Half-lives of some anticoagulant rodenticide enantiomers.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"953",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"An International Perspective on the Future of Research in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome",title:"An International Perspective on the Future of Research in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"While the chapters in this book are a long way from solving the enigma that is CFS, they do represent important attempts to understand this complex and perplexing disease. 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Among them, coordination compounds also play a key role in serving humanity as these compounds have a wide range of applications in health care from antimicrobial to anticancer, bioengineering, bio-mimetic models, catalysis, photosensitized materials etc. Along with development of stable coordination compounds, their extensive structural studies are also in the main line of work for researchers. Twenty-nine authors from different countries have contributed their scientific views and work in magnifying the importance and scope of coordination compounds in the present book entitled “Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds”. I hope that the book will achieve its target of supplementing the community of researchers and readers working in the field of coordination chemistry.",isbn:"978-1-83880-058-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-057-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-727-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83186",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",numberOfPages:176,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"3f07c532e478beb8fcd2fe53b8c9bcfd",bookSignature:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva",publishedDate:"July 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9190.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:10204,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfTotalCitations:46,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"293623",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay Nanda",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastva",slug:"abhay-nanda-srivastva",fullName:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293623/images/system/293623.jpg",biography:"Dr. Abhay Nanda Srivastava has been appointed as Assistant\nProfessor in the chemistry department of Babasaheb Bhim Rao\nAmbedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur-India, and then posted as Head of Chemistry Department at Nitishwar College (A\nconstituent unit of B.R.A. Bihar University), Muzaffarpur-India\nin 2017. Along with this, Dr. Srivastva has also been entrusted\nwith additional academic and research activities in the University Department of Chemistry, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur-India. Before\njoining BU, Dr. Srivastava was an assistant professor of chemistry at the Engineering College, Delhi, NCR, affiliated to Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,\nLucknow, India. He obtained his master’s and doctorate degrees in Chemistry from\nChaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut. His areas of interest include coordination chemistry, medicinal chemistry, green chemistry, and bioinorganic/organic\nchemistry. Dr. Srivastva supervises Ph.D. scholars in these areas. He has authored\nmany research papers, edited books, and contributed chapters to reputed international and national journals and book publishers. He is the associate editor of the\nJournal of Transition Metal Complexes and an editorial board member for several\ninternational journals. Dr. Srivastva reviews articles, delivers invited talks and\nlectures, and presents research papers at national and international conferences,\nseminars, webinars, and workshops.",institutionString:"Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Bihar University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Bihar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"938",title:"Coordination Chemistry",slug:"coordination-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"71153",title:"Crystal Structure and Solid-State Properties of Metal Complexes of the Schiff Base Ligands Derived from Diacetylmonoxime: A Brief Review",slug:"crystal-structure-and-solid-state-properties-of-metal-complexes-of-the-schiff-base-ligands-derived-f",totalDownloads:774,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:7,authors:[null]},{id:"70192",title:"Stability Constants of Metal Complexes in Solution",slug:"stability-constants-of-metal-complexes-in-solution",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[null]},{id:"63485",title:"Chiral Mono- and α-Diimines and Their Pd(II) Complexes with Anticancer Activity",slug:"chiral-mono-and-diimines-and-their-pd-ii-complexes-with-anticancer-activity",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"68296",title:"Stability of Vanadium Chalcone Complexes",slug:"stability-of-vanadium-chalcone-complexes",totalDownloads:559,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"63620",title:"Schiff Bases and Their Metallic Derivatives: Highly Versatile Molecules with Biological and Abiological Perspective",slug:"schiff-bases-and-their-metallic-derivatives-highly-versatile-molecules-with-biological-and-abiologic",totalDownloads:1043,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"68756",title:"Salen and Related Ligands",slug:"salen-and-related-ligands",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"72108",title:"Ligands and Coordination Compounds Used as New Photosensitized Materials for the Construction of Solar Cells",slug:"ligands-and-coordination-compounds-used-as-new-photosensitized-materials-for-the-construction-of-sol",totalDownloads:663,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[null]},{id:"69833",title:"Coordination States and Catalytic Performance of Ti in Titanium Silicalite-1",slug:"coordination-states-and-catalytic-performance-of-ti-in-titanium-silicalite-1",totalDownloads:670,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9932",title:"Analytical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advancement, Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18f54a89cdbbafde70f56e55e122171a",slug:"analytical-chemistry-advancement-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9932.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293623",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay Nanda",surname:"Srivastva",slug:"abhay-nanda-srivastva",fullName:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5291",title:"Metal-Organic Frameworks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11a4acb20c880870e43c6f9dcf71e31e",slug:"metal-organic-frameworks",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10700",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:"Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9448d83caa34d90fd58464268c869a0",slug:"titanium-dioxide-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10700.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Rodents are ubiquitous and opportunistic animals, some such as the brown rats (
To deal with these concerns, rodent populations have to be controlled. One of the most used management methods is the chemical method based on the use of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs). Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) have been used since the 1940s to control rodent populations. Warfarin was the first molecule used. But after its use for more than one decade, resistant strains of rodents to ARs have emerged [7]. To deal with resistance, this first generation of ARs has been supplemented by a second generation. ARs of the second generation are frequently named ’superwarfarins’ or long-acting anticoagulant rodenticides. Indeed, these molecules are more potent than the first generation due to their longer half-life, which implies longer tissue-persistence and better efficacy.
Indeed, the consequence of the widespread use of ARs and more specifically the second generation of ARs, that are more efficient and more persistent, has been an increase of the exposure risks and the intoxication risks for non-target species such as pets, wildlife as well as humans. Nevertheless, anticoagulant rodenticides are renowned as a safe method to manage rodent populations. This safety is due to their mechanism of action as well as on the implementation of good practices in their use and by the respect of related regulations. Beyond this renown, it is important to monitor the impact of using ARs regarding the risk of untargeted species poisoning and to discuss on the remaining grey area in our knowledge on anticoagulant rodenticides.
Hence, after a rapid presentation of the mechanism of action and the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, this chapter assesses the importance of the exposure and the intoxication by anticoagulant rodenticides.
The current anticoagulant rodenticide molecules belong to the family of vitamin K antagonist (VKA) molecules. The effects of VKAs have been observed in the ‘sweet clover’ poisoning of bovines, which results in a haemorrhagic disease and often the death of the animal [8–10]. Clover (
Chemical structure of: (A) coumarin core; (B) thiocoumarin core; (C) 1,3-indandione core; (D) warfarin; (E) dicoumarol; (F) coumatetralyl; (G) chlorophacinone; (H) bromadiolone; (I) difenacoum; (J) brodifacoum; (K) difethialone; and (L) flocoumafen.
The main molecules used in the rodent population management are presented in Figure 1. VKA molecules are derived from a coumarin (Figure 1A), thiocoumarin (Figure 1B) or 1,3-indandione (Figure 1C) core. The distinction of the second generation of AR from the first generation is the radical. In second generation, radical includes three benzene structures, which increase the fat solubility of the molecules and influence their pharmacokinetic properties. In order to understand the interest of VKAs and the key issue of their safety, it is important to present their mechanism of action and their pharmacokinetics.
Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are non-competitive inhibitors of the vitamin K epoxide reductase enzyme (VKORC1) [13, 14]. This membrane enzyme of endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for the recycling of vitamin K. Vitamin K is a cofactor essential to many biotransformations of proteins and more specifically to obtain an active form of some clotting factors, the factors II, VII, IX and X. These factors, called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, have to go through a post-translational gamma-carboxylation of their glutamate residues into gamma-carboxyglutamic acid to be able to chelate calcium and have their physiological activity [15, 16]. This reaction is done by gamma-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX), which is another membrane enzyme of endoplasmic reticulum, and needs the oxidation of vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide to provide the required reducing power [17, 18]. Then VKORC1 recycles vitamin K epoxides to vitamin K hydroquinones (Figure 2) [19].
Vitamin K cycle.
The amount of vitamin K provided by the majorities of food is not sufficient to offset the complete arrest of vitamin K cycle. Consequently, when VKORC1 is inhibited by VKA, a sufficient amount of vitamin K hydroquinone cannot be recycled from vitamin K epoxides to ensure the gamma-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent proteins, and more especially the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. Consequently, the blood concentrations of active vitamin K-dependent clotting factors decrease and lead to an increase of clotting times then, with time, to the death by haemorrhages.
Vitamin K antagonists are reputed to be highly and rapidly absorbed after
Moreover, second-generation ARs (i.e. bromadiolone, difenacoum, brodifacoum, flocoumafen and difethialone) contain two asymmetric carbons systematically. Therefore, commercial second-generation ARs are a mixture of two diastereoisomeric forms (1R,3R)(1S,3S)-isomers and (1R,3S)(1S,3R)-isomers with different pharmacokinetic properties. For each second-generation AR, there is systematically one diastereoisomeric form with a shorter half-life than the other one (Table 1) [20, 27]. Proportion between stereoisomers in commercial baits is defined by regulatory documents. For example, bromadiolone must be a mixture of more than 70 of trans-isomers and fewer than 30% of cis-isomers. These differences in half-life between stereoisomers could be a fundamental point in the development of future more eco-friendly AR with modification of regulatory defined ratios.
Molecules | T1/2 (h) |
---|---|
Brodifacoum cis | 120.8 |
Brodifacoum trans | 68.7 |
Bromadiolone cis | 26.9 |
Bromadiolone trans | 75.6 |
Difenacoum cis | 78.3 |
Difenacoum trans | 24.2 |
Difethialone cis | 71.6 |
Difethialone trans | 52.9 |
Flocoumafene cis | 76.7 |
Flocoumafene trans | 177.4 |
Half-lives of some anticoagulant rodenticide enantiomers.
The first methods used to control rodent populations aim to kill them immediately. They were based on physical traps or on rapid killer molecules like strychnine. However, the neophobic behaviour of some rodents such as rats and their social organisation make these molecules ineffective. Indeed, the precocity of symptoms or death after a bait eating by congeners induces bait aversion in the rodent population [28, 29]. Conversely, the time to onset of anticoagulant action is sufficient to avoid that rodents link their symptoms and death to bait eating [29].
Moreover, the delay and the mechanism of action of ARs are the keystone of their safety of use comparatively to other rodenticides. Indeed, the delay allows the possibility to implement a treatment after an exposure to ARs and the mechanism of action can be easily bypassed which offers an efficient and safe antidotes, the vitamin K.
Nevertheless, some issues exist with anticoagulant rodenticides, first the resistance of some population to some AR molecules. This issue has led to the creation of the second generation of ARs, which are more efficient against resistant strains [30]. However, this generation is more persistent which involves other issues. This persistence extends the duration of antidote treatment after exposure. Moreover, it entails a greater concentration of AR molecules in rodents after its death; thus, it might increase the risk of secondary poisoning of predators or scavenger animals. Consequently, to prevent poisoning of humans and animals, many actions have been implemented in the use of ARs.
In Europe, an anticoagulant rodenticide product can be registered either as a plant protection product or as a biocide. According to the kind of registration, restriction and modality of use are defined in order to prevent human and animal intoxication. Nevertheless, there are important differences on the modality and restriction among the European Member States. Here, we present some member state (MS) actions to prevent poisoning.
The majority of MS distinguishes the individual use of ARs and the professional use. Professional users are mainly the pest control operator, they have to be trained. In some countries like France or Italy, the sale of ARs is restricted for the individual user, thus, in France, individuals cannot buy more than 1.5 kg of AR bait. In other countries, like Germany, only trained professionals are allowed to use the second generation of ARs. Moreover, some molecules can be allowed as biocides and be forbidden as plant protection products.
The presentation of ARs is also regulated. Baits are presented as poisoned seed, paste or foam. Previously concentred products like tracking powder and oil concentrate were used but they have been forbidden in many states. Thus, concentrations of the current AR baits are of the order of few dozen to few hundred milligrams of active product per kilogram of bait. The concentration depends on the efficiency of the active molecule. The main consequence of the use of products with low concentration is that it is difficult to reach the lethal dose at once for mammal heavier than rodents such as cats, dogs or humans. Nevertheless, the high half-life of some anticoagulants allows to reach this dose after a multi-exposure. The use of a bitter agent in bait is mandatory notably to avoid and limit exposure.
Finally, to avoid the exposure of untargeted species, in many states, baits have to be placed in secured bait stations. These stations have to be labelled to inform people on their content and on the action to perform in the case of exposure. Moreover, stations avoid the dispersion of baits which allows to control the consumption and they are waterproof, which prevent water pollution. Nevertheless, some rodents are reluctant to enter in bait stations which might involve failing in pest control. In spite of all described elements to prevent exposures and intoxications of human and untargeted animals to ARs, many cases have been reported.
Therefore, some recent research makes effort to implement a third generation of ARs which is based on the stereochemistry concept, which would be efficient against resistant strains of rodents and be less persistent and thus less involved in secondary poisoning [20, 27].
Intoxication with anticoagulant rodenticides is a major public health concern. The involvement of poison control centres is crucial in the record of poisoning cases in both rural and urban areas. Besides, emergency departments report rare cases of intoxication by suicide or homicide. Most of these poisonings occur following accidental exposure, especially ingestion in children. Bleeding severity is highly variable, depending on the rodenticide exposure and on the delay between the exposure and patient management. The diagnosis relies on simple coagulation tests. Emergency department physicians should be aware of anticoagulant poisonings since management differs according to the anticoagulant rodenticide including warfarin or long-acting superwarfarin types.
The incidence of poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides is difficult to assess, mostly based on national registries. In the literature, cases associated with bleeding are published as case reports or small series, probably corresponding to the most severe ones.
In the annual report based on the US National Poison Data System and published by the American Association of Poison Control Centers, data related to long-acting superwarfarin- or warfarin-type rodenticides intoxication are given separately. Over the last 5-year period (2011–2015), the cumulated number of exposures is 44,095 for long-acting superwarfarin-type and 1029 for warfarin-type drugs, with a single exposure in 97.3 and 95.6% of the cases, respectively [31–35]. Interestingly, the number of reported cases has slightly decreased since 2008 (Figure 3) [36–38]. The mean prevalence of exposure over the last 5 years is 3.4% for long-acting superwarfarin-type and 4.9% for warfarin-type drugs. The age distribution shows that children, especially those of less than 5 years old, are the most involved (Figure 4); only 9% of the reported cases are adults. Finally, clinical outcomes are reported (Figure 5). Remarkably, outcome is favourable in 93.6% of the cases, probably due to the limited ingested doses in relation to the bad taste of numerous rodenticides. The bitterness brought by the excipients in the currently marketed rodenticides considerably limits the ingested amounts, especially in young children. In cases associated with significant complications, severe bleedings are observed in less than 10% of cases, with fatal bleedings occurring in only eight patients among the 44,095 exposed patients during the last 5-year period in the USA. Overall, poisoning with rodenticides remains a rare cause of morbidities and fatalities [31–35].
Number of poisonings with anticoagulant rodenticides reported by the American Association of Poison Control Centers from 2008 to 2015. Black bars: intoxications with long-acting anticoagulant-type rodenticides; grey bars: intoxications with warfarin-type rodenticides.
Distribution of the cases of poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides reported by the American Association of Poison Control Centers in 2011–2015 according to the patient age.
Distribution of the cases of poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides reported by the American Association of Poison Control Centers in 2011–2015 according to the outcome.
The threat in poisoning with rodenticides is the onset of severe bleeding. In humans like in rodents, anticoagulant rodenticides inhibit the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase complex (VKORC1) leading to the absence of vitamin K recycling, which is essential for the gamma-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent proteins in the hepatocytes, especially clotting prothrombin, factors VII, IX and X. This leads to impaired functioning of gamma-carboxylated vitamin-K-dependent factors due to their inability to bind activated platelets. Given the half-lives of coagulation in humans, i.e. from 6 hours for FVII to ~60 hours for prothrombin, the onset of hypocoagulability and the risk of bleeding are delayed after the exposure to rodenticides. The risk of bleeding depends on the severity of the hypocoagulability state induced by rodenticides and on the duration of hypocoagulability. The spectrum of bleeding is wide: extended unexplained spontaneous ecchymosis, epistaxis, hematoma, bleeding from the gastro-intestinal or the genitourinary tract as well as intra-cerebral bleeding are reported [39–46].
The diagnosis of rodenticide intoxication has to be considered for any patient with prolonged prothrombin time (increased INR), prolonged activated partial prothrombin time; the vitamin K-dependent factor II, VII, X, IX coagulant activities are decreased while factor V coagulant activity and the fibrinogen level are normal [41, 43, 47, 48]. Liver dysfunction, cholestasis and severe starvation can be ruled out by normal liver enzymes and serum albumin concentration. Moderate to severe anaemia can be present, depending on the severity of bleeding. Special attention and high clinical suspicion are required in patients with apparent negative history of warfarin treatment. The diagnosis of rodenticide intoxication should be suspected when the international normalised ratio (INR) strongly fluctuates on vitamin K therapy, especially while high doses of vitamin K are required. The accessibility to anticoagulant rodenticides should be checked; monitoring of persons who deal with rodenticides in their home or workplace, especially those suffering from dementia or psychiatric disorders, is necessary [49]. The intoxication can be confirmed by the identification and measurement of the rodenticides in plasma by specific assays [42, 45, 50].
Acute life-threatening complications can be prevented with timely intervention. Immediate administration of high doses of phytomenadione (vitamin K1) and/or factor prothrombin complex concentrate (30 UI/kg FIX) can successfully reverse the anticoagulant effects of anticoagulant rodenticides. With tissue half-lives estimated at between 16 and 220 days, reversal of superwarfarin toxicity is a long-term issue. Therefore, long-term daily treatment for several weeks of phytomenadione is necessary. Treatment courses averaged 168 days. To avoid re-bleeding, close monitoring of INR is necessary. Adjunctive haemostatic therapy with recombinant factor VIIa and prothrombin complex concentrate has been used [50–54].
To assess the importance of animal intoxications, it is important to discriminate two situations: the domestic animals and the wildlife. Concerning wildlife, the evaluations of exposures and intoxications are often realised during focused scientific campaign and are often based on contamination studies or after an important mortality in wildlife. In domestic animal, besides the scientific campaign, there are, in some countries, animal specialised poison control centres, which can provide data on exposure, intoxications and linked symptoms.
In this part, it is important to take account of the differences between exposure and intoxication. Concerning exposure, it is the fact to take a dose of anticoagulants, it can be suspected by an owner who sees its animal eating baits, sometimes without knowing what the active substance is, or find in wildlife by pinpointing the presence of VKA in the sample. Intoxication is when the active substance induced clinical signs. This distinction is fundamental in the study of VKA toxicology. Indeed, to observe intoxication, the exposure dose and the delay of action has to be sufficient. This issue is discussed further concerning the wildlife exposure/intoxication studies.
In France, two control poison centres are specialised in animals. The most important in terms of call number is the ‘Centre National d\' Informations Toxicologiques Vétérinaires (CNITV)’ which responds to questions from owners or veterinarians on a 24-hour/7 day basis. We used this important database to assess the importance of VKA exposures and intoxications in domestic animals.
The data of the last 9 years have been analysed. During this period, the CNITV has received about 150,000 calls. Each month, 10.73% (CI 10.41-11.06) of solicitations are about VKA exposure or intoxication. Moreover, about whole VKA appeal is on domestic animals (99.2%). Appeals accrue from veterinary (69%) and owner (29%) mainly.
During the analysis of data, an important seasonality of the calls concerning VKAs has been pinpointed (Figure 6). Significant (
(A): Evolution of monthly calls for VKA exposure over time. Grey curve is the running means over 5 months. Dark lines are linear regression from January 2008 to September 2013 and from September 2013 to February 2017. (B) Variation of the number of calls for VKA exposure with the precedent month, values are represented as the mean of observed variations for the concerned month over the period 2008–2016 and its 95% confidence interval.
More generally, data pinpoint a trend reversal; before September 2013, the number of cases has significantly increased with a slope of 3.9% per annum (
Pets and more specifically dogs are over represented (Figure 7). This might be explained by the lack of use of secured bait station by private individuals and by the behaviour of dogs. Poisoning is mainly accidental even if some malicious poisoning are reported (2.03%). The proportion of suspected malicious case concerning cats is significantly higher than for the general case. Indeed, cats and dogs represent, respectively, 19.14 and 63.64% of malicious reports. These uses of anticoagulant rodenticides with harmful intent against animals but also against humans have led to restrict the sale of rodenticides in some countries such as Italy [55].
Percentage of species concerned by calls on VKA.
Concerning molecules, in 22% of calls, the exact molecule is not identified. Nevertheless, exposures or intoxications with one of the six molecules authorised are reported, they are difenacoum, difethialone, brodifacoum, bromadiolone, chlorophacinone and coumatetralyl, which represent, respectively, 23, 18, 10, 9, 3 and 2% of the calls for AR. It is significant that the four main anticoagulants are second-generation ARs. This was predictable because first-generation ARs are less efficient on resistant strains of rodents consequently main ARs sold belong to the second generation.
The consequences of an exposure without intoxication are completely different for pets and farm animals. Indeed, for pets when an exposure occurs, the aim is to prevent intoxication. In farm animals, more than intoxication prevention, the presence of anticoagulant molecules in products such as meat, eggs or milk has to be considered. Further, we discuss issues of ARs in pets then in farm animals.
In pets, depending on caller, the circumstances of appeal are different. Indeed, 90% of calls from individuals report exposure without intoxication, whereas the proportion of this circumstance drops significantly to 75% when it is a call from a veterinary (
In dogs and cats, when an exposure is suspected and when it is possible, the best way to prevent intoxication is to induce vomiting in the first hour after the exposure. If medicines are not available, it is possible to use 10 volume hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide solution can be given orally to animals at 1 mL for every 5 kg of weight. Be careful, salt must not be used to induce vomiting. Indeed, excess of salt can cause fatal hypernatremia [56].
Sometimes, even the exposure is uncertain or the absorption of VKA after vomiting is unknown, to confirm exposure, two means are currently tested by our team: the dosing of VKAs in plasma and their dosing in faeces. The difficulty of dosing in plasma is that for some VKAs, the presence in the plasma is temporary then VKAs are stored in liver. Therefore, dosing in plasma is often associated with false-negatives. The dosing of VKA in faeces seems to be more reliable with an excretion that can be detected for several weeks.
As there is not any well-described toxicity dose, it is important to follow the possible effect of AR in order to prevent serious intoxication. Moreover, there is no correlation between the dose of VKA and the symptom severity [57]. Today, the gold standard to diagnose VKA intoxication is the prothrombin time [58]. It is advised realising a prothrombin time about 48 hours after the suspected exposure [59]. If the prothrombin time is elevated then a treatment has to be initiated. Other methods such as vitamin K clotting factor concentration measurement are explored to detect AR effects sooner. Factor VII seems to be a good candidate as its half-life after a VKA administration is the shorter [60].
If no treatment is given, symptoms may appear after 2–6 days [57, 58]. Symptoms are the classic signs of coagulopathy, which may be pinpointed by owner as bleeding, pale mucous membrane, haematomas, haematuria or haematemesis as well as their consequences on animal general condition as lameness, depression or lethargy [57, 58, 61]. Owing to intrathoracic bleeding, respiratory distress occurs frequently in anticoagulant intoxications [62–64].
Animals exposed with an elevation of prothrombin time after exposure or with AR-linked symptoms have to receive vitamin K1 supplementation as long as the recycling mechanism is inhibited. Vitamin K1 is given
In farm animals, when an AR exposure occurs, the safety of the product has to be considered. Little information is available on the contamination of food following AR exposure. Nevertheless, many methods have been implemented to assess the residues in foodstuffs [65, 66]. Concerning meat, it has been shown that VKA molecules are present in muscle after exposure and that the cooking does not influence their activities [67]. Likewise, VKA molecules are also present in eggs after hen exposure, and are still detected in eggs 14 days after exposure [68]. Concerning the milk, it has been observed an excretion of VKA in human milk when a VKA is used as medication for the mother [69]. Consequently, it might be supposed that the same occurs in animals. Thus, when an animal is exposed, its litter should be separated of its mother and fed with relevant artificial milk. If separation is not possible or if diagnostic is late, litter should be supplemented with vitamin K1. Concerning foodstuffs provided by an exposed animal, their management would be done in accordance with relevant authority.
Wildlife expositions or intoxications to ARs have been reported around the world for many mammals such as minks [70], bobcats [71], stoats and weasels [72], foxes [73, 74] and boars [67] and as well for many birds [75–77]. Exposition of fish was reported near an island where an eradication of rodent with brodifacoum was performed and the risk for human through the consumption appeared very low [78].
These intoxications may be primary when non-target species eat directly the bait. It is the case when baits are directly available without protection or when they are washed away and diluted in sea or river. In Spain, a study on water and soil samples revealed no imminent environmental risk in treated areas with chlorophacinone and brodifacoum [79]. However, the use of secured bait stations prevents this kind of exposition.
The secondary exposition occurs when a scavenger or a predator eats an exposed rodent. It is the most described exposition of wildlife to ARs and the most difficult to prevent. Many factors may influence the level of secondary exposition. First, due to the bait appetence, rodents can eat more AR than necessary to lead to their death, which might increase their concentration in AR. Moreover, if rodent is resistant to ARs, this phenomenon might be amplified. Indeed, a resistant rodent eats twice to fivefold more AR than susceptible rodent [1]. After the onset of symptoms in rodents, their behaviour evolves. They increase their activity during the day and stay longer in uncovered area, which enhances the risk to be hunted by predators [1]. The delayed action of ARs, inherent to its mechanism, allows rodents to eat several times the LD50 dose between the first bait intake and the death [1] and may as well increase the risk of secondary exposition. Pesticide usage has been correlated with non-target wildlife exposition [74, 75], and the intensity of treatment was related to incidence on local fox populations in France [80]. Finally, the diet is certainly going to influence secondary exposition and species like raptors, foxes and mustelids largely feeding on rodents when abundant are consequently the most at risk, as demonstrated for the red kite (Milvus milvus) [81]. The removal of visible rodent bodies helps to reduce the risk of secondary exposition [82] but is not always possible because of landscape limited access and in the case of aerial application [1]. Mitigation measures have been considered to protect predatory species but new approaches are still required [82].
Persistence and toxicity of the molecule are key factors. They depend on the used active ingredient [26, 83]. Historically, second-generation ARs had been designed to be more persistent and toxic on resistant strain. Thus, secondary poisonings of wildlife associated with the use of second generation are more often reported. But the development of new ARs recently proposed is based on the stereochemistry of second-generation ARs with reduced persistence but equivalent toxicity might greatly decrease the level of secondary exposition [20].
They are two types of consequences of the exposition of wildlife to ARs. First, if the species is eaten by human [67, 78], the consequences are comparable to those discussed for farm animals. Second, if the exposition is sufficiently important, it might lead to intoxication of the animals and to its death, which can be problematic mainly for endangered species. The rate of exposure of non-target species has often been evaluated, and summed liver concentrations above a limit of 0.2 mg/kg associated with clinical signs (i.e. macroscopic haemorrhages with no trauma) have been statistically characterised as representative of a high-risk toxic threshold [84]. According to these criteria, hepatic concentrations above 0.2 mg/kg have been associated with mortalities in raptors and small mustelids from Denmark [85], in raptors and hedgehogs from Mediterranean region of Spain [86], in six raptor species from Canary Islands, Spain [77].
It is difficult to discriminate a simple exposition and intoxication in wildlife. Indeed, as well as in domestic animal, toxic doses are not well described for all species. Moreover, the majorities of exposition studies are performed on dead animal, and as the lesion induced by ARs is not specific, so it might be difficult to conclude to its implications. Less than 10% of exposed and dead birds have been confirmed to be intoxicated by ARs [1, 87]. Currently, there are no reports of a significant incidence of ARs on non-targeted species populations [82]. Nevertheless, impact of ARs on wildlife has to be more monitored in order to limit the impact of rodent population management. The probable future design of eco-friendly baits with new isomer ratio will change the need the way AR hepatic residues are monitored. The recently described multi-residue LC-MS/MS method [88] is an appropriate tool to start investigating second-generation AR diastereoisomer proportions in non-target wildlife and to evaluate their respective persistence in predators.
Anticoagulant rodenticides are a keystone of the rodent population management. Like other poisons, there is a risk of human or non-targeted species poisoning. The wide use of anticoagulant rodenticides near human living space and agriculture space involves an important exposure of humans and domestic animals. Nevertheless, since few years, many risk mitigation measures have been taken and the number of exposure in humans and domestic animals has decreased. Moreover, in contrast to the majority of chemical biocide, anticoagulant rodenticides have an effective antidote, the vitamin K. Consequently, anticoagulant poisoning is rarely fatal. However, the impact of anticoagulant rodenticides on wildlife is least well known and deserves more investigation.
Energy is an integral part of today’s modern life, but the way most the energy is produced around the world creates several environmental and sustainability issues. Environmental sustainability is the core issue that needs to be addressed for development to focus on human well-being and yet stay within the limitations of the planet’s capacity. Environmentally sound waste management is one of the key elements for sustainable development. The idea of sustainability developed in the early 1980s as reported in the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program can be defined as “meeting fundamental human needs while preserving the earth natural environment” [1]. Since the earth’s population is increasing, it is putting pressure on the earth’s resources. According to the World Economic Forum, it is estimated that food production will need to double by 2050 to feed 10 billion people on the earth [2]. Today, sustainability has three essential pillars, including environmental protection, social development, and economic growth; sustainable development can be been defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [3]. The need for sustainable development is truly recognized by all countries, and thus in 2015, the United Nations (UN) was able to introduce 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 [4]. The UN under Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) of its SDGs aims to substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse. Data from 214 cities or municipalities in 103 countries show that about three quarters of MSW generated is collected (Figure 1). In sub-Saharan Africa, less than half of all MSW generated is collected, with adverse effects on the health of residents. Moreover, even when waste is collected, it is often not treated and disposed of in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner. Managing such wastes continues to be a major challenge facing urban areas in several regions. Appropriate waste management is important for conserving local and global environments. Improvement of waste management in developing countries is directly related to preventing environmental pollution and expanding public health services. Appropriate waste management contributes to reducing not only the emission of water/atmospheric pollutants and odors but also the emission of greenhouse gases. In this regard, some studies reported that Green House Gases (GHG) emissions from the waste sector contribute to 3–4% of total global GHG emissions [7]. The rapidly increasing amount of municipal waste in cities around the globe is connected with economic development, as an increase in the city population creates many major challenges associated with economic development [8].
Proportion of the municipal solid waste generated that is collected, 2001–2015 (data from 214 cities/municipalities in 103 countries) [
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member countries (Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Qatar) are considered as major consumers of the natural resources, which results in a huge amount of emissions [9, 10]. Similarly, the annual solid waste generation in the GCC region has exceeded 150 million tons. GCC countries feature among the world’s top 10 per capita waste generators (Figure 2). Similarly, the annual solid waste generation in the GCC region has exceeded 150 million tons. Comparatively, this is lower than the waste generated in the UK, as GCC has a lower population (=54 million) than the UK (66 million); however, at the same time; the UK recycles more than 45% of its waste [12]. The recycling of waste in the GCC is almost zero. Lack of legal and institutional frameworks has been a major stumbling block in the progress of the waste management sector [11]. The per capita production of municipal waste in top GCC cities, such as Riyadh, Doha, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai, is more than 1.5 kg per day which is among the highest worldwide [13]. Some recent studies which considered situations of waste in the whole gulf region indicate that the recycling sector is underdeveloped and hardly 10–15% of the waste is recycled [14]. This chapter considers the MSW in Oman to produce electricity. Currently, the MSW in Oman is deposited in more than 300 landfills/dumpsites managed by municipalities. Overall, most of the solid waste is sent to authorized and unauthorized dumpsites for disposal, which is creating environmental and health issues. There are several dumpsites which are located in the midst of residential areas or close to catchment areas of private and public drinking water bodies. Similarly, these landfill stations occupied a large area of land which can be utilized for some other purposes. For instance, as per the Ministry of Housing regulations, each Omani is eligible to get a plot of 500 sqm for the house after reaching a certain age [15]. Of course, this is a non-sustainable approach, but this is the current policy of the government, and thus the reduction in landfills will help Oman to fulfill such commitment in a more appropriate manner. Similarly, a survey conducted by the Be’ah, a company established under the Royal Decree 46/2009, shows that solid waste in Oman is characterized by a very high percentage of recyclables, primarily paper and cardboard (15%), plastics (20.9%), metals (1.8%), and glass (4%) [16]. Some of the newspaper reports show that currently 100% of the MSW in Oman goes to landfills [17].
GCC population versus municipal waste generation [
To reduce GHG emissions from MSW and to reduce the burden of landfills on the earth, proper disposal and recycling of MSW are important. One of the modern methods that are recently adopted by many countries is to use MSW in a plant to produce energy. This type of plant is commonly known as waste-to-energy plants. The aim of this research is therefore to explore the opportunities to use MSW for electricity production in Oman. Such opportunities, however, cannot be understood well without knowing the composition of the MSW, public participation, and cooperation in activities related to recycling. This research, therefore, incorporates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, commonly known as mixed method, were adopted to accomplish the aims and objectives set for the research. The next section provides a literature review, covering Oman energy situation, electricity consumption, and the types of waste-to-energy plants.
Although energy has become an integral requirement of today’s modern life and it is considered as a fundamental element for social and economic growth, however, the United Nations report indicated that 13% of the earth’s populations still have no access to modern electricity. Similarly, more than 3 billion people are still using wood, coal, charcoal, or animal waste for cooking their food and heating purposes. Energy is considered as the dominant contributor to climate change, which is estimated to be around 60% of total global greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly, it is estimated that in 2012, the indoor air pollution from using combustible fuels for household energy caused 4.3 million deaths around the world [18]. Overall, most of the current energy production is based on conventional resources such as oil, gas, and coal which, on the one hand, are non-sustainable but also, on the other hand, these resources produce greenhouse gases. These gases are considered a threat to the earth due to its contribution to global warming and climate change. The main gas which highly contributes to global warming and climate change is CO2. The emission of the CO2 to the earth’s atmosphere has been significantly increased since 1950 which has reached a level of 400 parts per million (ppm). The CO2 emission during the past 800,000 years until 1950 was below the level of 300 ppm [19].
Majority of the greenhouse gases are regarded as manmade gases in which the major role has been played by the recent industrialization. Although, the issue of global warming and climate change is well regarded as a threat to human life on the earth and there have been several efforts to control the emissions which cause global warming and climate change, the data from different sources reflect that these emissions are still increasing. For instance, the global CO2 emission from fossil fuels in 2010 was 33.1 gigatons which have increased to 37.1 gigatons in 2018, representing a total increase of 12.08%. This emission quite alarming and if not tackled properly, and if it is increased at the same level, it would reach 41.58 gigatons by 2028 [20].
Goal 7 of the UN SDGs is “Affordable and Sustainable Energy” under which the member countries agreed to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy. This goal is further supported by five global targets as mentioned below:
Target 1: By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services.
Target 2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix.
Target 3: By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
Target 4: By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency, and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology.
Target 5: By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, Small Island, developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programs of support.
To effectively understand the energy requirement of GCC countries, the electricity consumption and CO2 emission in these countries are considered in the first instance. As the gulf region is rich in oil and gas reserves, therefore this region is considered as the main producer and supplier of the energy. The oil and gas revenue constitutes a major portion of the gross domestic product (GDP) in most of the GCC countries and remained support for the government and industrial sectors [21]. At the same time, the region is also a main consumer of energy as compared with other countries around the world. Similarly, due to the high rate of electricity consumption in these countries, the CO2 emission is also high as presented in Figure 3. High electricity consumption and CO2 emission could be justified due to the climatic condition of the region where the temperature in summer reaches 50°C as reported by Umar and Egbu [24], however, such consumption and emissions are more than the double when compared with other countries. For instance, the average electricity consumption in GCC countries [=12,896.058 kilowatt-hours (kWh)] as of 2014, is more than three times greater than the electricity consumption in China (=3927 kWh) [22]. Similarly, the GCC electricity consumption per capita is more than double the consumption in the United Kingdom (=5130 kWh). It is very difficult to justify so high consumption of electricity in the GCC region based on the argument that it has a hot climatic condition. if this argument is considered to be true, then a high consumption is to be expected from the United Kingdom as well, as it has a cold climatic condition, however, the consumption in the united kingdom is far low than the average consumption of the GCC. Similarly, the average CO2 emission is GCC countries (=25.36 tons) is more than three times greater than the CO2 emission per capita in China (=7.5 tons) and almost four times greater than the CO2 emission per capita in the United Kingdom (=6.5 tons) [23]. The main reason for this high CO2 emission in GCC countries is that most of the electricity in these countries is produced by oil and gas. For instance, in Saudi Arabia, a total of 330.5 billion kWh of electricity was generated in 2016. 40.30% of this electricity was produced from oil, 59.6% was produced by gas, and only 1% was produced from renewable resources [25]. Similarly, according to the British Petroleum report, 68% of the electricity in Oman is produced by gas while the remaining 32% is produced by oil. Overall, the share of GCC countries in the renewable section is almost negligible. At the same, in other parts of the world, research is in progress to explore how to meet the full energy requirement of cities through renewable sources [26, 27]. Thus, it is obviously clear that a huge emission could be expected from these countries when all of its energy requirements will be met from fossil fuels.
Electricity consumption and CO2 emission per capita in GCC countries [
Different estimates show that 0.0016 barrels of oil is required to produce 1 kWh of electricity and one barrel of oil produces 0.43 tons of CO2 [28, 29]. To clarify the situation more effectively, the total electricity consumption per capita in the GCC region is 77376.349 kWh and the total CO2 emission in this region is 152.2 ton (=152,200 kg). In other words, the CO2 production per capita per kWh in the GCC region stands at 1.97 kg (1.97 kg/kWh). This further reveals that the CO2 production for China (=1.90 kg/kWh) and United Kingdom (1.26 kg/kWh) is lower than the GCC region. As shown in Figure 4, the high consumption of natural resources has derailed the progress of both the relevant goals of UN SDGs, Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and Goal 13 (Climate Action). On the other hand, Denmark which is ranked first in terms of progress toward UN SDGs has achieved a score of 90.20 (out of 100) in Goal 13 [30].
Goals 12 and 13 score of different GCC countries.
The move of the GCC region toward renewable energy may change these figures and could enable the region to reduce its emission per kWh. Oman has particularly low oil and gas reserves, therefore, it is important for the country to take advantages from other resources that are available and can be used for electricity production so that that the pressure on its oil and gas reserves can be reduced and as such can stay for long [31]. Despite the fact that Oman has comparatively low oil and gas reserves, its progress toward renewable recourses is low [32]. Similarly, both the Omani visions 2020 and 2040 stress to reduce the dependency on the oil and gas revenue and on the action plan mentions that improve MSW collection service. These visions also emphasize that improved MSW collection and disposal system are mandatory to reduce the impact on the natural environment [33, 34].
One of the resources that have been used by many countries to produce electricity is waste. For instance, Japan is using 72% of its waste to produce energy, while the United States is using approximately 13% of the waste for the same purpose. The top leading countries around the world which are using waste for energy production along with the percentage of the waste they are using for such purpose as shown in Figure 5. There is an opportunity for Oman to take advantage of the waste-to-energy technique and produce a share of its energy requirement from the MSW as other countries are doing. This will not only help to reduce the burden of the Oman oil and gas reserves but will also help to minimize MSW impact on the natural environment.
Percentage of waste that is used for energy production in different countries [
There are three types of combustion technologies that can be used to produce energy from MSW [36]. The mass-burn facilities are the most common type of waste-to-energy plants installed in the United States [37]. In some types of plants, it is necessary to segregate the MSW before it is moved to the combustion chamber while in other it is not necessary. The segregation of waste before entering the burn unit allows extracting the recyclable materials from the waste [38]. In most cases, the mass-burn facilities are made to burn the waste in one burning chamber allowing excess air. In the combustion process, excess air must be allowed to promote turbulence and mixing so that air can reach all waste. This process is important due to the inconsistent composition of MSW. In a common mass-burn plant, the MSW is burned in a sloping and moving grate. The vibration allows the blending of MSW and helps it to mix with air. Similarly, the modular systems are made to combust the unprocessed and mixed waste. Such plants are quite smaller when compared with the mass-burn unit and therefore can be moved from one site to another site easily [39]. The third type of waste-to-energy plants are known as “Refuse Derived Fuel Systems.” Such plants apply mechanical systems to segregate the MSW and allow only combustible materials and mixtures to be used in the furnace or in a conventional boiler system [40, 41].
The research methodology used in this research is explained in the next section.
Both the qualitative and quantitative research strategies were employed to obtain the aims and objectives set for this research. Since the quantity and the composition of the MSW are important to know energy content and emissions, therefore, the samples of MSW were collected from different households. To know the composition of the MSW in Oman, a total of 238 samples collected from 25 residential houses (175 samples), four restaurants (28 samples), three shopping markets (21 samples), and two hotels (14 samples) as shown in Table 1. The houses were selected in a way so that the reliability could be achieved. Thus, the houses with the family members of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 were considered for data collection. Samples of waste were collected from each house on a 24-hour basis. The same approach was adopted to collect the samples from restaurants (four numbers), shopping markets (three numbers), and hotels (two numbers). The samples were collected on each day of the week. The samples were deposed in the municipality collection point after recording the required data. Every morning the samples were collected, segregated, and measured. The data collection was completed in 2 months, from June 27, 2019 to August 26, 2019. The segregation method adopted was according to the criteria followed in the 3R projects implemented by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in Hanoi [42, 43, 44].
Type of entity | Number of samples per day (24 hours) | Number of days samples were collected | Number of entitles used for sample collection/interview | Total samples |
---|---|---|---|---|
Residential houses | 1 | 7 | 25 (one sample from each houses with family members of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) | 175 |
Restaurants | 1 | 7 | 4 | 28 |
Shopping markets | 1 | 7 | 3 | 21 |
Hotels | 1 | 7 | 2 | 14 |
Total: | 34 | 238 |
MSW samples collection approach.
Additionally, the residents’ willingness and participation in recycling activities were captured through an interview conducted at the time of sample collection. A total of 34 interviews, 25 from residential houses, four from restaurants, three from shopping markets, and two from hotels were conducted. The sample used to know the residents’ willingness and participation was considered appropriate as there is evidence in the existing literature that similar studies were conducted with much smaller samples. For instance, Mason [45], in his research entitled “Sample Size and Saturation in Ph.D. Studies Using Qualitative Interviews,” reported the result of 560 studies and noted that the most common size of the sample in these studies was 20. Similarly, Umar [46], while developing an integrated approach to promote sustainability in university campuses, used a sample of 20 respondents. Although the questionnaire used for this purpose was prepared in English, due to the diversity of the respondents, the interview process was deemed fit to the respondents. Overall, 45% of the residents in Oman are expatriates and the majority of them belong to some Asian countries [47]. The participants in the data collection were therefore interviewed in the local language so that there could be no communication barriers.
The environmental performance of the current approach of MSW management was measured through the emissions produced by landfills. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 model is used to calculate GHG emissions from landfills [48]. IPCC model is an international model used by The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) member countries to report the national GHG inventory. Eq. (1) is used to calculate the CH4 emission from landfills. Similarly, for the environmental performance of waste-to-energy approach, different parameters such as emissions per tons, reduction in landfills, and energy production and social indicators such as employment were considered. For instance, Eq. (2) was used to determine the emissions from crude oil when used in electricity production. In the comparison of emissions from both scenarios, landfilling and waste-to-energy approach, the emissions produced from the transportation of waste were ignored. Such emissions include the GHG emission from the transportation of waste from the collection point to the recycling facility for which trucks are commonly used [49].
where CH4 = methane emission in Gg/year (1 Gg = 109 g; 1 Gg = 1000 ton), MSW(Land Fill) = total amount of MSW in the landfill in wet weight basis (Gg/year), MCF = CH4 correction factor—value used in the calculation = 0.6, DOC = the fraction of degradable organic carbon in MSW (Gg C/Gg MSW)—value used in the calculation = 0.2455, DOCf = the fraction of DOC that can decompose (fraction)—value used in the calculation = 0.77, F = the fraction of CH4 in generated landfill gas—value used in the calculation = 0.5, R = the recovered CH4 (Gg/year), 16/12 is the molecular weight ratio CH4/C—value used in the calculation = 0, and OX = the oxidation factor—value used in the calculation = 0.
where
Similarly, the electricity content and emissions from the MSW was established considering the existing literature. Different keywords such as “electricity content in MSW,” “energy production from MSW,” “waste-to-energy plant,” and “emissions from energy to waste” were used in the main search engines. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were adhered to during the review process [51]. Different results associated with the electricity content and emissions from waste-to-energy plants were obtained from the systematic review. For instance, in the United States, there are 68 waste-to-energy power plants that produce about 14 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity using 26.76 tons of combustible MSW [52]. In other words, the energy or electricity content per tons of MSW in the United States is approximately 586 kWh. The waste-to-energy plant installed in Qatar which has a capacity of 2300 tons per day produces 50 Mega Volt Amp (MVA) which is equal to 40,000 kWh per day [53]. Similarly, the statistics issued by Waste Management World indicates that electricity production from MSW can be up to 875 kWh per ton of MSW processed in a waste-to-energy plant [54]. The calculation presented in this chapter, however, considers a value of 586 kWh per MSW used in a waste-to-energy plant, keeping in mind that this value is from the United States which uses the same types of waste to plant as proposed in this research.
The total waste which is burned for energy recovery in the United States currently stood at 12.70% of the total waste. Apart from producing energy, the burning of waste can reduce the volume of waste by 90%. Similarly, a recent waste-to-energy plant constructed in Ethiopia uses the same approach of burning waste to produce electricity. The collected waste is kept for 5 days to allow the moisture to seep out and then burning the waste at 1000°C to turn it to heat energy to run the steam turbine [55]. The latest and modern waste-to-energy plant can reduce the emissions (CO2) ranging from 100 to 350 kg CO2 equivalent per ton of the MSW used [56]. An average emission reduction value of 225 kg CO2 equivalent to per ton of MSW can be used to measure such reduction in emission; however, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States reveals that the burning of 1 ton MSW in a waste-to-energy plant results in 1 ton of less CO2 when compared to the common practice of landfilling [57]. The potential reduction in emissions between landfilling and waste-to-energy plants investigated by Wang et al. [58] in China noted that such reduction can be more than 1000 kg per ton. Similarly, the study conducted by Obermoser et al. [59] to establish a reliable CO2 value from waste-to-energy plant noted that CO2 emission can be in the range of 30–67 kg CO2 per Giga Joule which can be translated into 0.175 kg CO2 per kWh.
The next section describes the results and analysis made from the data collected in Section 3.
Considering the different aspects of the results and analysis, this section is divided into different subsections. The first subsection describes the results and analysis of the MSW composition and the public participation in the MSW segregation.
As noted in Section 3, a total of 175 samples were collected from the residential houses. These samples were used to determine the MSW generation per capita. The results show that the mean weight of the MSW samples was 1.3 ± 0.28 kg/per capita. Currently, as of May 2020, the total Oman population stands at 4,613,726, which can be translated into a total of 5998 tons MSW generation per day in Oman [60]. Similarly, the whole samples collected from the residential houses, restaurants, shopping markets, and hotels were used to determine the MSW composition in Oman. This composition is reported in Figure 6. Overall, the composition of the MSW represents a good percentage of waste that can be combustible and suitable to be used in a waste-to-energy plant to produce electricity.
Composition of MSW in Oman.
During the MSW sample collection process, the inhabitants were asked about their cooperation and participation in the waste segregation activities. The willingness of the residents was considered important as this may be helpful to transfer only the MSW that is suitable to be used in the waste-to-energy plant. In other words, when the residents will segregate the waste at their own, the process at the waste-to-energy plant will become more straightforward as it will receive only the waste which could be used in the plant. A total of 34, consisting of 67.64% male and 32.35% female face-to-face interviews were conducted during this stage. All the participants appraised the idea of using MSW for electricity generation. A large number of the interviewees (70.58%) agreed that they are willing to participate in the segregation of the MSW at their doorsteps. The remaining participants did not answer as no but they were somehow not sure how they can do such segregation. Overall, the majority of the respondents (79.94%) noted that they required some sort of training and tools to do such tasks in their homes.
The next section outlines the emission from MSW considering the landfilling scenario.
To calculate the emissions from MSW using Eq. (1), DOC for different waste materials was obtained from the IPCC and the Atmospheric Brown Clouds Emission Inventory Manual (ABC EIM). Based on these two documents, the DOC paper = 0.25, DOC food = 0.4, DOC textile = 0.25, and the DOC rubber = 0.39 were considered. The average DOC value was calculated based on the above values and waste fraction as shown in Figure 6. The final DOC value used in the calculation, therefore, stands at 0.2455. The total MSW waste considered in this calculation was equal to 2,159,219 tons per year or 2159 Gg per year. This MSW produces a total of 163,060 Gg/year CH4 which is equal to 3,424,247 tons/year CO2 equivalent. This can be translated into the emissions produced 1 ton, which can be equal to 1.58 ton per year CO2 equivalent per ton of MSW.
The next section describes the electricity consumption, production, and emissions produced by such consumption and production.
In terms of electricity production, Oman is using both oil and gas to meet its electricity requirement. As noted in Figure 3, the current consumption of electricity per capita in Oman is 15,309.4 kWh per year that can be translated into total energy consumption by multiplying this figure with the total population of Oman (15,309.4 × 4,613,726), which gives a total consumption of 70,633.37 million kWh per year. To calculate the emissions from electricity production through oil and gas, 70% of the electricity production is considered to be from oil, and 30% is considered to be from natural gas. These percentages were taken from the study conducted by the Authority of Electricity Regulation in Oman [61]. The EIA guidelines were used to establish the emissions both from oil and gas when used for electricity production. As per these guidelines, to produce 1 million British thermal units (btu) energy which is equal to 29.31 kWh from oil, a total of 161.30 pounds (=73.16 kg) of CO2 is produced. Similarly, if the same amount of energy is produced from gas, then the total emissions will be equal to 117.0 pounds (53.07 kg). The emissions from electricity production in Oman considering both oil and gas are therefore calculated as follows:
Emissions for 29.31 kWh from oil = 73.16 kg CO2.
Emission for 49,443.35 million kWh =
Emissions for 29.31 kWh from gas = 53.07 kg CO2.
Emission for 21,190.01 million kWh =
Overall, the emission from MSW and electricity production in Oman is therefore equal to 165.205 million tons CO2 per year.
The next section presents different parameters of energy production from MSW in Oman.
The composition of MSW presented in Figure 6 shows that more than 50% of the MSW can be classified as combustible materials suitable for use in waste-to-energy plants. This indicates that a total of 1,079,610 tons per year (~3000 tons per day) of MSW can be used in waste-to-energy plants. The United States Energy Information Administration statistics indicate that 85% of the MSW can be burned in a waste-to-energy plant to produce electricity. Similarly, in some cases, the segregations of the waste are also not required as some of the latest plants known as the mass-burn waste-to-energy plant can process all the waste together. As shown in Figure 7, such plants have the capacity to segregates the waste such as metals, ash. The pant can also segregate the food waste and other organic waste that can be used in landfilling or for composting. Similarly, the separated ash can also be used as aggregates in construction works. These plants can also be classified based on their daily capacity. After reviewing the total waste-to-energy plants manufactured and installed by Deltaway Energy, these plants are found to have a capacity from 68 tons per day to 4900 tons per day [62]. To ensure a realistic estimate for the waste-to-energy plant, the MSW produced in different governorates were considered. As noted in Table 2, Muscat governorate, which is also the capital of Oman, is on the top of the waste production having a waste production capacity of 1905 tons per day. If Muscat, North AlBatinah, Al-Dakhiliya, South AlBatinah, South AlSharqiya, North AlShariqiya, and Al-Dhahirah governorates which are somehow close to each other (as shown in Figure 8) are considered, then the total production of waste will be equal to 5000 tons per day. Of course, these are 2017 data, and the population of these governorates will increase, the MSW production in these governorates will also increase. For instance, based on World Bank statistics, Oman’s population increased at a rate of 3.4% per year [64]. Based on this indicator, the 2020 waste production in different governorates can be calculated using Eq. (3).
A typical waste-to-energy plant.
Governorates | Waste production ton per year (2017) | Waste production ton per day (2017) |
---|---|---|
Muscat | 685,654 | 1905 |
North AlBatinah | 336,791 | 936 |
Al-Dakhiliya | 330,185 | 917 |
Dhofar | 330,884 | 919 |
South AlBatinah | 150,038 | 417 |
South AlSharqiya | 98,372 | 273 |
North AlShariqiya | 98,372 | 273 |
Al-Dhahirah | 106,055 | 295 |
Al-Buraiymi | 154,374 | 429 |
Al-Wusta | 9799 | 27 |
Waste generation in different governorates of Oman [63].
Oman map showing different governorates.
where MSW(future) = the MSW generation in future (for instance in 2020) for Muscat governorate, MSW(Current) = the MSW generation in future (for instance in 2017) for Muscat governorate, i = annual growth rate (decimal)—in this case, it can be 0.034, and n = number of years projected into future—in this case, it will be 3 years.
Based on the above parameters and using the equation, the Muscat governorate MSW production in 2020 will be 757,996 tons per year, which was 685,654 tons per year in 2017.
As noted in Section 3, 1 ton of MSW in the United States has the potential to produce 586 kWh, thus 5000 tons daily capacity waste-to-energy plant will be able to produce 29.30 million kWh daily. Similarly, this will help to reduce the volume of the waste that directly goes to landfills and produce emissions. Considering different parameters, the reduction of emissions through waste-to-energy plant is calculated below:
CO2 emissions from 29.30 million kWh per day when produced by oil considering emissions for 1 kWh from oil = 2.5 kg CO2 = 29.30 × 2.5 =
Emission from 29.30 million kWh per day when produced by waste-to-energy plant considering 0.175 kg CO2 per kWh [59] = 29.30 × 0.175 =
Reduction of waste emissions from landfilling, considering a reduction of 1 ton per ton of MSW.
Emissions per tons of MSW when disposed in landfilling = 1.58 ton per year CO2 equivalent per ton of MSW.
Reduction in emissions per tons = 1.58 − 1.0 = 0.58 ton CO2 per year.
Emissions from 5000 tons per year = 5000 × 0.58 =
Apart from the environmental performance of waste-to-energy plants, initial cost, operational cost, and return on investment are the key factors that the government or the investors considered in their decision. The initial cost of a waste-to-energy plant can be established considering its daily waste capacity. The Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERTC) has established the initial cost of a waste-to-energy plant at a rate of US$200,000 per daily ton of capacity. As the plant considered in the research has a capacity of 5000 tons per day, thus the initial cost of the plant can be estimated at US$1000 million [65]. Similarly, a 1000 ton daily capacity of the plant would require a total of 60 personnel, thus at this rate, a 5000 ton daily capacity plant would be able to generate employment for 300 workers. The operating costs of waste-to-energy plants in China are calculated at approximately US$30 per tons [66]. Depending on the life span of the plant, the operation cost can be up to 85% of the plants’ total costs. If the plant has an estimated life of 40 years, then the cost of supply and construction can be 14% and the management and feasibility cost can be up to 1% of the total costs of the plant [67]. The research conducted by Carneiro and Gomes [68] established a levelized cost of electricity production from waste-to-energy plant at US$64–89 per MWh. Similarly, the profit margin of a waste-to-energy plant can be up to 25% while the return on investment can be up to 18%. The payback period of such a plant is normally 13 years with an internal rate of return up to 11% [66]. The research conducted by Kaplan et al. [69] in the United States estimated the average cost of electricity production from MSW at a rate of four cents per kWh with average revenue of US$25 per tons of MSW used in a waste-to-energy plant.
The next section provides a discussion and conclusion of the research.
It is been now well recognized that the earth resources need to be utilized in a sustainable manner as there is no other plant to live in. The UN SDGs and the Paris Agreements are some of the main indicators which reflect the commitment of world leaders toward sustainability. The main sustainability indicators such as energy and wastes are recognized so importantly that they have been placed among the 17 goals that the UN aims to achieve by 2030. The access to clean and modern energy does not mean that the people on the earth should be able to cook their food with gas or electric oven rather than burning the wood. This is one of the aspects, but the scope of clean energy is quite vast. It is not only to ensure access to clean and affordable energy but also to ensure the sustainability of such energy. For instance, making energy from fossil fuel is not sustainable because of two reasons. First, fossil fuels are not guaranteed to be available forever, and second, the emissions produced by such resources have other negative impacts that cause climate change and global warming. Even though, there is still doubt among the society that an increase of 1°C in the earth temperature is not a big issue. But in reality, such an increase creates a big difference by melting the glacier in the north and south poles. Such melting of glaciers not only expands the sea and but also disturbs the natural distribution of the dry and water portions on the earth’s surface. The change in the natural distribution of wet and dry portions on the earth can cause the load variations on the earth plates which can increase the earthquakes. Apart from this phenomenon, the glacier on the earth’s surface helps to reduce the temperature of the lower plates of the earth and thus reduce the chances of volcanic actions. It is therefore important to move toward renewable and sustainable resources for energy. Globally, some countries have reflected good progress in adopting renewable and sustainable energy resources, but in other countries including the GCC region, such progress is quite low.
Similarly, the UN under its Goal 12, which is related to the consumption of earth resources and production, aims to minimize the effect of such consumption and production. The waste produced during consumption and production has somehow similar effects as fossil fuels have. Such waste, if not properly disposed and recycled, will produce emissions and will utilize a large area on the earth’s surface that can be used for some other purposes. Currently, the waste produced per capita in different countries is not only non-sustainable, but in most countries, there is no proper arrangement of recycling of such waste. In this regard, the GCC countries not only produce the highest amount of waste per capita (~1.77 kg per capita per day), but in most of these countries, landfilling is the common practice to dispose such waste. In all GCC countries, there is only one waste-to-energy plant in Qatar which has a capacity of 2300 tons per day, while the productions of MSW in all GCC countries currently stand at 93,430 tons per day.
This chapter, therefore, attempted to present a comparative study by considering the electricity production from waste-to-energy plants, considering the current electricity production and MSW generation. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were utilized to achieve the aims and objectives of this research. The samples of the MSW collected from different entities including residential houses, shopping markets, hotels, and restaurants indicate a good volume (~50%) of combustible waste that can be used in a waste-to-energy plant. More than 70% of the interviewees confirmed that they are willing to segregate their MSW. The results further show that the current MSW generation in Oman stands at 1.3 ± 0.28 kg/per capita. This value and the current population of Oman are used to determine the total daily MSW generation in Oman. Since landfilling is used to dispose the total waste in Oman, the IPCC and ABC EIM guidelines were used to estimate the emissions from the total MSW. These calculations indicate the emission of 3,424,247 tons CO2/year or 1.58 tons CO2 per year per ton of MSW. Currently, Oman is producing 70% of electricity from oil and 30% from natural gas. The emissions from current electricity consumption (~70,633.37 million kWh per year) is estimated at 161.781 million tons CO2 per year. If the emissions from the MSW are also added to this emission, then the total emission from electricity consumption and MSW generation in Oman will be equal to 165.205 million tons CO2 per year. Considering the current energy consumption, MSW generation, and emissions from these variables, a waste-to-energy plant that has a capacity of 5000 tons per day is proposed to use the waste from Muscat, North AlBatinah, Al-Dakhiliya, South AlBatinah, South AlSharqiya, North AlShariqiya, and Al-Dhahirah governorates. Apart from producing 29.30 million kWh daily, this plant will be able to significantly reduce the emissions from the MSW and electricity production in Oman. The reduction in emission from this waste-to-energy plant is estimated at 24,527 million kg CO2 per year. Similarly, this plant will be able to provide jobs for at least 300 personnel. The literature review suggests that the initial costs of such a plant with a capacity of 5000 tons per day can be equal to the US$1000 million. Similarly, the operating costs can be up to the US$30 per tons of waste used in the plant. Currently, the progress of Oman toward a number of UN SDGs is not satisfactory. Such an initiative of waste-to-energy plants will help Oman to improve its performance in a number of areas, including energy, climate change, waste management, and economic growth.
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El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5978",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"129c29bcddd8225ed58e908138b2cda5",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",bookSignature:"Ricardo Loiola Edvan and Leilson Rocha Bezerra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5978.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"283266",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Loiola Edvan",slug:"ricardo-loiola-edvan",fullName:"Ricardo Loiola Edvan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55856",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69616",title:"Halophytes as Forages",slug:"halophytes-as-forages",totalDownloads:1481,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"It is the chemical composition of the halophyte forages and the digestion process of these forages that matter. As the science gets more advanced and the information about these two points becomes clearer, the view of this information might modify our understanding to these processes. Then, some topics might be dropped, and others might be raised or become more obvious. However, the feeding of halophyte forages as per se has several drawbacks and therefore, they have to be fed in mixed rations, fortifying these rations with energy supplements.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Salah A. Attia-Ismail",authors:[{id:"204190",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Salah",middleName:"Abdelaty",surname:"Attia-Ismail",slug:"salah-attia-ismail",fullName:"Salah Attia-Ismail"}]},{id:"72082",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92303",title:"Revalorization of Coffee Waste",slug:"revalorization-of-coffee-waste",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"One of the household methods most used to prepare the coffee beverage is the coffee dripping method, which generates millions of tons of coffee waste (CW). Its disposition without control causes environmental matters due to the high consumption of oxygen during its discomposing process. However, the high availability, low cost, and chemical composition of CW (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, ashes, protein, aliphatic acids, fats, and water) make them useful material for obtaining added-value products and bioenergy. In this chapter, the state of the art of different sustainable alternatives to revalorize CW is shown. CW has been successfully applied as an adsorbent for removing pollutants from wastewater and gas, a precursor for obtaining activated carbon, and a feedstock for producing energy and valuable products using mono-process extraction and biorefinery.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Felipe J. Cerino-Córdova, Nancy E. Dávila-Guzmán, Azucena M. García León, Jacob J. Salazar-Rabago and Eduardo Soto-Regalado",authors:null},{id:"56029",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69614",title:"Production of Spineless Cactus in Brazilian Semiarid",slug:"production-of-spineless-cactus-in-brazilian-semiarid",totalDownloads:1875,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The term “spineless cactus” is used in Brazil to designate cultivars of Opuntia ficus indica Mill and Nopalea cochenillifera Salm Dyck. The spineless cactus was consolidated in Brazilian semiarid as a strategic fundamental food resource in several production livestock systems, constituting a plant with enormous productive potential. Thus, the spineless cactus has been widely cultivated and used for several decades, by enabling the animal feeding in critical periods of year because of its characteristics, morpho‐anatomical and physiological (CAM), which makes it tolerant to long droughts, being a crop that presents high productivity in droughts conditions, when compared to other forages. Nevertheless, the spineless cactus is a crop relatively picky about soil and climate characteristics of region, presenting greater growth in fertile soils, as well as in regions where nighttime temperatures are cool and the air humidity is relatively high. Although the crop be adapted to long droughts periods, many times it’s necessary to perform irrigation in its production system, mainly in regions of low rainfall, for to supply its water needs, thus ensuring productivity and survival of crop. Therefore, the knowledge of characteristics of plant, as well as of appropriate management techniques to crop, is essential for the good performance of spineless cactus.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Wilma Cristina Cavalcante dos Santos Sá, Edson Mauro Santos,\nJuliana Silva de Oliveira and Alexandre Fernandes Perazzo",authors:[{id:"139631",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"edson-mauro-santos",fullName:"Edson Mauro Santos"},{id:"180036",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"juliana-oliveira",fullName:"Juliana Oliveira"},{id:"203022",title:"MSc.",name:"Wilma",middleName:null,surname:"Sá",slug:"wilma-sa",fullName:"Wilma Sá"},{id:"207265",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Perazzo",slug:"alexandre-perazzo",fullName:"Alexandre Perazzo"}]},{id:"69900",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89508",title:"Coffee By-Products: Nowadays and Perspectives",slug:"coffee-by-products-nowadays-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most consumed products around the world; 2.25 billions of coffee cup are consumed everyday in the world. For coffee crop production, different by-products are produced, such as coffee peel, coffee husk, parchment, and spent coffee grounds. These by-products have several problems associated at the final disposition. In this book chapter, we study the main coffee varieties produced in the world, the by-products produced, and its composition and finally assess the potential of supramolecular solvents (SUPRAS) and water as green solvents for high-added-value compound extractions. Bioactive compounds were extracted from fresh and dried coffee peel in an acceptable rate for industrial applications. SUPRAS offer advantages in terms of rapidity (5 min) and simplicity (stirring and centrifugation at room temperature), thus avoiding costly processes based on high pressure and temperature. Extractions carried out using water as solvent is another technique of extraction mixing temperature (above 60°C) and time (4.5 min) obtained a beverage or solution with presence a bioactive compounds how caffeine, chlorogenic acid and polyphenols.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Laura Sofía Torres-Valenzuela, Johanna Andrea Serna-Jiménez and Katherine Martínez",authors:null},{id:"70151",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89224",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71528",title:"A Detail Chemistry of Coffee and Its Analysis",slug:"a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis",totalDownloads:2249,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This review article highlights the detailed chemistry of coffee including its components; chemical constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and caffeine; aromatic principles; oil and waxes; and minerals and acids. The high extent of caffeine can be found in the coffee plants; hence, in the second part of the study, various analytical methods are designed for the proper identification, separation, optimization, purification, and determination of caffeine present in coffee, tea, and marketed coffee. These analytical methods are appropriated for the separation and quantification of caffeine. The various analytical methods include spectroscopy methods like UV, IR, and NMR spectroscopy; chromatographic methods like paper, TLC, column, HPLC, and gas chromatography; and hyphenated techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS, and GC–MS/MS. This article compares and contrasts the amount of caffeine by various analytical methods.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Hemraj Sharma",authors:null},{id:"70151",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1719,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"72400",title:"Factors Affecting Efficiency of Vegetable Production in Nigeria: A Review",slug:"factors-affecting-efficiency-of-vegetable-production-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:779,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vegetables are important for maintenance of good health; their production and marketing are veritable sources of employment and livelihood. To promote vegetables’ contribution to the above, there is a need for sustainable and efficient production process. The paper reviewed production, socioeconomic factors, and constraint affecting efficiency of production of three important vegetables (tomato, pepper, and onion). The review showed that socioeconomic factors found to increase technical efficiency in vegetable production were educational level, extension contact, and household size. Influence of farmer age on technical efficiency was inconclusive due to varied opinions. Increase in farm size, quantity of seed, amount of fertilizer, and agrochemical were found to have positive influence on output. Majority of the literature reviewed opined that increase in quantity of labour raises productivity; however, it must be utilized efficiently. The mean technical efficiency of the vegetables varied from the southern to the northern part of the country. The cross cutting constraints in vegetables production are pest and diseases, inadequate storage facilities, and high cost of improved inputs. The study recommends increase awareness and sensitization on optimum levels of resource use for increased productivity and appropriate intervention to constraints in the value chain.",book:{id:"10142",slug:"agricultural-economics",title:"Agricultural Economics",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics"},signatures:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye",authors:[{id:"317695",title:"Dr.",name:"Iyabo Bosede",middleName:null,surname:"Adeoye",slug:"iyabo-bosede-adeoye",fullName:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye"}]},{id:"65591",title:"Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System",slug:"insect-pest-management-in-organic-farming-system",totalDownloads:2535,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. A case study of organic date palm cultivation is discussed.",book:{id:"6988",slug:"multifunctionality-and-impacts-of-organic-and-conventional-agriculture",title:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture",fullTitle:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture"},signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie"}]},{id:"69412",title:"Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops",slug:"soil-management-and-water-use-efficiency-in-brazilian-coffee-crops",totalDownloads:780,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Brazil is a world leader in coffee production. However, currently, it coexists with recurrent and severe droughts, accompanied by intense heat, strong insolation and low relative humidity. As the cultivation is carried out primarily in the rainy season, these world climate variations have affected crops yields and fruits quality, requiring innovative actions that promote efficient use of water stored in the soil. Among several soil management practices that promote a more rational use of water, deep tillage combined with liming, gypsum and fertilizer amendments lead to an increase in effective depth of coffee roots, therefore reducing water stress. Moreover, intercropping with Urochloa sp. is highly efficient in enhancing soil structure, water infiltration and plant available water capacity. Additionally, other innovative techniques and practices are also introduced in this chapter.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Bruno Montoani Silva, Geraldo César de Oliveira, Milson Evaldo Serafim, Carla Eloize Carducci, Érika Andressa da Silva, Samara Martins Barbosa, Laura Beatriz Batista de Melo, Walbert Junior Reis dos Santos, Thiago Henrique Pereira Reis, César Henrique Caputo de Oliveira and Paulo Tácito Gontijo Guimarães",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"27",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. 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Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. 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