which are accessible to enzymes (Wayman, 1996). The use of concentrated acid is limited owing to higher cost, corrosion of containment material, and the formation of inhibiting compounds (Sun & Cheng, 2002). Dilute sulphuric acid is the most studied acid, and gives high hydrolysis yields (Mosier et al., 2005). It can be applied at 180 °C for a short period of time or at 120°C for 30-90 min in different types of reactors such as plug flow, batch, shrinking-bed and counter-current reactors (Sun & Cheng, 2002). Harun et al., (2010a) investigated bioethanol production under varying conditions of reaction time, temperature, microalgae loading and acid concentration. It was found that the highest bioethanol yield occurred with 10g/L of microalgae, 3% (v/v) of sulphuric acid at 160°C for 15min.
Enzymatic hydrolysis is the utilization of enzymes to release the fermentable sugars from the biomass. The process cost of enzymatic hydrolysis is lower than acid hydrolysis as it avoids containment corrosion and occurs under mild temperatures and pH (Sanchez et al., 2004). There are few literatures on the study of biological pretreatments of microalgal biomass. However, the advantages of biological pretreatment can be extrapolated from studies using lignocellulosic biomass, which also contains cellulosic and hemicellulosic materials. There is a wide range of bacteria and fungi that can produce cellulases for hydrolysis, but fungi are mostly used due to their less severe growth conditions and high growth rates (Sanchez et al., 2004). Several white-rot fungi have been reported to enhance the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials, such as
One of the most successful microorganisms for bioethanol production is
The overall process flow diagram of bioethanol production from microalgal biomass.
In SHF, the enzymatic hydrolysis is performed separately from the fermentation step. Since hydrolysis and fermentation occur in separate vessels, each step can be performed at optimum conditions (Tomas-Pejo et al., 2008). More specifically, it enables enzymes to operate at optimum activities to produce more substrates for yeast fermentation. However, the accumulation of hydrolysis products leads to one of the drawbacks of SHF. Glucose and cellobiose inhibit the activities of the cellulases so the rate of hydrolysis is progressively reduced (Balat et al., 2008).
SSF is an important process strategy for bioethanol production where the enzyme hydrolysis and fermentation are run in the same vessel. In contrast to SHF, the end-product inhibition from cellobiose and glucose in hydrolysis is progressively assimilated by the yeast in the fermentation process. Therefore, compared to SHF, the requirement for enzyme is lower and the bioethanol yield is higher in SSF (Lin & Tanaka, 2006). Furthermore, the higher bioethanol concentration in SSF production also reduces foreign contamination (Chen & Wang, 2010). Li et al., (2009) also increased the bioethanol yield of SSF by phosphoric acid-acetone pretreatment, which further reduced the inhibitory compounds in the hydrolysis and fermentation with a high solids content (>15% dry matter). Moreover, a fed-batch SSF system was adopted by Li et al., (2009) in order to overcome the problem. In the fed-batch operation, the cellulose suspension after pretreatment and hydrolysis is continuously fed to the bioreactor in order to maintain the liquid viscosity. The fed-batch system turned out to support bioethanol production. Since the hydrolysis and fermentation processes happen at a same temperature, finding an optimal temperature for SSF operation has become the most critical problem.
Microorganisms usually applied for bioethanol production cannot utilize all the sugar sources derived from hydrolysis. For example, the wild-type strain of
Another similar bioprocess is SHCF, which combines the advantages of SHF and SSCF. The hydrolysis and fermentation processes in SHCF take place in separate vessels so that each step can be performed at its optimal conditions. Besides, since the microbes utilize both pentoses and hexoses effectively in the co-fermentation process in SHCF, the bioethanol yield is higher than SHF. However, there is, to date, few literatures on SHCF operations, but the details can be deduced by referring to SHF and SSCF procedures.
CBP simultaneously combines biomass hydrolysis, utilization of liberated sugars and fermentation in one bioreactor (Xu et al., 2010). Theoretically, CBP is energy efficient because of reduction of processes and is more cost effective than SSCF (Lynd et al., 2005). However, the crucial problem is to develop an organism to singularly combine all the features during the process. Among all the CBP potential microbes, thermophilic bacteria, such as
Process | Advantages | Disadvantages |
SHF | Hydrolysis and fermentation take place at optimum conditions | Inhibitory effects Increased contamination |
SSF | Low quantity of enzyme input High ethanol yield Reduced foreign contamination Less inhibitory effects Lower cost | Either hydrolysis or fermentation can be performed under optimal conditions Difficulty in process control |
SHCF | High bioethanol yield Hydrolysis and fermentation take place at optimum conditions | High enzyme load Increased contamination risk Inhibitory effects |
SSCF | Shorter process time High bioethanol yield Less contamination risk | High enzyme load Either hydrolysis or fermentation can be perform under optimal conditions |
CBP | Cost effective Energy efficient | Lack of suitable organisms Difficulty in process control |
Comparison of the different fermentation process configurations
To further understand the effects of different fermentation approaches on bioethanol production from microalgal biomass, experimental work was designed based on variations of some key process conditions such as the type of substrate, amount of biomass loading and the type of enzymes in order to investigate their influence on the production process. The details of the process are shown in Fig. 2.
A flow chart for the experimental procedure.
Component | Composition (%, w/w) |
Total carbohydrate | 32.52 |
Xylose | 9.54 |
Mannose | 4.87 |
Glucose | 15.22 |
Galactose | 2.89 |
Starch | 11.32 |
Others | 56.16 |
Composition of
The enzymes used in this study were cellulase from Trichoderma reesei (ATCC 26921), cellobiase from Aspergillus niger (Novozyme 188) and α-Amylase from
The microscopic image of the microalgal cells before pretreatment. The images were taken at 40× magnification. The images show that microalgal cells have intact cell walls, thus pretreatment is required to rupture the cell wall to release fermentable sugars (
Two types of microalgal substrate were used in this study, acid pre-treated and untreated dried biomass. The acid pre-treated microalgal biomass was obtained after 1% (v/v) sulphuric acid exposure at 140ºC for 30 min. The initial amounts of microalgae were varied from 25-100 g/l with a constant mass of 20 mg cellulase for hydrolysis. The enzyme-microalgal biomass mixtures were transferred into shake flasks containing 10 mM of 100 mL sodium acetate buffer solution and incubated (LH Fermentation Ltd., Buckinghamshire, England) at 40 ºC, and pH of 4.8 for 24 h. Samples were taken after every 5h and immediately immersed in a hot water bath at temperature ~90 ºC for 10 min in order to stop the enzymatic activity. The samples were then stored in a freezer at -75 ºC (Ultraflow freezer, Plymouth, USA) until further analysis.
For the fermentation process,
The procedures involved in hydrolysis and fermentation were conducted similarly to the SHF experiment, but the duration of hydrolysis was reduced to 12 h.
In the SSF experiment, different concentrations of microalgal biomass within the range 0.2-1.6% w/w were applied. The biomass was diluted using 1.5% w/w sulphuric acid and the slurry was autoclaved at 121 ºC for 30min and then transferred into 500 ml Erlmenyer flasks. Cellulase, cellobiase and yeast were aseptically added at 5% (w/w of microalgal biomass). The nutrients mixture, 5 g/L yeast extract, 2 g/L Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), 1 g/L Potassium phosphate (KH2PO4), and 0.3 g/L Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), were added to the solution.The flasks were placed in an incubator at 30oC and 200 rpm for 50 hrs. 5 mL sample was taken after every 5 hours from each flask for analytical monitoring. α-amylase (5% w/w of microalgal biomass) was added to the solution in the second set of experiment in order to hydrolyse the starch present.
Glucose concentration over time during the fermentation process was analysed using high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The mobile phase used was a mixture of acetonitrile and water (85:15) at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. 30 µL sample was injected at 50 °C. The sample was filtered through a 13mm membrane filter prior to injection. The glucose concentration was evaluated using a calibration curve generated from a HPLC-grade glucose.
The bioethanol concentration was analysed using gas chromatography (GC) (Model 7890A, Agilent, CA). The GC consists of an auto sampler, flame ion detector (FID) and HP-FFAP column, 50 m x 0.20 mm x 0.33µm. The injector, detector and oven temperatures were maintained at 150, 200 and 120oC respectively. Nitrogen gas was used as the carrier gas. The bioethanol concentration was quantified using a calibration curve prepared by injecting different concentrations of ethanol standard (0.1-10%v/v).
As shown in Fig. 4, it was generally observed that a lower concentration of biomass resulted in a higher bioethanol yield (g bioethanol/g biomass). This is partly due to enhanced interactions between available enzymes and the microalgal biomass. Also, high biomass concentrations could result in the production of inhibitors and toxins during the hydrolysis process, and this could retard the enzymatic activity. Therefore, the bigger inhibitory effect offset the advantage of biomass loading. Although SSF process does not have a separate hydrolysis stage, the enzymatic activity still affects the hydrolysis reaction which happened simultaneously with the fermentation.
Comparison of bioethanol yields for different process systems. All the fermentation processes were carried out at 30 ºC for 48h, with the pH maintained around 5-6 and a shaking speed of 200rpm*cell. = cellulose+cellobiose; amy.= amylase+amyloglucosidase*g/L is the concentration of biomass
Overall, SHF generated the highest bioethanol yield and SSF the lowest, as shown in Fig. 4. It has been reported that SSF produces the highest bioethanol yield as it aims to reduce the contamination to the yeast by combining hydrolysis and fermentation into one step. However, due to inherent contamination during the anaerobic treatment, SSF did not achieve the desired yield. Furthermore, since hydrolysis and fermentation works at different temperatures, finding an optimal temperature for SSF is also a critical problem. Hence the unexpected lower yield from SSF could also be attributed to un-optimised temperature conditions. Another factor of influence is pH. A slight change in pH from the optimum valu could cause a significant change in fermentation yields because yeast and the enzyme are sensitive to pH. The performance of SHCF is slightly lower than SHF, possibly due to the shorter hydrolysis time. Therefore, theoretically, there was less monomeric sugar available for fermentation. Acid SHF process gave the highest yield among all the processes because the acid pretreatment step further disrupted the cell wall of the microalgae to release more fermentable sugars.
The SSF process with amylase and amyloglucosidase showed a significantly higher yield than the SSF process with only cellulase and cellobiase (Fig. 4). This is due to the hydrolysis of starch in the microalgae, which is 10% of the total mass, and the released sugars used for fermentation. However, the cost of enzymes will be a key parameter to consider against the increased bioethanol yield in a large-scale application.
Fig. 5 shows the glucose yield kinetics during the hydrolysis stage of SHF and SHCF. Glucose production progressively increased with time. Generally, SHF achieved higher yields than SHCF. This shows that the hydrolysis process requires an optimised duration at which the enzymatic activity is maximal. However, the main purpose of SHCF is co-fermentation, where a genetically engineered strain is used so that both hexoses and pentose can be utilised, but in this study only the hydrolysis stage of SHCF was investigated. The glucose yield profile is also consistent with the bioethanol yield profile. Hydrolysate viscosity also has an influence on glucose yield; lower viscosity of the hydrolysate produces higher glucose yield due to enhanced molecular interactions between the enzyme and the substrate. Since SHF was performed for 24 hours and more cellulose and starch were hydrolyzed, the viscosity of SHF hydrolysate was lower.
Acid SHF process is supposed to produce more glucose because the acid pretreatment step disrupts the microalgal cell wall to release more fermentable sugars. However, Figure 6 shows the opposite. A possible reason is that the high acid concentration damaged the structure of some sugars, making them unavailable for fermentation. More work is required to explore the influence of high acid concentration on the released sugar.
Comparison of glucose yield between SHF and SHCF. All the hydrolysis processes were carried out at 40 ºC with a shaking speed of 200rpm. The pH is maintained at 5 by sodium acetate/acetic acid buffer. SHF was run for 24h while SHCF was only performed for 12h.
Comparison of glucose yield between SHF and acid SHF. All the hydrolysis processes were carried out at 40 ºC for 24h with a shaking speed of 200rpm. The pH is maintained at 5 by sodium acetate/acetic acid buffer.
From the experimental results, it is concluded that acid SHF gave the best performance in terms of bioethanol production. However, there is a potential to improve on the yield of SSF. This could be done by reducing contaminations, applying optimum process conditions, and using genetic engineered yeast strains which can convert pentoses into bioethanol. In industrial applications, the cost of feedstock and cellulolytic enzymes are the two major parameters that contribute to the cost of production. About 40-60% of the total production cost is from raw materials. An integrated approach could improve the production economics; hence it is the main industrial option. Continuous fermentation often gives a higher productivity than batch fermentation. Besides, it reduces inhibitory effects and offers ease of control. Continuous process also keeps the microbes at the exponential phase hence raises the productivity significantly with shorter processing time.
Selenium (Se) benefits for health in human and animal have provided popularity for this chemical element. Selenium is a nutrient for animals since 1957 [1]; thus, it must be part of their diet. However, there are large agricultural areas containing low levels of Se in soil or it is present, but as chemical forms unavailable for plants, consequently these areas are producing vegetables or animal products with low Se contents.
In Brazil, there are some researches indicating that large agricultural areas are located in soils with low Se levels, that is, daily diet Se intake evaluated in people groups from São Paulo, Brazil, presented values below to estimated average requirement values, which shows deficiency of Se in the diets from this region [2]. A research at Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, also resulted in marginal deficiency of Se in cattle [3]. Both data indicated the possibility of Brazilian soils contain low available Se levels.
The agronomic biofortification of food through field fertilization with Se could be a solution to provide this micronutrient for animals and humans through plants. Plants are able to absorb and incorporate Se to organic compounds as seleno-amino acids. Thus, inorganic Se is converted to organic Se compounds through the plants which can be easily absorbed by the human body and to be available where needed in the body [4]. In some countries, Se fertilization is well established, and it is annually done in New Zealand in which Se along with phosphorus fertilization is applied in pastures [5].
Selenium essentiality for plants is not convinced, but its availability for plants, as well as for the animals, could improve their performance and consequently the human health. For both animals and plants, this element acts as defense through its influence in glutathione peroxidase controlling oxygen reactive species from stress situations [6].
Large knowledge about specific rates, sources, Se dynamic in soils and plants, and even behavior of animal intake in pasture is required for a safe Se fertilization, to ensure food and environmental security. High Se levels available in soils can cause toxicity for plants and animals. Thus, for the beneficial of Se application as fertilizer commonly are required low rates, which raises concerns about risks of super dosages, what can be aggravated by complex dynamic of Se in soil and plants.
Se availability in soil is the first requirement for Se application as fertilizer. Most soils contain low Se levels, including in tropical environments, while the highest contents are found at arid areas characterized by the presence of accumulator plants [7].
Low Se levels were observed in the main eight soil types of Brazil (Table 1). These soils were collected at São Paulo state as well as in plant of
Chemical parameters of fertility in tropical soils and selenium levels in sampled soils at São Paulo state, Brazil.
The contents up to 500 μg dm−3 characterized low Se soils [8], and confirming the relation between soil and plants, the samples of
Besides the Se presence in soil, its availability for plants depends on oxidation state. Selenium is chemically similar to sulfur, but it occurs naturally in four oxidation states, −2 (selenide), 0 (elemental Se), +4 (selenite), and +6 (selenate) [9]; however, sodium selenate is the source recommended for Se fertilizations due its high solubility. Unlike selenate, the mechanism of selenite uptake by plants remains unclear [10].
In weathered soils, there are low nutrient levels; high contents of Fe, Al, and Mn; and high acidity, according to soils analyzed (Table 1). Thus, it is necessary to know the Se dynamic in these soils. A profile of weathered soils analyzed from São Paulo observed low Se levels in soils with higher sand contents (Figure 1) that could indicate leaching potential.
Selenium levels in tropical soil profiles and, respectively, sand contents in sampled soils at São Paulo state, Brazil (unpublished data).
A study of Se adsorption and desorption in soils from Cerrado, Brazil, verified low values of distribution coefficient in soils; thus, Se tended to be more in solution than in the solid phase, and in the most weathered soils, with higher clay and Al and Fe oxide contents, there are the highest affinity for Se, while in sandy and loamy soils, Se tends to be less adsorbed and can therefore be taken up by plants or easily leached, damaging the ecosystem [11].
The low natural levels of Se in soils and its absence in fertilization to crops explain the low contents in food from vegetables [12] and consequently in Brazilian diet, except for northern areas [2]. Although, in a study of hemodialysis patients from north and southeast of Brazil, both patient groups presented low Se plasma levels when compared to recommended values; independently of the region, all patients presented Se deficiency [13].
This information is an alert for necessity to Se fertilization in Brazil. It was incentivized in the 1980s, but its requirement was unsuccessful, while in some countries, it is well stablished already. Applications of Se in areas of low Se bioavailability have been an option with good results to supply this element to plants and, consequently to animals, improving animal performance and nutritional quality of food produced as milk and meat [11], even in environments with no deficiency symptoms [14].
However, toxic potential of selenium requires caution as fertilizer due its complex dynamic nature in soil and plants. Selenium as selenate (SeO42−) is commonly found in alkaline and oxygen soils under high redox conditions (pe + pH > 15), and this oxidation state is predominantly absorbed by plants, while under low and milder redox conditions, species as selenite and selenide predominate [9].
Selenium fertilization must be controlled through safe doses and soil monitoring due to the possibilities of the Se dynamics in soils. Selenate can be easily absorbed by plants; thus, the doses for fertilizations must be carefully calculated, but also it could be leached with possibilities of water contamination.
Low selenate doses required for fertilization is a challenge due to concern for homogeneous application. According to the Selenium-Tellurium Development Association, the best way for Se application is along with other nutrients [15]. There are positive effects in Se application along with phosphorus fertilization [13].
Some technologies involving Se application along with macronutrients as coating became a technique to easy and high quality of application. Urea coated with a mix of boric acid (0.4% B), copper sulfate (0.14% Cu), and sodium selenate applied to
Seed pelletization seems to be a promissory tool to increase Se content in plants. Beneficial effects were observed in the evaluation of seed pelletization with increasing selenite doses on three ryegrass cultivars; however, the authors recommended it to be evaluated under field conditions in Se-deficient soils [17].
Another technology is the slow release of Se fertilizer as Selcote Ultra; however, its application in rates of up 20 g ha−1 Se on an Ultisol soil of Puerto Rico did not increase in the foliage Se concentrations of Guinea grass pastures [18]. According to the authors, the soil and plant interrelationships may be affecting the foliage of Se absorption potential requiring that the effects need future consideration in terms of Se movement in tropical soils.
The establishment of effective and safe rates in tropical environmental still is required and unknown, regardless of the technical method applied to plant enrichment on Se. High Se availability in agriculture soils can cause toxicity to crops, but it is still more concerning if a crop shows accumulator character, i.e., if a crop has capacity to absorb high levels of selenium with no symptoms of toxicity; this could increase the possibilities to cause toxicity for animals or human.
Forage plants are classified as passive accumulators due its ability to contain 10–30 mg kg−1 of Se in dry matter; however, high-quantity animal intake of Se through dry matter intake could induce intoxication [19]. Although the research with
Depending of the soil, excess of Se can be in unavailable forms to plant uptake over time. Soil influence in dynamic and availability of Se was observed by isolation of Selenium rates applied followed by comparing among soils, Arenic Hapludult, Rhodic Hapludox and Typic Hapludoll, which verified differents Selenium content remaining in soil, respectively, 22, 11, and 37 μg dm−3 and 55, 4, and 38 μg dm−3 after
Besides the uptake ability among plants, the difference among soils was evident. This element in soil can be fixed along with iron, complexed in organic matter, or it can be in many oxidation states depending on the pH, oxygen, and microbial activity [7]. These data confirmed different soil capacities to Se adsorption, but it can turn available for plants in pH changes, as frequently occurs with limestone application, a common practice from tropical agriculture areas.
High contents of selenate in soil, for natural or anthropogenic action, can be establish or reestablish for agricultural or livestock, avoiding the poisoning risk of plants, animals, and humans [20]; in these cases, the areas must be isolated for remediation. The use of plants to clean up contaminated soils is a technique known as phytoremediation that offers a less expensive alternative to stripping pollutants directly from the soil [21].
The management of high Se soil also can include sulfur source application. The similarity between Se and S indicates the competition for sulfate transporters of the root plasma membrane [7]. Sulfur application at 600 kg ha−1 as soluble sources such as ammonium sulfate and ferric sulfate reduced damages in productivity and Se uptake by Urochloa grass, while the lower solubility of calcium sulfate resulted in lower effectiveness in reducing Se uptake [20]. Plants used for phytoremediation can be used for mixture in diets of animals or used as composting to application in low Se areas.
The geochemistry of livestock-producing areas should be well understood to mitigate selenium-related disorders in animals [22]. In China, there are areas with selenosis occurrences; in contrast about 70% of China shows Selenium deficiency, as well as there are about 76% countries located in Se-deficient regions where the Se daily intake level is less than recommended [23].
Brazil is a country who owns the largest livestock in pastures; however, the majority of pastures are in marginal areas, under soils of low fertility. Brazil is one of the largest meat producers. In Brazilian food, the highest Se concentrations have been found to animal origin products, while vegetable food showed lower values [12]; however, some studies showed selenium deficiencies also in cattle, except in north areas [24, 25].
Cattle deficiencies have a likely relation between low Se in forage grass or supplements [26]. Thus, Se deficiency keeps as a concern, since this nutrient has been found in low levels in Brazilian diet.
Selenium fertilization could be a solution, but it is not realized in Brazil. Fertilizers containing selenium could support diet supplementation of grazing animals or animals feed with conserved forages (hay and silage), mainly considering Brazilian pasture areas with more than 160 million of hectares [27].
Selenium fertilization in pastures could increase its presence in animal and human diet besides its benefits to animal productivity. Feeding weaned beef calves for 7 weeks with alfalfa hay containing up to 3.26 mg kg−1 Se in dry matter harvested in fertilized fields with Se resulted to increasing whole-blood Se concentrations and body weights depending upon the Se application rate [28].
Grazing Se fertilizer has been shown to be more effective and safe treatment than animal dosing [13]. Selenium intake by ruminants in organic form, especially as selenoamino acids, needs to be release from proteins until through inorganic forms to be metabolized while Se in milk is from organic Se supply or converted by ruminal microorganisms [29].
Experiment with tropical grass has been shown large differences between Se contents in leaves and stem + sheath.
The fast answer of Se fertilization in tropical pastures can be positive to allow the low and safe doses of Se application along with nitrogen rates during rainy season, including for intercropped pastures with legumes. The concerning of intercropped pastures is explained by legume higher ability to produce protein, which can be apparently favorable to Se absorption.
Thus, this fact probably will require lower Se doses for fertilization in intercropped pastures, including caution with palatability and proportion of legumes in pastures. For example, in three different weathered soils carried out in pots, fertilization of 20 g ha−1 Se showed desirable concentrations to legume
High Se contents in leaves from tropical grass and in legumes comprise another fact to be analyzed for Se fertilization rate establishment although with few data. Usually, grass leaves and legumes are preference fractions for cattle according to its intake selective behavior, mainly in tropical pastures due to high accumulation of stem portions and its low digestibility. Selenium is one of few elements absorbed by plants in enough quantities which enable to intoxicate domestic animals [30].
Evaluating in vitro degradability of two cuts of
In superior plants dual effects can be exerted by Se; at low concentrations it acted as an antioxidant, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, whereas at higher concentrations, it was a prooxidant [6]. Applied doses of selenate above 71 g ha−1 Se exceed maximum recommendation of 5 mg kg−1 Se in dry matter of the leaves of
The effect of high Se diet concentration (60–70 μg kg BW−1 d−1) provided from wheat to steers indicated the negative effects of Se level used in this study on productive performance of feedlot which were not expected [25]. Low forage digestibility can contribute to low Se effects in animals, mainly in tropical forages, while high Se content in forage can reduce its digestibility. Undegraded residues from in vitro incubation contained 25–66% of Se from
Selenium fertilization in tropical low Se soils, as Brazil agricultural areas, is an emergent necessity for animal and human health, also could be beneficial for plants. Thus, Se fertilization in pastures is an alternative to collaborate for animal supplementation and human nutritional demands.
Generally, Se quantities required as fertilizer are low, and there are already available technologies to application but is an extremely necessary soil monitoring.
Nevertheless, more researches in tropical environments is required to establishment of Se rates, plants, and animal answers and reduces or even neutralizes toxicity risks, even though the benefits already are known.
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These heuristics are essentially based on a commonly used scheduling theory in Jackson’s extended heuristic. We present basic structural properties of the solutions delivered by Jackson’s heuristic and then illustrate how one can exploit them to build efficient heuristics.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Nodari Vakhania",authors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",middleName:null,surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56264",title:"Heuristics Techniques for Scheduling Problems with Reducing Waiting Time Variance",slug:"heuristics-techniques-for-scheduling-problems-with-reducing-waiting-time-variance",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In real computational world, scheduling is a decision making process. 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The paper will describe both approaches in different domain problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Aleksandra Swiercz",authors:[{id:"203032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Swiercz",slug:"aleksandra-swiercz",fullName:"Aleksandra Swiercz"}]},{id:"55594",title:"Multi‐Objective Hyper‐Heuristics",slug:"multi-objective-hyper-heuristics",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Multi‐objective hyper‐heuristics is a search method or learning mechanism that operates over a fixed set of low‐level heuristics to solve multi‐objective optimization problems by controlling and combining the strengths of those heuristics. Although numerous papers on hyper‐heuristics have been published and several studies are still underway, most research has focused on single‐objective optimization. Work on hyper‐heuristics for multi‐objective optimization remains limited. This chapter draws attention to this area of research to help researchers and PhD students understand and reuse these methods. It also provides the basic concepts of multi‐objective optimization and hyper‐heuristics to facilitate a better understanding of the related research areas, in addition to exploring hyper‐heuristic methodologies that address multi‐objective optimization. Some design issues related to the development of hyper‐heuristic framework for multi‐objective optimization are discussed. The chapter concludes with a case study of multi‐objective selection hyper‐heuristics and its application on a real‐world problem.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Mashael Suliaman Maashi",authors:[{id:"201702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashael",middleName:null,surname:"Maashi",slug:"mashael-maashi",fullName:"Mashael Maashi"}]},{id:"55968",title:"On the Use of Hybrid Heuristics for Providing Service to Select the Return Channel in an Interactive Digital TV Environment",slug:"on-the-use-of-hybrid-heuristics-for-providing-service-to-select-the-return-channel-in-an-interactive",totalDownloads:1303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The technologies used to link the end-user to a telecommunication infrastructure, has been changing over time due to the consolidation of new access technologies. Moreover, the emergence of new tools for information dissemination, such as interactive digital TV, makes the selection of access technology, factor of fundamental importance. One of the greatest advantages of using digital TV as means to disseminate information is the installation of applications. In this chapter, a load characterization of a typical application embedded in a digital TV is performed to determine its behavior. However, it is important to note that applications send information through an access technology. Therefore, this chapter, based on the study on load characterization, developed a methodology combining Bayesian networks and technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) analytical approach to provide support to service providers to opt for a technology (power line communication, PLC, wireless, wired, etc.) for the return channel.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Marcos César da Rocha Seruffo, Ádamo Lima de Santana, Carlos\nRenato Lisboa Francês and Nandamudi Lankalapalli Vijaykumar",authors:[{id:"10493",title:"Dr.",name:"Adamo",middleName:null,surname:"Lima De Santana",slug:"adamo-lima-de-santana",fullName:"Adamo Lima De Santana"},{id:"202549",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Seruffo",slug:"marcos-seruffo",fullName:"Marcos Seruffo"},{id:"202551",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadamundi",middleName:null,surname:"Vijaykumar",slug:"nadamundi-vijaykumar",fullName:"Nadamundi Vijaykumar"},{id:"202552",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Renato",middleName:null,surname:"Francês",slug:"carlos-renato-frances",fullName:"Carlos Renato Francês"}]},{id:"55704",title:"Advanced Particle Filter Methods",slug:"advanced-particle-filter-methods",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a set of algorithmic methods based on particle filter heuristics. We start with an introduction to particle filters, which covers the main motivation and related works. Then, the generic framework for particle filter algorithm is presented, followed by two important use cases regarding indoor positioning and multitarget tracking; for both problems, modified particle filter algorithms are presented followed by experimental results, implementation remarks, and a discussion. Finally, a short list of conclusion and future work are presented.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Roi Yozevitch and Boaz Ben-Moshe",authors:[{id:"203049",title:"Prof.",name:"Boaz",middleName:null,surname:"Benmoshe",slug:"boaz-benmoshe",fullName:"Boaz Benmoshe"},{id:"203051",title:"Mr.",name:"Roi",middleName:null,surname:"Yozevitch",slug:"roi-yozevitch",fullName:"Roi Yozevitch"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"549",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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