\r\n\tBook, “Mites, Ticks and Humans", is written by keeping in vision non-availability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to medical importance of mites and ticks; ectoparasites, endoparasites and disease transmitting mites; classification, biology and epidemiology of dust mites; manifestations, diagnostics and preventions of dust mites allergy; ticks transmission of disease causing pathogens; and measures to mitigate mites and ticks. Book will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks affecting publics. The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for graduate and post-graduate level courses, teachers and researchers in entomology, pestss control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners, and other experts having interest in mites and ticks.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1ab684433f948520e8e90a2e74e2801a",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8964.jpg",keywords:"Basic biology, Diversity of lifestyles, Scabies, Mange, Ecosystem, Soil mite, Dust mites allergy, Asthma, Vectors, Dispersal or spreading modes, Pest management, Detection and survey",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272992/images/system/272992.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar, Principal Scientist, is in his thirtieth year of service with the Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab. He is also currently working for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He completed his post doctorate in 2008, funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from the Institute of Plant Protection in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. He has several hundred published papers to his credit and is recipient of the Shield award, letters of appreciation, and certificates of performance from faculty members of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. In 2010, the Zoological Society of Pakistan presented him with the Prof. Dr. Mirza Azhar Beg Gold Medal. In 2011, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology awarded him a Research Productivity Award.\n\nHis research activities focus on integrated pest management for rice, cotton, chickpea, and Brassica crops; predatory mites, ladybird beetles, Chrysoperla, Trichogramma, and parasitoids of fruit flies culturing as bio-control agents; integrated management of fruit flies and mosquitos; and other arthropod pest control methodologies. He has also researched vertebrate pest control, especially controls of rodents in field crops and storage. He was the first to explore thirty-six new species of stored grain mites belonging to eight genera, including Forcellinia, Lackerbaueria, Acotyledon, Caloglyphus, and Troupeauia in the Acaridae family; and Capronomoia, Histiostoma, and Glyphanoetus in the Histiostomatidae family. He also planned and designed research trials on the integrated management of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCV), pest scouting, pest monitoring, and forecasting. He conducted training of progressive farmers and field staff, and provided advisory services to the farmers regarding plant protection practices. He also trained pesticide dealers on the proper handling, distribution, and storing of pesticides.\n\nUnder a coordinated research program, Dr. Sarwar collaborated with other institutes to trace resistance sources for cotton, rice, gram, rapeseed, mustard plants, and stored cereals and pulses. He has supervised post-graduate research and is an external examiner for post-graduate studies. He has also organized various workshops, served as a reviewer for scientific journals, and is a member of various working committees. He is responsible for opening up a new avenue on rearing of predatory mites as bio-control agents of insects and mites pests in greenhouse and field crops.\n\t\nDr. Sarwar is an approved supervisor with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. He completed a course in Basic Management organized by the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, in 2011. He has also completed trainings in Beijing, Bangkok, Havana, and Vienna. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has several uses. This chapter will focuses on soybean nutrition and soy food products, and describe the main bioactive compounds in the soybean and their effects on human and animal health.
\n
\n
\n
2. Soybean and nutrition
\n
Soybean is recognized as an oil seed containing several useful nutrients including protein, carbohydrate, vitamins, and minerals. Dry soybean contain 36% protein, 19% oil, 35% carbohydrate (17% of which dietary fiber), 5% minerals and several other components including vitamins [1]. Tables 1 and 2 show the different nutrients content of soybean and its by-products [2]
\n
Soybean protein is one of the least expensive sources of dietary protein [3]. Soybean protein is considered to be a good substituent for animal protein [4], and their nutritional profile except sulfur amino acids (methionine and cysteine) is almost similar to that of animal protein because soybean proteins contain most of the essential amino acids required for animal and human nutrition. Researches on rats indicated that the biological value of soy protein is similar to many animal proteins such as casein if enriched with the sulfur-containing amino acid methionine [5]. According to the standard for measuring protein quality, Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score, soybean protein has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97[6]. Soybeans contain two small storage proteins known as glycinin and beta-conglycinin.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Nutrient\n
\n
\n Soybean\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Flour\n
\n
\n Protein concentrate\n
\n
\n Seed heat processed\n
\n
\n Meal solvent extracted\n
\n
\n Seed without hulls, meal solvent extracted\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Protein%\n
\n
13.3
\n
84.1
\n
37.0
\n
44.0
\n
48.5
\n
\n
\n
\n Fat%\n
\n
1.6
\n
0.4
\n
18.0
\n
0.8
\n
1.0
\n
\n
\n
\n Linoleic acid %\n
\n
-
\n
-
\n
8.46
\n
0.40
\n
0.40
\n
\n
\n
\n Crude fiber%\n
\n
33.0
\n
0.2
\n
5.5
\n
7.0
\n
3.9
\n
\n
\n
\n Calcium%\n
\n
0.37
\n
0.0
\n
0.25
\n
0.29
\n
0.27
\n
\n
\n
\n Total phosphorus%\n
\n
0.19
\n
080
\n
058
\n
065
\n
0.62
\n
\n
\n
\n Non phytate phosphorus%\n
\n
-
\n
0.32
\n
-
\n
0.27
\n
0.22
\n
\n
\n
\n Potassium %\n
\n
1.50
\n
0.18
\n
1.61
\n
2.00
\n
1.98
\n
\n
\n
\n Chlorine%\n
\n
0.02
\n
0.02
\n
0.03
\n
0.05
\n
0.05
\n
\n
\n
\n Iron (mg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
130
\n
80
\n
120
\n
170
\n
\n
\n
\n Magnesium %\n
\n
0.12
\n
0.01
\n
0.28
\n
0.27
\n
0.30
\n
\n
\n
\n Manganese(mg/kg)\n
\n
29
\n
1
\n
30
\n
29
\n
43
\n
\n
\n
\n Sodium %\n
\n
0.25
\n
0.07
\n
0.03
\n
0.01
\n
0.02
\n
\n
\n
\n Sulfur %\n
\n
0.06
\n
0.71
\n
0.22
\n
0.43
\n
0.44
\n
\n
\n
\n Copper (mg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
7
\n
16
\n
22
\n
15
\n
\n
\n
\n Selenium (mg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
0.10
\n
0.11
\n
0.10
\n
0.10
\n
\n
\n
\n Zinc (mg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
23
\n
25
\n
40
\n
55
\n
\n
\n
\n Biotein(mg/kg)\n
\n
0.22
\n
0.3
\n
0.27
\n
0.32
\n
0.32
\n
\n
\n
\n Choline(mg/kg)\n
\n
640
\n
2
\n
2.860
\n
2794
\n
2731
\n
\n
\n
\n Folacin (mg/kg)\n
\n
0.30
\n
2.5
\n
4.2
\n
1.3
\n
1.3
\n
\n
\n
\n Niacin(mg/kg)\n
\n
24
\n
6
\n
22
\n
29
\n
22
\n
\n
\n
\n Pantothenic acid (mg/kg)\n
\n
13.0
\n
4.2
\n
11.0
\n
16.0
\n
15.0
\n
\n
\n
\n Pyridoxine(mg/kg)\n
\n
2.2
\n
5.4
\n
10.8
\n
6.0
\n
5.0
\n
\n
\n
\n Riboflavin(mg/kg)\n
\n
3.5
\n
1.2
\n
2.6
\n
2.9
\n
2.9
\n
\n
\n
\n Thiamin(mg/kg)\n
\n
2.2
\n
0.2
\n
11.0
\n
4.5
\n
3.2
\n
\n
\n
\n Vitamin B12 (µg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
-
\n
-
\n
-
\n
-
\n
\n
\n
\n Vitamin E (mg/kg)\n
\n
-
\n
-
\n
40
\n
2
\n
3
\n
\n
Table 1.
Shows composition of soybean and some soybean by-product.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Nutrient\n
\n
\n Soybean\n
\n
\n
\n
\n flour\n
\n
\n Protein concentrate\n
\n
\n Seed heat processed\n
\n
\n Meal solvent extracted\n
\n
\n Seed without hulls, meal solvent extracted\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Arginine%\n
\n
0.94
\n
6.70
\n
2.59
\n
3.14
\n
3.48
\n
\n
\n
\n Glycine %\n
\n
0.40
\n
3.30
\n
1.55
\n
1.90
\n
2.05
\n
\n
\n
\n Serine%\n
\n
-
\n
5.30
\n
1.87
\n
2.29
\n
2.48
\n
\n
\n
\n Histidine%\n
\n
0.18
\n
2.10
\n
0.99
\n
1.17
\n
1.28
\n
\n
\n
\n Isoleucine%\n
\n
0.40
\n
4.60
\n
1.56
\n
1.96
\n
2.12
\n
\n
\n
\n Leucine %\n
\n
0.57
\n
6.60
\n
2.75
\n
3.39
\n
3.74
\n
\n
\n
\n Lysine%\n
\n
0.48
\n
5.50
\n
2.25
\n
2.69
\n
2.96
\n
\n
\n
\n Methionine%\n
\n
0.10
\n
0.81
\n
0.53
\n
0.62
\n
0.67
\n
\n
\n
\n Cystine%\n
\n
0.21
\n
0.49
\n
0.54
\n
0.66
\n
0.72
\n
\n
\n
\n Phenylalanine%\n
\n
0.37
\n
4.30
\n
1.78
\n
2.16
\n
2.34
\n
\n
\n
\n Tyrosine%\n
\n
0.23
\n
3.10
\n
1.34
\n
1.91
\n
1.95
\n
\n
\n
\n Threonine%\n
\n
0.30
\n
3.30
\n
1.41
\n
1.72
\n
1.87
\n
\n
\n
\n Tryptophan%\n
\n
0.10
\n
0.81
\n
0.51
\n
0.74
\n
0.74
\n
\n
\n
\n Valine%\n
\n
0.37
\n
4.40
\n
1.65
\n
2.07
\n
2.22
\n
\n
Table 2.
Shows amino acids contain of soybean and some soybean by-product.
\n
On the other hand, Soy vegetable oil is another product of processing the soybean crop used in many industrial applications. Soybean oil contains about 15.65% saturated fatty acids, 22.78% monounsaturated fatty acids, and 57.74% polyunsaturated fatty acids (7% linolenic acid and 54% linoleic acid) [7]. Furthermore, soybeans contain several bioactive compounds such as isoflavones among other, which possess many beneficial effects on animal and human health [8].
\n
Soybean is very important for vegetarians and vegans because of its rich in several beneficial nutrients. In addition, it can be prepared into a different type of fermented and non-fermented soy foods. Asians consume about 20–80 g daily of customary soy foods in many forms including soybean sprouts, toasted soy protein flours, soy milk, tofu and many more. Also fermented soy food products consumed include tempeh, miso, natto, soybean paste and soy sauce among other [9, 10]. This quantity intake of soy foods is equivalent daily to 25 and 100 mg total isoflavones [11] and between 8 and 50 g soy protein [12]. On the other hand, western people consume only about 1–3 g daily soy foods mostly as soy drinks, breakfast cereals, and soy burgers among other processed soy food forms [10].
\n
Soybean is used as the raw material for oil milling, and the residue (soybean meal) can be mainly used as source of protein feedstuff for domestic animals including pig, chicken, cattle, horse, sheep, and fish feed and many prepackaged meals as well [1]. It is widely used as a filler and source of protein in animal diets, including pig, chicken, cattle, horse, sheep, and fish feed [13]. In general, soybean meal is a great source of protein ranged from 44-49%, but methionine is usually the only limiting amino acid and contains some anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitor and hemaglutinins (lectins) which can be destroyed by heating and fermenting the soybean meal before use. Textured vegetable protein (TVP) is another soybean byproduct has been used for more than 50 years as inexpensively and safely extending ground beef up to 30% for hamburgers or veggie burgers, without reducing its nutritional value and in many poultry and dairy products (soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese). as well [1, 13, 14, 15]. The total estimates of feed consumed for broilers, turkeys, layers and associated breeders production over the world in 2006 was about 452 million tones [16]. This estimated value is calculated depending on poultry feeds containing about 30% soybean meal on average. Therefore, 136 million tones of soybean meal are used annually in poultry feeds. As a generalization, the numbers shown can be multiplied by 0.3 for an estimate of the needs of soybean meal. Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is another soybean product that can be used for infants who are allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms without side effects on human growth, development, or reproduction [17, 18, 19].
\n
There are several types commercially available of non fermented soy foods, including soy milk, infant formulas, tofu (soybean curd), soy sauce, soybean cake, tempeh, su-jae, and many more. However, fermented foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto, and tempeh, among others. Fermented soybean paste is native to the East and Southeast Asia countries such as Korea, China, Japan, Indonesia, and Vietnam [20]. Korean soy foods including kochujang (fermented red pepper paste with soybean flour) and long-term fermented soybean pastes (doenjang, chungkukjang, and chungkookjang) are now internationally accepted foods [20]. Furthermore, natto and miso are originally Japanese soy food types of chungkukjang and doenjang, respectively. China also has different fermented soybean products including doubanjiang, douche (sweet noodle sauce), tauchu (yellow soybean paste), and dajiang. Chungkukjang is a short-term fermented soy food similar to Japanese natto, whereas doenjang, kochujang, and kanjang (fermented soy sauce) undergo long term fermentation as do Chinese tauchu and Japanese miso.
\n
In general, this fermentation of soy foods changes the physical and chemical properties of soy food products including the color, flavor and bioactive compounds content. These changes differ according to different production methods such as the conditions of fermentation, the additives, and the organisms used such as bacteria or yeasts during their manufacture. These changes differ as well as whether the soybeans are roasted as in chunjang or aged as in tauchu before being ground. In addition to physicochemical properties, the fermentation of these soybean products changes the bioactive components, such as isoflavonoids and peptides, in ways which may alter their nutritional and health effects.
\n
Also, the nutritional value of cooked soybean depends on the pre-processing and the method of cooking such as boiling, frying, roasting, baking, and many more. The quality and quantity of soybean components is considerably changed by physical and chemical or enzymatic processes during the producing of soy-based foods [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. Fermentation is a great processing method for improving nutritional and functional properties of soybeans due to the increased content of many bioactive compounds. On the other hand, the conformation of soy protein (glycinin) is easily altered by heat (steaming) and salt [27]. Many large molecules in raw soybean are broken down by enzymatic hydrolysis during fermentation to small molecules, which are responsible for producing new functional properties for the final products. For example, isoflavones, which are mostly present as 6-O-malonylglucoside and β-glycoside conjugates and associated with soybean proteins, are broken down by heat treatment and fermentation [28]. In general, the chemical profiles of various minor components related to health benefits and nutritional quality of products are also affected by fermentation [29]. It is usual to heat-treat legume components to denature the high levels of trypsin inhibitors soybean [30]. The digestibility of some soy foods are as follows: steamed soybeans 65.3%, tofu 92.7%, soy milk 92.6%, and soy protein isolate 93–97% [1].
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3. Bioactive compounds of soybean
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Many bioactive compounds are isolated from soybean and soy food products including isoflavones, peptides, flavonoids, phytic acid, soy lipids, soy phytoalexins, soyasaponins, lectins, hemagglutinin, soy toxins, and vitamins and more [31]. Flavonoids are low-molecular-weight polyphenolic compounds classified according to their chemical structure into flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, catechins, anthocyanidins and chalcones [32]. Typical flavonoids are kaempferol, quercetin and rutin (the common glycoside of quercetin), belonging to the class of flavonols. Isoflavones (soy phytoestrogens) is a subgroup of flavonoids. The major isoflavones in soybean are genistein, daidzein, and glycitein, representing about 50, 40, and 10% of total isoflavone profiles, respectively. Soy isoflavones, daidzein and genistein, are present at high concentrations as a glycoside in many soybeans and soy food products such as miso, tofu, and soy milk. Soybeans contain 0.1 to 5 mg total isoflavones per gram, primarily genistein, daidzein, and glycitein, the three major isoflavonoids found in soybean and soy products [33]. These compounds are naturally present as the β-glucosides genistin, daidzin, and glycitin, representing 50% to 55%, 40% to 45%, and 5% to 10% of the total isoflavone content, respectively depending on the soy products [8]. Formononetin is another form of isoflavone found in soybeans and can be converted in the rumen (in sheep and cow) into a potent phytoestrogen called equol [34].
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Recently, there has been increased interest in the potential health benefits of other bioactive polypeptides and proteins from soybean, including lectins (soy lectins are glycoprotein) and lunasin. Lunasin is a novel peptide originally isolated from soybean foods [35]. Lunasin concentration is ranged from 0.1 to 1.3 g/100 g flour [36, 37], and from 3.3 to 16.7 ng/mg seed [38]. Soybean phytosterols usually include four major or types: β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and brassicasterol, all of which make good raw materials for the production of steroid hormones. Triterpenoid saponins in the mature soybean are divided into two groups; group A soy saponins have undesirable astringent taste, and group B soy saponins have the health promoting properties [39, 40]. Group A soy saponins are found only in soybean hypocotyls, while group B soy saponins are widely distributed in legume seeds in both hypocotyls (germ) and cotyledons [39]. Saponin concentrations in soybean seed are ranged from 0.5 to 6.5% [41, 42].
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Soybeans also contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight [43]. Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods [44, 45]. Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein and genistein [46].
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4. Soybean and health
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4.1. Beneficial effects of soybean
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Recent research of the health effects of soy foods and soybean containing several bioactive compounds received significant attention to support the health improvements or health risks observed clinically or in vitro experiments in animal and human.
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4.1.1. Effects on cancer
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Recent studies suggested that soy food (soy milk) and soybean protein containing flavonoid genistein, Biochanin A, phytoestrogens (isoflavones) consumption is associated with lowered risks for several cancers including breast [11,47,48,49,50,51,52], prostate [53,54], endometrial [52,55], lung [56], colon [57], liver [58], and bladder [59] cancers.
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Isoflavones (genistein) use both hormonal and non-hormonal action in the prevention of cancer, the hormonal action of isoflavones has been postulated to be through a number of pathways, which include the ability to inhibit many tyrosine kinases involved in regulation of cell growth, to enhance transformation growth factor-β which inhibits the cell cycle progression, as well as to influence the transcription factors that are involved in the expression of stress response-related genes involved in programmed cell death [60,61]. Other nonhormonal mechanisms by which isoflavones are believed to increase their anticarcinogenic effects are via their anti-oxidant, anti-proliferative, anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory properties [62].
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On the other hand, soy proteins and peptides showed potential results in preventing the different stages of cancer including initiation, promotion, and progression [63]. They noted that Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI), a protease inhibitor originally isolated from soybean, inhibited carcinogenesis due to its ability to suppress invasion and metastasis of cancer cells. Also, [64] found that soybean lectins and lunasin were able to possess cancer chemopreventive activity in vitro, in vivo (in human).
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Cell culture experiments have demonstrated that a novel soybean seed peptide (lunasin) prevented mammalian cells transformation induced by chemical carcinogens without affecting morphology and proliferation of normal cells [65]. Lunasin purified from defatted soybean flour showed potent activity against human metastatic colon cancer cells. Lunasin caused cytotoxicity in four different human colon cancer cell lines [66]. It has been also demonstrated that lunasin causes a dose-dependent inhibition of the growth of estrogen independent for human breast cancer [67].
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4.1.2. Effect on hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases
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Soy food and soybean protein containing isoflavones consumption lowered hypercholesterolemia [68, 69, 70, 71]. Many studies reported that soybean protein consumption lowered incidence of cardiovascular diseases [68]. Soy isoflavone suppress excessive stress-induced hyperactivity of the sympatho-adrenal system and thereby protect the cardiovascular system [72].
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Several studies reported a relation between soybean protein consumption and the reduction in cardiovascular risk in laboratory animal\'s models by reducing plasma cholesterol levels [68, 69]. Reduction in the incidence of hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases in Asian countries depending on their diets rich in soy protein was reported [73]. Another study found that the substitution of the animal protein with soybean protein resulted in a significantly decrease in plasma cholesterol levels, mainly LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol [74]. In the same way, [69] showed that after replacing animal protein with soybean protein consumption for hypercholesterolemia persons resulted in a significant decrease of 9.3% of total plasma cholesterol, mainly 12.9% of LDL cholesterol level and 10.5% of triglycerides. The health beneficial effect for replacing animal protein with soy protein consumption showed the most effective in the highest hypercholesterolemic depend on the initial plasma cholesterol levels [70, 71] without or with the lowest effects in normocholesterolemic persons.
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Several research attentions have been paid to the high dietary intake of isoflavones because of their potentially beneficial effects associated with a reduction in the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, other studies conducted out to establish whether soybean protein and/or isoflavones could be responsible for the hypocholesterolemic effects of soybean diets and therefore their beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease. By studying the effect of soy bean protein and isoflavones, [75] reported that these major components of soybean flour (soybean proteins and soybean isoflavones) independently decreased serum cholesterol. Recent study reported that soybean protein containing isoflavones significantly reduced serum total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triacylglycerol and significantly increased HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol, but the changes were related to the level and duration of intake, and gender and initial serum lipid concentrations of the persons [76].
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Some studies have shown that soybean oil effective in lowering the serum cholesterol and LDL levels, and likely can be used as potential hypocholesterolemic agent if used as a dietary fat and ultimately help prevent atherosclerosis and heart diseases [77]. Soybean oil is a rich source of vitamin E, which is essential to protect the body fat from oxidation and to scavenge the free radicals and therefore helps to prevent their potential effect upon chronic diseases such as coronary heart diseases and cancer [78]. The FDA granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease [79].
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4.1.3. Effect on osteoporosis and menopause
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Soy food and soybean isoflavones consumption lowered osteoporosis, improved bone health and other bone health problems [80, 81, 82]. In addition, consumption of soy foods may reduce the risk of osteoporosis and help alleviate hot flashes associated with menopausal symptoms which are major health concerns for women [83].
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4.1.4. Hypotensive activity
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Soy food kochujang extract consumption lowered hypertension [84]. The angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitory peptide isolated from soybean hydrolysate and Korean soybean paste enhanced anti-hypertensive activity in vivo [85], causing a fall in blood pressure compared with thiazide diuretics or beta-blockers for mild essential hypertension [86].
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4.1.5. Effect on insulin secretion and energy metabolism
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Increasing the insulin secretion followed by glucose challenge was recorded when male monkeys fed soybean protein and isoflavones [87, 88]. Flavonoid genistein, tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibited insulin signaling pathways [60]. Dietary isoflavones induced alteration in energy metabolism in human [89]. They also noted an inhibition of glycolysis and a general shift in energy metabolism from carbohydrate to lipid metabolism due to isoflavone interference.
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4.1.6. Effect on blood pressure and endothelial function
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Reduction in the blood pressure via renin-angiotensin system activity (one of the most important blood pressure control systems in mammals) was recorded by feeding rats on diet containing commercial purified soybean saponin [90]. They found that soybean saponin inhibited renin activity in vitro and that oral administration of soybean saponin at 80 mg/kg of body weight daily to spontaneously hypertensive rats for 8 weeks significantly reduced blood pressure. In addition, [91] studied the effects of dietary intake of soybean protein and isoflavones on cardiovascular disease risk factors in high risk, 61 middle aged men in Scotland. For five weeks, half the men fed diets containing at least 20 g of soybean protein and 80 mg of isoflavones daily. The effects of isoflavones on blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and urinary excretion were measured, and then compared to those of the remaining men who were fed placebo diet containing olive oil. Men that fed soybean in their diet showed significant decrease in both diastolic and systolic blood pressure. In addition, [92] found that feeding soy nut significantly decreased systolic and diastolic pressure in hypertensive postmenopausal women. On the other hand, [93] found no effect of soybean protein with isoflavones on blood pressure in hypertensive persons. Soy protein and soy isoflavones intake improved endothelial function and the flow-induced dilatation in postmenopausal hypercholesterolemia women by raising the levels of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), a regulator of the cardiovascular function [94, 95, 96, 97]. Furthermore, chronic administration of genistein increased the levels of NOS in spontaneously hypertensive rats [98, 99].
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4.1.7. Effects on platelet aggregation and fibrinolytic activity
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The effect of genistein, a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor on platelet aggregation was exhibited [100,101]. Nattokinase, a strong fibrinolytic enzyme, in the vegetable cheese natto (a popular soybean fermented Japanese food) showed approximately fourtimes stronger activity than plasmin in the clot lysis assay [102]. However, intraduodenal administration nattokinase decreased fibrinogen plasma levels in rats [103,104] and in humans [105]. In addition, soybean protein and peptides exhibited anti-fatigue activity helping in performing exercise and delaying fatigue [106], antioxidant [107,108], anti-aging, skin moisturizing, anti-solar, cleansing, and hair-promoting agent [109].
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The beneficial effect of Soy isoflavonne (daidzein) on human health extends to the prevention of cancer [110], cardiovascular disease [111]. Also, soybean isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, and their beta glycoside conjugates) showed antitumor [112], estrogenic [113], antifungal activities [114]. Soy isoflavonne (daidzein) stimulates catecholamine synthesis at low concentrations [115]. However, daidzein at high concentrations (1-100 μM) inhibited catecholamine synthesis and secretion induced by stress or emotional excitation. Recent studies recoded an improvement in cognitive function, particularly verbal memory [116] and in frontal lobe function [117] with the use of soy supplements. Glyceollins molecules are also found in the soybean and exhibited an antifungal activity against Aspergillus sojae, the fungal ferment used to produce soy sauce [118]. They are phytoalexins with an antiestrogenic activity [119].
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4.2. Harmful effects
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Despite the several beneficial effects documented of soybean consumption, there are some controversial effects claimed in recent studies on animal and human health. Soybean contains several naturally occurring compounds that are toxic to humans and animals such as the trypsin (a serine protease found in the digestive system) inhibitors, phytic acid, toxic components such as lectins and hemagglutinins, some metalloprotein such as soyatoxin and many more other biological of soyatoxin. Some studies reported high levels of protease or trypsin inhibitors (1-5% of total protein) in legume seeds such as soybean [120]. In vivo studies using rat, high levels of exposure to trypsin inhibitors isolated from raw soy flour cause pancreatic cancer whereas moderate levels cause the rat pancreas to be more susceptible to cancer-causing agents. However, the US FDA concluded that low levels of soybean protease (trypsin) inhibitors cause no threat to human health. For human consumption, soybeans must be cooked with "wet" heat to destroy the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors). Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to humans, swine, chickens, and in fact, all monogastric animals [121]. Tofu intake was associated with worse memory, but tempeh (a fermented soy product) intake was associated with better memory [122]. Isoflavones might increase breast cancer risk in healthy women or worsen the prognosis of breast cancer patients [123].
Summarizes some beneficial effects of some soybean compounds on animal and human health
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Phytic acid is also criticized for reducing vital minerals due to its chelating effect, especially for diets already low in minerals [124]. Phytic acid present in soybean seeds binds to minerals and metals to form phytate (chelated forms of phytic acid with magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc). Phytate is not digestible and impermeable molecules through cell membranes for humans or nonruminant animals. In addition, phytic acid prevents the body to use many essential minerals such as magnesium, calcium, iron and especially zinc. Unfermented soy products contain high levels of lectins/hemagglutinins. Hemagglutinin makes red blood cells unable to absorb oxygen. However, the soybean fermentation process deactivates soybean hemagglutinins and makes the amounts of lectins present in soybeans inconsiderable. However, some dried soybean products may still contain a large amount of active or toxic lectins. These lectins are believed to cause allergic in a human body. Recently, a metalloprotein named soyatoxin exhibiting toxicity to mice (LD50 7-8 mg/kg mouse upon intraperitoneal injection) was identified. Regardless of the beneficial effect of genistein, there are some controversies about safety and harmful effect of soybean food supplementation rich in genistein. Some studies reported that genistein is not safe and has harmful effects on human health. Consumption of genistein-rich soy food and supplements during pregnancy has been suggested to raise the risk of infant leukemias [125]. In addition, some researches showing stimulatory effect of genistein on proliferation of some breast cancer cells lines increase the concerning problem about the safety of genistein intake for breast cancer women [126]. Recent study reported that administration 56g soy protein powder daily caused a reduction in serum testosterone up to 4% in four weeks in a test group of 12 healthy males [127]. Finally, allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions [127]. Table (3) shows several beneficial effects reported of some soybean compounds on animal and human health.
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Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a grant from the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Kingdom of Arabia Saudi. The authors have no conflict of interest for the information presented in this review.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/42663.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/42663.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42663",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42663",totalDownloads:3776,totalViews:851,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:91,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 14th 2012",dateReviewed:"October 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 20th 2013",dateFinished:"February 6th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/42663",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/42663",book:{id:"3244",slug:"soybean-bio-active-compounds"},signatures:"Sherif M. Hassan",authors:[{id:"153181",title:"Dr.",name:"Sherif",middleName:"M",surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Sherif Hassan",slug:"sherif-hassan",email:"sherifz@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soybean and nutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Bioactive compounds of soybean",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Soybean and health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Beneficial effects of soybean",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1. Effects on cancer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2. Effect on hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.3. Effect on osteoporosis and menopause",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"4.1.4. Hypotensive activity",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.5. Effect on insulin secretion and energy metabolism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.6. Effect on blood pressure and endothelial function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.7. Effects on platelet aggregation and fibrinolytic activity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Harmful effects ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n Liu K.S. Chemistry and Nutritional Value of Soybean Components. In: Soybean: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. New York: Chapman & Hall; 1997.p25-113.\n '},{id:"B2",body:'\n Composition of Feedstuffs Used in Poultry Diets. In: National Research Council (NRC). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1994.p61-68.\n '},{id:"B3",body:'\n Derbyshire, E, Wright DJ, Boulter D. Review: Legumin and vicilin, storage proteins of legume seeds. Phytochemistry 1976:15:3.\n '},{id:"B4",body:'\n Sacks FM, Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, Harris W, Kris-Etherton P, Winston M. 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Analysis of soybean protein-derived peptides and the effect of cultivar, environmental conditions, and processing on lunasin concentration in soybean and soy products. Journal of AOAC International 2008;91(4):936-946.\n '},{id:"B38",body:'\n de Mejia EG., Dia VP. Chemistry and biological properties of soybean peptides and proteins. In: Cadwallader K. et al. (ed.) Chemistry, Texture and Flavor of Soy. USA:American Chemical Society; 2010b.p133-154. Available from http://pubs.acs.org.\n '},{id:"B39",body:'\n Shiraiwa M, Harada K, Okubo K. Composition and structure of group B saponin in soybean seed. Agricultural and biological chemistry 1991;55:911-917.\n '},{id:"B40",body:'\n Kuduo S, Tonomura M, Tsukamoto C. Isolation and structure elucidation of DDMP-conjugated soyasaponins as genuine saponins from soybean seeds. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 1993;57:546-550.\n '},{id:"B41",body:'\n Ireland, PA, Dziedzic SZ, Kearsley MW. Saponin content of soya and some commercial soya products by means of high-performance liquid chromatography of the sapogenins. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 1986;37:694-698.\n '},{id:"B42",body:'\n Berhow MA, Kong SB, Vermillion KE, Duval SM. Complete quantification of group A and group B soyasaponins in soybeans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2006;54:2035-2044.\n '},{id:"B43",body:'\n Adlercreutz H, Mazur W, Bartels P, Elomaa V, Watanabe S, Wähälä K, Landström M, Lundin E, Bergh A, Damber JE, Aman P, Widmark A, Johansson A, Zhang JX, Hallmans G. "Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease". The Journal of Nutrition 2000;130(3):658S–659S.\n '},{id:"B44",body:'\n De Kleijn MJ, Van Der Schouw YT, Wilson PW, Grobbee DE, Jacques PF. Dietary Intake of Phytoestrogens is Associated With a Favorable Metabolic Cardiovascular Risk Profile in Postmenopausal U.S. Women: The Framingham Study. The Journal of Nutrition 2002;132(2):276–282.\n '},{id:"B45",body:'\n Valsta LM, Kilkkinen A, Mazur W, Nurmi T, Lampi A-M, Ovaskainen M-L, Korhonen T, Adlercreutz H, Pietinen P. Phyto-oestrogen Database of Foods and Average Intake in Finland. British Journal of Nutrition 2003;89 (5):S31–S38.\n '},{id:"B46",body:'\n Thompson, Lilian U.; Boucher, Beatrice A.; Liu, Zhen; Cotterchio, Michelle; Kreiger N. Phytoestrogen Content of Foods Consumed in Canada, Including Isoflavones, Lignans, and Coumestan". Nutrition and Cancer 2006;54 (2): 184–201. \n '},{id:"B47",body:'\n Peterson G, Barnes S Genistein and Biochanin A. Inhibit the Growth of Human Prostate Cancer Cells but not Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Autophosphorylation. Prostate 1993;22:335-345.\n '},{id:"B48",body:'\n Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Horn-Ross PL, Nomura AMY, West DW, Kolonel LN, Rosenthal JF, Hoover RN, Pike MC. Tofu and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Cancer Epidemiological Biomarkers Preview 1996;5(11):901–906.\n '},{id:"B49",body:'\n Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Nomura AM, West DW, Kolonel LN, Horn-Ross PL, Hoover RN, Pike MC. Soy intake and risk of breast cancer in Asians and Asian Americans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1998;68:1437S-1443S.\n '},{id:"B50",body:'\n Zheng W, Dai Q, Custer LJ, Shu XO, Wen WQ, Jin F, Franke AA. Urinary excretion of isoflavonoids and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 1999;8(1):35-40.\n '},{id:"B51",body:'\n Boyapati SM, Shu XO, Ruan ZX, Dai Q, Cai Q, Gao YT, Zheng W. Soyfood intake and breast cancer survival: a followup of the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2005;92:11-17.\n '},{id:"B52",body:'\n Lof M, Weiderpass E. Epidemiological evidence suggests that dietary phytoestrogens intake is associated with reduced risk of breast, endometrial and prostate cancers. Nutrition Research 2006; 26(12):609-619.\n '},{id:"B53",body:'\n Peterson G, Barnes S. Genistein Inhibition of the Growth of Human Breast Cancer Cells: Independence from Estrogen Receptors and the Multi-drug Resistance Gene. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 1991; 179: 661-667.\n '},{id:"B54",body:'\n Jacobsen BK, Knutsen SF, Fraser GE. Does high soy milk intake reduce prostate cancer incidence? The Adventist health study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1998; 9(6):553-557.\n '},{id:"B55",body:'\n Goodman MT, Wilkens LR, Hankin JH, Lyu LC, Wu AH, Kolonel LN. Association of soy and fiber consumption with the risk of endometrial cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology 1997;146(4):294-306.\n '},{id:"B56",body:'\n Swanson CA, Mao BL, Li JY, Lubin JH, Yao SX, Wang JZ, Cai SK, Hou Y, Luo QS, Blot WJ. Dietary determinants of lung-cancer risk - results from a case-control study in Yunnan province, China. International Journal of Cancer 1992;50(6):876-880.\n '},{id:"B57",body:'\n Azuma N, Machida K, Saeki T, Kanamoto R, Iwami K. Preventive effect of soybean resistant proteins against experimental tumorigenesis in rat colon. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 2000;46(1):23–29. \n '},{id:"B58",body:'\n Kanamoto R, Azuma N, Miyamoto T, Saeki T, Tsuchihashi Y, Iwami K. Soybean resistant proteins interrupt an enterohepatic circulation of bile acids and suppress liver tumorigenesis induced by azoxymethane and dietary deoxycholate in rats. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 2001; 65(4):999–1002. \n '},{id:"B59",body:'\n Sun CL, Yuan JM, Arakawa K, Low SH, Lee HP, Yu MC. Dietary soy and increased risk of bladder cancer: The Singapore Chinese health study. Cancer Epidemiological Biomarkers Preview 2002;11(12):1674-1677.\n '},{id:"B60",body:'\n Akiyama T, Ishida J, Nakagawa S, Ogawara H, Watanabe S, Itoh N, Shibuya M, Fukami Y. Genistein a specific inhibitor of tyrosine-specific protein kinases. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1987;262:5592-5595.\n '},{id:"B61",body:'\n Zhou Y, Lee AS. Mechanism for the suppression of the mammalian stress response by genistein, an anticancer phytoestrogen from soy. Journal of National Cancer Institute 1998:9(5):381–388.\n '},{id:"B62",body:'\n Gilani G.S., Anderson J.J.B., editor. Phytoestrogens and Health. IL, USA: AOCS Press; 2002.\n '},{id:"B63",body:'\n de Mejia EG, Dia VP. The role of nutraceutical proteins and peptides in apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells. Cancer Metastasis Review 2010a; 29(3):511-528.\n '},{id:"B64",body:'\n de Mejia EG. Bradford T, Hasler C The anticarcinogenic potential of soybean lectin and lunasin. Nutrition Reviews 2003;61(7):239-246.\n '},{id:"B65",body:'\n Galvez A.F, Chen N, Macasieb J, de Lumen BO. Chemopreventive property of a soybean peptide (Lunasin) that binds to deacetylated histones and inhibit acetylation. Cancer Research 2001; 61(20):7473-7478.\n '},{id:"B66",body:'\n Dia VP, and de Mejia EG. Lunasin induces apoptosis and modifies the expression of genes associated with extracellular matrix and cell adhesion in human metastatic colon cancer cells. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 2011;55(4): 623-634.\n '},{id:"B67",body:'\n Hsieh C-C, Hernandez-Ledesma B, de Lumen BO. Lunasin, a novel seed peptide, sensitizes human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells to aspirin-arrested cell cycle and induced-apoptosis. Chemico-Biological Interactions 2010;186(2):127-134.\n '},{id:"B68",body:'\n Carroll KK. Hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis: effects of dietary protein. Fed Proc 1982;41:2792-2796.\n '},{id:"B69",body:'\n Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Cook-Newell ME. Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids. The New England Journal of Medicine 1995;333:276-282.\n '},{id:"B70",body:'\n Crouse JR III, Morgan T, Terry JG, Ellis J, Vitolins M, Burke GL. A randomized trial comparing the effect of casein with that of soy protein containing varying amounts of isoflavones on plasma concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins. Archives of Internal Medicine 1999;159:2070-2076.\n '},{id:"B71",body:'\n Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Jackson CJ, Connelly PW, Parker T, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Cunnane SC, Leiter LA, Josse RG. Effects of high- and low isoflavone soyfoods on blood lipids, oxidized LDL, homocysteine, and blood pressure in hyperlipidemic men and women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002; 76:365-372.\n '},{id:"B72",body:'\n Yanagihara N, Toyohira Y, Shinohara Y. Insights into the pharmacological potentials of estrogens and phytoestrogens on catecholamine signaling. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2008;1129: 96-104.\n '},{id:"B73",body:'\n Keys A. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Coronary Heart Disease. Cambridge, Massachusetts:. Harvard University Press;1980.\n '},{id:"B74",body:'\n Descovich GC, Ceredi C, Gaddi A, Benassi MS, Mannino G, Colombo L, Cattin L, Fontana G, Senin U, Mannarino E, Caruzzo C, Bertelli E, Fragiacomo C, Noseda G, Sirtori M, Sirtori CR. Multicentre study of soybean protein diet for outpatient hyper-cholesterolaemic patients. Lancet 1980;2:709-712.\n '},{id:"B75",body:'\n Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng H, Stillman RJ, Shay NF, Erdman Jr JW. Soy protein and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone density in postmenopausal women, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1998;68 (Suppl):1375S-1379S.\n '},{id:"B76",body:'\n Zhan S, Ho SC. Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein containing isoflavones on the lipid profile. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81:397-408.\n '},{id:"B77",body:'\n Kummerow FA, Mahfouz MM, Zhou Q. Trans fatty acids in partially hydrogenated soybean oil inhibit prostacyclin release by endothelial cells in presence of high level of linoleic acid, Prostaglandins & other Lipid Mediators 2007;84(3-4):138–153.\n '},{id:"B78",body:'\n Lu C, Liu Y. Interaction of lipoic acid radical cations with vitamins C and E analogue and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2002;406:78–84.\n '},{id:"B79",body:'\n Henkel J. Soy:Health Claims for Soy Protein, Question About Other Components. FDA Consumer (Food and Drug Administration) 2000;34 (3): 18–20. \n '},{id:"B80",body:'\n Toda, T, Uesugi, T, Hirai, K, Nukaya, H, Tsuji, K, Ishida, H. New 6-O-acyl isoflavone Glycosides from Soybeans Fermented with Bacillus subtilis (natto). I. 6-OSuccinylated Isoflavone Glycosides and Their Preventive Effects on Bone Loss in Ovariectomized Rats Fed a Calcium-Deficient Diet. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 1999a;22(11):1193-1201.\n '},{id:"B81",body:'\n Toda T, Uesugi T, Hirai K, Nukaya H, Tsuji K, Ishida H. New 6-O-acyl isoflavone glycosides from soybeans fermented with Bacillus subtilis (natto). I. 6-Osuccinylated isoflavone glycosides and their preventive effects on bone loss in ovariectomized rats fed a calcium-deficient diet, Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 1999b22:1193-1201.\n '},{id:"B82",body:'\n Messina M, Messina V. Soyfoods, soybean isoflavones, and bone health: a brief overview. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2000;10:63-68.\n '},{id:"B83",body:'\n Persky VW, Turyk ME, Wang L, Freels S, Chatterton RJ, Barnes S, Erdman JJ, Sepkovic DW, Bradlow HL, Potter S. Effect of soy protein on endogenous hormones in postmenopausal women. American Society for Clinical Nutrition 2002;75(1):145–153. \n '},{id:"B84",body:'\n Kim SJ, Jung KO, Park KY. Inhibitory Effect of Kochujang Extracts on Chemically Induced Mutagenesis. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 1999; 4:38-42.\n '},{id:"B85",body:'\n Ahn SW, Kim KM, Yu KW, Noh DO, Suh HJ. Isolation of angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitory peptide from soybean hydrolysate. Food Science Biotechnology 2000;9(3):378–381. \n '},{id:"B86",body:'\n Pool JL, Smith SG, Nelson EB, Taylor AA, Gomez HJ. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors compared with thiazide diuretics or beta-blockers as monotherapy for treatment of mild essential hypertension. Current Opinion Cardiology 1989;4:ll-15.\n '},{id:"B87",body:'\n Sites CK, Cooper BC, Toth MJ, Gastaldelli A, Arabshahi A, Barnes S. Effect of Daily Supplement of Soy Protein on Body Composition and Insulin Secretion in Postmenopausal Women. Fertility and Sterility 2007; 88:1609-1617.\n '},{id:"B88",body:'\n Wagner JD, Zhang L, Shadoan MK, Kavanagh K, Chen H, Tresnasari K, Kaplan JR, Adams MR. Effects of soy protein and isoflavones on insulin resistance and adiponectin in male monkeys. Metabolism 2008;57:S24-S31.\n '},{id:"B89",body:'\n Solanky KS, Bailey NJ, Beckwith-Hall BM, Bingham S, Davis A, Holmes E, Nicholson JK, Cassidy A. Biofluid 1H NMR-based metabonomic techniques in nutrition research - metabolic effects of dietary isoflavones in humans. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2005;16:236-244.\n '},{id:"B90",body:'\n Hiwatashi K, Shirakawa H, Hori K, Yoshiki Y, Suzuki N, Hokari M, Komai M, Takahashi S. Reduction of blood pressure by soybean saponins, rennin inhibitors from soybean, in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 2010;74:2310-2312.\n '},{id:"B91",body:'\n Sagara M, Kanda T, NJelekera M, Teramoto T, Armitage L, Birt N, Birt C, Yamori Y. Effects of dietary intake of soy protein and isoflavones on cardiovascular disease risk factors in high risk, middle-aged men in Scotland. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2004; 23:85-91.\n '},{id:"B92",body:'\n Welty, FK, Lee, KS, Lew, NS, Zhou, JR. Effect of soy nuts on blood pressure and lipid levels in hypertensive, prehypertensive, and normotensive postmenopausal women. Archives of Internal Medicine 2007;167:1060-1067.\n '},{id:"B93",body:'\n Teede HJ, Giannopoulos D, Dalais, FS, Hodgson, J, McGrath, BP. Randomised, controlled, cross-over trial of soy protein with isoflavones on blood pressure and arterial function in hypertensive subjects. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2006;25:533-540.\n '},{id:"B94",body:'\n Cuevas AM, Irribarra VL, Castillo OA, Yanez MD, Germain AM. Isolated soy protein improves endothelial function in postmenopausal hypercholesterolemic women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;57:889-894.\n '},{id:"B95",body:'\n Lissin LW, Oka R, Lakshmi S, Cooke JP. Isoflavones improve vascular reactivity in post-menopausal women with hypercholesterolemia. Vascular Medicine 2004;9:26-30.\n '},{id:"B96",body:'\n Colacurci N, Chiantera A, Fornaro F, de NV, Manzella D, Arciello A, Chiantera V, Improta L, Paolisso G. Effects of soy isoflavones on endothelial function in healthy postmenopausal women. Menopause 2005;12:299-307.\n '},{id:"B97",body:'\n Hall WL, Formanuik NL, Harnpanich D, Cheung M, Talbot D, Chowienczyk PJ, Sanders TA. A meal enriched with soy isoflavones increases nitric oxidemediated vasodilation in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of Nutrition 2008;138:1288-1292.\n '},{id:"B98",body:'\n Vera R, Sanchez M, Galisteo M, Villar IC, Jimenez R, Zarzuelo A, Perez-Vizcaino F, Duarte J. Chronic administration of genistein improves endothelial dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats: involvement of eNOS, caveolin and calmodulin expression and NADPH oxidase activity. Clinical Science 2007;112:183-191.\n '},{id:"B99",body:'\n Si H, Liu, D. Genistein, a soy phytoestrogen, upregulates the expression of human endothelial nitric oxide synthase and lowers blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Nutrition 2008;138:297-304.\n '},{id:"B100",body:'\n Nakashima S, Koike T, Nozawa Y. Genistein, a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibits thromboxane A2-mediated human platelet responses. Molecular Pharmacology 1991;39:475-480.\n '},{id:"B101",body:'\n McNicol A. The effects of genistein on platelet function are due to thromboxane receptor antagonism rather than inhibition of tyrosine kinase. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1993;48:379-384.\n '},{id:"B102",body:'\n Fujita M, Nomura K, Hong K, Ito Y, Asada A, Nishimuro S. Purification and characterization of a strong fibrinolytic enzyme (nattokinase) in the vegetable cheese natto, a popular soybean fermented food in Japan. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 1993;197:1340-1347.\n '},{id:"B103",body:'\n Fujita M, Hong K, Ito Y, Fujii R, Kariya K. Nishimuro Shrombolytic effect of nattokinase on a chemically induced thrombosis model in rat. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 1995;18:1387-1391.\n '},{id:"B104",body:'\n Suzuki Y, Kondo K, Matsumoto Y, Zhao BQ, Otsuguro K, Maeda T, Tsukamoto Y, Urano T, Umemura K. Dietary supplementation of fermented soybean, natto, suppresses intimal thickening and modulates the lysis of mural thrombi after endothelial injury in rat femoral artery. Life Sciences 2003;73:1289-1298.\n '},{id:"B105",body:'\n Hsia CH, Shen MC, Lin JS, Wen YK, Hwang KL, Cham TM, Yang NC. Nattokinase decreases plasma levels of fibrinogen, factor VII, and factor VIII in human subjects. Nutrition Research 2009;29:190-196.\n '},{id:"B106",body:'\n Marquezi ML, Roschel HA, Costa ADS, Sawada LA, Lancha AH. Effect of aspartate and asparagine supplementation on fatigue determinants in intense exercise. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 2003;13(1):65–67. \n '},{id:"B107",body:'\n Chen HM, Muramoto K, Yamauchi F, Fujimoto K, Nokihara K. Antioxidative properties of histidine-containing peptides designed from peptide fragments found in the digests of a soybean protein. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1998; 46(1):49–53. \n '},{id:"B108",body:'\n Tsai P, Huang P. Effects of isoflavones containing soy protein isolate compared with fish protein on serum lipids and susceptibility of low density lipoprotein and liver lipids to in vitro oxidation in hamsters. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 1999;10(11):631–637.\n '},{id:"B109",body:'\n Sudel KM, Venzke K, Mielke H, Breitenbach U, Mundt C, Jaspers S, Koop U, Sauermann K, Knussman-Hartig E, Moll I, Gercken G, Young AR, Stab F, Wenck H, Gallinat S. Novel aspects of intrinsic and extrinsic aging of human skin: beneficial effects of soy extract. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2005;81(3), 581–587. \n '},{id:"B110",body:'\n Birt DF, Hendrich S, Wang W. Dietary agents in cancer prevention: flavonoids and isoflavonoids. Pharmacology & therapeutics 2001;.90(2-3):157-177.\n '},{id:"B111",body:'\n Rimbach G, Boesch-Saadatmandi C, Frank J, Fuchs D, Wenzel U, Daniel H, Hall WL, Weinberg PD. Dietary isoflavones in the prevention of cardiovascular disease – A molecular perspective. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2008;46(4):1308–1319.\n '},{id:"B112",body:'\n Coward L, Barnes N, Setchell K, Barnes S. Genistein, daidzein, and their beta glycoside conjugates: antitumor isoflavones in soybean food from American and Asian diets. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 1993; 41(11):1961-1967. \n '},{id:"B113",body:'\n Doerge DR, Sheehan DM. Goitrogenic and Estrogenic Activity of Soy Isoflavones, Environmental Health Perspectives Supplements 2002;110(3):349-353.\n '},{id:"B114",body:'\n Weidenboerner, M, Hindorf, H, Jha, HC, Tsotsonos, P, Egge, H. Antifungal Activity of Isoflavonoids in Different Reduced Stages on Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Phytochemistry 1990;29(3):801-803.\n '},{id:"B115",body:'\n Liu M, Yanagihara N, Toyohira Y, Tsutsui M, Ueno, S, Shinohara Y. Dual effects of daidzein, a soy isoflavone, on catecholamine synthesis and secretion in cultured bovine adrenal medullary cells. Endocrinol 2007;148:5348-5354.\n '},{id:"B116",body:'\n Kritz-Silverstein D, Von Mühlen D, Barrett-Connor E, Bressel MA. Isoflavones and Cognitive Function in Older Women: The Soy and Postmenopausal Health in Aging (SOPHIA) Study. Menopause 2003;10(3):196–202.\n '},{id:"B117",body:'\n File SE, Hartley DE, Elsabagh S, Duffy R, Wiseman H. Cognitive Improvement After 6 Weeks of Soy Supplements in Postmenopausal Women is Limited to Frontal Lobe Function. Menopause 2005;12(2):193–201. \n '},{id:"B118",body:'\n Kim HJ, Suh H-J, Lee CH, Kim JH, Kang SC, Park S, Kim J-S. Antifungal Activity of Glyceollins Isolated From Soybean Elicited with Aspergillus Sojae. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2010;58 (17): 9483–9487. \n '},{id:"B119",body:'\n Tilghman SL, Boué SM, Burow ME. Glyceollins, a Novel Class of Antiestrogenic Phytoalexins. Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology 2010;2(4):155–160. \n '},{id:"B120",body:'\n Sastry M, Murray D. The contribution of trypsin inhibitors to the nutritional value of chickpea seed protein. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture 1987;40: 253 – 261.\n '},{id:"B121",body:'\n Circle SJ, Smith AH. Soybeans: chemistry and technology. Westport, Conn: Avi Pub. Co.; 1972. \n '},{id:"B122",body:'\n Hogervorst E, Sadjimim T, Yesufu A, Kreager P, Rahardjo TB. High Tofu Intake is Associated with Worse Memory in Elderly Indonesian Men and Women". Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 2008;26 (1): 50–57.\n '},{id:"B123",body:'\n Messina MJ, Loprinzi CL. Soy for breast cancer survivors: a critical review of the literature. The Journal of Nutrition 2001;131(11):3095–3108.\n '},{id:"B124",body:'\n National Research Council (NRC), Committee on Food Protection, Food and Nutrition Board "Phytates". Toxicants Occurring Naturally in Foods. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1973.p363–371.\n '},{id:"B125",body:'\n Hengstler JG, Heimerdinger CK, Schiffer IB, Gebhard S, Sagemuller J, Tanner B, Bolt HM, Oesch F Dietary topoisomerase II-poisons: contribution of soy products to infant leukemia? Experimental and Clinical Sciences International online journal for advances in science Journal 2002;1:8-14.\n '},{id:"B126",body:'\n Lavigne JA, Takahashi Y, Chandramouli GVR, Liu H, Perkins SN, Hursting SD, Wang TTY Concentration-dependent effects of genistein on global gene expression in MCF-7 breast cancer cells: an oligo microarray study. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 2008;110(1):85-98.\n '},{id:"B127",body:'\n Goodin S, Shen F, Shih WJ, Dave N, Kane MP, Medina P, Lambert GH, Aisner J, Gallo M, DiPaola RS Clinical and Biological Activity of Soy Protein Powder Supplementation in Healthy Male Volunteers. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 2007;16 (4): 829–833.\n '},{id:"B128",body:'\n Cantani A, Lucenti P Natural History of Soy Allergy and/or Intolerance in Children, and Clinical Use of Soy-protein Formulas. Pediatric Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 1997;8 (2):59–74. \n '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sherif M. Hassan",address:null,affiliation:'
College of Agricultural and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
It is no more news that the state or nature of tourist destinations promotes tourist inflows. This is applicable to all kinds of tourist destination not minding the location and/or ownership. Some notable tourism theories, like Sunlust and Wonderlust theory [1], pull and push theory [2] and inner-directed and out-directed theory [3], give further explanations to the position of tourist destinations in the determination of the extent of tourist inflows as a result of tourist choices. The implications being that the destination’s image and nature control over 75% of tourist choices to visit or not to visit the destination. Adequate branding and relevant sustainable management practices are among the solutions to sustainable tourism development.
Various kinds of tourist destinations abound, but emphasis here is on rural tourism which has been defined as a kind of tourism experience that has to do with visits to rural communities or villages that are separated from urban areas. Attractions that motivate such tourism experiences include sociocultural life styles and astonishing natural landscapes, among others [4, 5]. Moreover, Nwankwo et al. [6] informed that rural tourism is a motivation for self-development option for those living in the rural areas. This view was also supported by Tsephe and Obono [7] when they gave benefits of rural tourism to include foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment, opportunities for culture exposition and improved infrastructural and superstructural base, among others.
Many rural communities from various geopolitical zones of Nigeria have made frantic efforts to benefit from the gains of rural tourism, through harnessing of various tourism resources that have been lying fallow in their localities. Also many relevant academic researches and media documentations have directed the focus of these rural communities to those areas they have comparative advantage, to generate more tourist/visitors inflows to their communities. Despite these, rural tourism in Nigeria has been faced with some problems over the years, thereby depriving most of these rural communities of the opportunity to maximize the gains of rural tourism to rural development and sustainability. Among the critical aspects of these challenges is the issue of destination crisis that have ravaged the growth and sustainability of rural tourism initiatives in rural areas in Nigeria. However, this study is an attempt to seek for ways of tackling these challenges and to check various crises that have huge negative implication for sustainable tourism development in rural areas. To this regard, this study is aimed at considering the application of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management in rural Nigeria.
2. Concept definitions
There are some concepts in this study that may need further clarifications to enhance understanding of the basic argument in the study. Some of these concepts include tourist destination, tourist safety, host safety, tourism investment safety and destination safety, among others. Both the general understanding of these concepts and their peculiar understanding for the purpose of this study shall be briefly considered.
First and foremost, tourist destination has to do with a definite location with interesting tourist attractions/motivations. Such locations have the tendencies of attracting tourists and other visitors from different places. Alyward [8], Mannell and Iso-Ahola [9] and Basher and Ajloni [10] in their separate studies see tourist destination as a particular location with active pull factors for tourism experience and that of visitor experience for nontourists.
Tourist safety is another widely used concept in this study that needs clarifications. For the purpose of this study, tourist safety is defined as all the hazards and their control measures that pertain to tourists in a given tourist experience. From this definition, tourist safety is approached from two dimensions. The first looks at all the hazards and threats against the lives, properties and peace of tourists including their causes, while on a particular tourist experience. Measures have to do with all the control measures that have been designed to check those hazards whether sufficient or insufficient, active or passive or efficient or inefficient [11, 12, 13]. The state of tourist safety for a particular tourist destination is among the determining factors for the growth and sustainability of the destination.
Host safety as a concept has to do with the total state of safety for the members of the host community who are living within the tourist destination. For the purpose of this study, this safety has to do with the feeling and condition of safety of the host with respect to tourism activities in their locality. This is pertinent; hence their feeling of perilous in their environment as a result of an existing tourism project in their area could be detrimental to the growth and sustainability of such tourism projects.
Moreover, tourism investment safety is the state of safety of tourism projects or schemes in a given locality. This is comprised of safety threats, their causes and existing measures to check those safety threats, for a particular tourism project or investment. Unsafe tourism investment will not only deter further or future investments but will equally hamper sustainability of the existing tourism projects and undermine the potentialities of various underdeveloped tourism resources in a particular locality. Activities of members of the host community, dubious visitors/tourists and unchecked criminal activities can contribute to poor safety state of tourism projects.
Another notable concept used in the study is destination safety. This is quite different from host safety. Destination safety has to do with overall safety of the tourist destination. In this case, both the safety of hosts, tourists/visitors, tourist attractions, tourism projects and some other safety demands in the destination are considered. Unsafe tourism destination undermines existing and prospective tourism projects in a particular locality [6, 11, 14]. The state of safety for tourist destination has many implications for the pull factors of the destination in tourist’s perceptions and assumptions while making destination choices.
I have tried to briefly look at the definitions and meanings of some of the notable concepts in this study. The next discourse will be on rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria.
3. Rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria
Rural tourism as a concept was briefly considered in the previous subheading as a kind of tourism activity that is motivated by tourism resources in the rural areas. In such tourism activities, the “pull factors” are always from the sociocultural aspects of the people and their natural landscapes, where some natural formations like forests, caves, rivers, rock shelters and mountains, among others, form part of the pull factors. Nigeria as a nation has many rural areas with high poverty level as a result of much public and private sector concentration on the urban and semiurban areas for meaningful development and investments in the infrastructural superstructural base. Also, the incessant rural to urban migration has not helped matters as the constant desire of rural dwellers to migrate to the urban and semiurban areas has contributed to huge instability in the labour and skill force of the rural areas in the country. Agriculture and tourism are being explored to give relevance to these rural communities by boosting their economic base.
Most of the rural communities in Nigeria are blessed with notable tourism resources that have potentialities for socio-economic development if carefully harnessed. These tourism resources in the rural areas in Nigeria are classified into two: natural tourism resources and cultural tourism resources. Natural tourism resources in these rural communities include caves, rock shelters, rock overhangs, waterfalls, mountains, rivers and streams, forests and other natural formations. The cultural tourism resources include the sociocultural aspects of the people like traditional dances, notable festivals, masquerading, attractive ceremonies, food typologies, belief systems and ritual practices and traditional outfits or attire, among others.
However, some of these rural communities have harnessed some of their tourism resources for meaningful tourism development that would improve their standard of living. While some of these communities have actualized their rural tourism base and transform their respective communities to rural tourist destinations, their counterparts have not been able to achieve similar heights, thereby leaving their tourism resources in a deplorable state.
Crisis has been defined as “…negative changes in the security, economic, political, societal, or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning” ([15], p. 3). In tourism studies or management, crisis can be said to be unwanted circumstance that come with huge negativities on the tourist destination, host community, tourists, visitors, tourist attractions and tourism schemes or project in a given area. The consequences are better imagined than witnessed as it might lead to the closure or abandonment of tourism projects or schemes in a given area. In most cases huge capital investments and natural resources are lost to this situation. The causes could either intrinsic or extrinsic depending on the nature of the crisis. Intrinsic has to do with those crises that are caused from within the tourism project circle, i.e. the stakeholders and/or natural factors. The stakeholders may include members of the host community, visitors/tourists, tourism project managers, tourism project developers and tourism resources (developed or undeveloped), among others. The natural factors has to do with some unforeseen natural occurrences like earthquakes, erosion, heavy rains, weather conditions, volcanoes, land movements and some other similar natural occurrences that are not within the control of man. Then the extrinsic factors have to do with some other factors that could cause crisis that are not within the list given above. It could be persons outside of the defined stakeholders, intercommunal crisis, invaded criminal activities and legal litigations from outside the community, among others.
Crisis management on other hand has been defined as “…the overall coordination of an organisation’s response to a crisis, in an effective, timely manner, with the goal of avoiding or minimizing damage to the organisation’s profitability, reputation, or ability to operate and often involves the need to make quick decisions on the basis of uncertain or incomplete information” ([15], p. 3). In tourism management, crisis management can be said to be programmes designed and implemented to check possible crisis in tourist destinations or on tourism projects with the aim of either avoiding the crisis and its consequences or managing or controlling the consequences of both expected and unexpected crisis at tourist destinations. This view was supported by Colpofer [15] in the following lines:
CM includes the development of plans, based upon an integral approach with internal and external organizations to reduce the risk of a crisis occurring and to deal with any crises that do arise, and the implementation of these plans so as to minimize the impact of crisis and assist the organization to recover from them and restart its normal activities as quickly as possible. ([15], p. 3).
However, safety issues has been identified as among the major sources of crisis at rural tourism destinations [6, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Rural tourism projects in Nigeria of recent have been faced with multiplicity of crisis arising from safety issues. Poorly managed safety issues have given rise to high safety and risk perceptions among major actors in rural tourism projects in Nigeria and in some other sub-Saharan countries. This has sandwiched rural tourism projects in a crisis state with negative consequences on the sustainability of these tourism projects and investments. Untold consequences of crisis at rural tourist destinations in Nigeria are major concerns for the principal actors in this type of tourism. It discourages participation and involvement among these actors who may prefer to be alive and/or unembarrassed than engaging in an adventure or practice that may put his life or properties to avoidable risks. Suspension and/or refusal of rural tourism projects is a major blow for the socio-economic development of rural areas in Nigeria.
4. The concept of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management (TWaDeSS model)
Three-way destination safety solution otherwise known as TWaDeSS model is a new concept in destination management that is proposed for tackling crisis arising from safety issues at rural tourism destinations. This model is product of long-term field/research experience on rural tourism development in Nigeria. It is anchored on three variables of host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors to guarantee sustainable crisis management in rural tourism destinations. The TWaDeSS model is expected to be conducted by the developer/investors at the various stages of the rural tourism project. The model has three major stages that are to be followed accordingly by the developers/investors of tourism projects in rural areas to yield expected positive results (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The flow chart for TWaDeSS model and its application.
5. The structure and premise of TWaDeSS model
Stage I: familiarization (pre-project execution). This has to do with sustained efforts to have a prior knowledge of the three principal actors in the tourism destination (host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors) through provision of answers to some basic questions (Figure 2). The premise of TWaDeSS in this stage is anchored on the following variables and their basic questions:
Host Community: The following findings and considerations are necessary:
Communal Values: what are the indigenous values of this community? What do they hold tenaciously in common since their inception?
Communal Interest: what is their interest as a community with respect to the targeted tourism resources and rural development needs?
Hazards from Tourists/Visitors: what are the possible hazards and other hazards that are likely to be experienced from the presence of tourists/visitors in their community? And how do you intend to handle such hazards on a long-term basis?
Alternative Mechanisms: A close consideration would reveal that the targeted tourism resources serve one or more needs to the community. How do you intend to provide alternative sources to serve the need(s)? Would they appreciate or make do with the alternative provision?
Orientation and Involvement: How do you inform them of the proposed projects? How do you get them involved in the proposed project? Would they be comfortable with the nature of their involvement?
Tourism Resources: The following findings and considerations are necessary:
Nature of the Site: What is the historical background of the site? What is the expected carrying capacity of the site?
Site Values: what is the primary and secondary value of the site to the host community? Does the site have any tourism value? Is the tourism value significant enough to merit tourism development initiatives? What is the nature of tourists/visitors the site is likely to attract?
Dos and Don’ts: What are the dos and don’ts of the site? Can these dos and don’ts be managed if the site is developed? Are these dos and don’ts significant enough to deter possible site development for tourism schemes?
Hazards/Threats: What are the possible hazards the site is likely to experience from visitors/tourists. How can this be checked if developed? What are the possible threats or hazards the site may likely experience from developers? And how can they be checked to guarantee sustainability of the site and the tourism project?
Tourists/Visitors: The following findings and consideration are necessary.
Nature of Tourists/Visitors: What category of tourists/visitors is likely to be attracted to the site? What is the geographic and demographic characteristic of expected tourists/visitors? What are the possible attitudes of the expected tourists/visitors?
Hazards/Threats: What are the possible threats or hazards tourists might face at the site? What are the possible threats tourists/visitors might face from the host community? What are the possible threats tourists visitors might face from the infrastructural and superstructural provisions at the site? Are there possible threats/hazards against tourists and visitors from people outside the community? How do you check these categories of threats?
Destination Accessibility: How is tourists/visitors’ access to information pertaining to the site like? What about physical access to the site? Are there encumbrances to physical access to the site? What is the friendlier medium for access to the site? What is the level of comfort on the site for tourists/visitors as it concerns accessibility? Can tourists/visitors move alone or with guides in the destination?
Information and Orientation: What is the necessary information the tourist/visitor need to know about the site? How do you package the information? How do you put across the information? Will there be need for orientation programmes? How do you package the orientation to yield the needed result?
Figure 2.
Pre-project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
Stage II: implementation and involvement (project execution). In this stage, answers to basic questions are provided on how best to integrate these principal actors in the project implementation through involvement and other necessary considerations (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
a. Host Community: What is the role of members of the host community in the project implementation? How can they get involved to achieve sustainable result?
b. Tourism Resources: With the prior knowledge of the tourism resources arising from the first stage, there is need to make necessary considerations on the nature and value of the tourism resources during project implementation and involvement plans.
c. Tourists/Visitors: There is need to factor in the position and preference of the tourist/visitor during implementation to reduce the risk of wasteful investment.
Stage III: sustainability mechanism (post-project execution). This stage comes after the completion of the project, and the project is put to use. It targets the consolidation of the project towards ensuring its sustainability in the rural area. The five mechanisms are to focus on the three principal factors at the tourist destination (Figure 4). And the process is expected to be carefully followed from the first mechanism to the last mechanism. It has the following processes:
Figure 4.
Post-project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
d. Sustainability Mechanism 1—Consultation and Opinion Gathering Mechanism (SM-1):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
Consultation and opinion gathering mechanism is aimed at eliciting critical and genuine information on the existing project as it concerns the three principal factors with a view to evaluating the existing project in the subsequent mechanism.
e. Sustainability Mechanism 2—Evaluation and Feedback Mechanism (SM-2):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
Evaluation and feedback mechanism is targeted at evaluating the existing tourism project as it concerns the three principal actors and giving of feedback to guide future policy directions as it pertains to rural tourism projects in Nigeria and other developing nations.
f. Sustainability Mechanism 3—Restrategization and Consolidation Mechanism (SM-3):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism which comes after the evaluation mechanism is focused on addressing the major concerns of the existing project as was revealed during the evaluation. This is done from the perspectives of the three principal factors in the tourist destination (host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors).
g. Sustainable Mechanism 4—Future impact concerns (SM-4):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism is focused on impact concerns of those identified strategies as they affect the three principal actors in the tourist destination. This is expected to give direction for the final mechanism which focuses on efforts to bridge the gap between these three principal actors and the tourism project in the rural area.
h. Sustainability Mechanism 5—Dialog and Orientation Mechanism (SM-5):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism is the last of them in stage 3 of TWaDeSS model. The emphasis of this mechanism is on how to maintain cordial relationship and tolerance among the three principal actors in tourist destination. This is expected to motivate the sustainability of the existing tourism project.
6. Conclusion
Safety threats, considerations, perceptions and expectations are the major stimulus for crises at rural tourism destinations. The understanding of this fact within the confines of the three principal actors in tourist destinations is among the responsibilities of investors and developers in rural tourism projects. TWaDeSS model is proposed in this study to manage these challenges at rural tourism destination with a view to maximizing the gains of rural tourism development to rural developments in Nigeria.
The technicality in the application of this model is that it demands great attention to details. Each of the stages of the model demands through consideration and application to yield expected results. Results from the previous stage inform the nature of the next stage. Also the model will be more useful in those rural communities with respected traditional authorities. Both public and private sector investments in rural tourism projects have to understand these technicalities to have a good return on investment. The periodic use and/or involvement of stakeholders and/or constituted management committees is highly recommended; hence it will aid in establishing tolerance and coexistence among these principal actors to manage upsurge of destination crisis at the rural tourism destinations.
Efforts have been made to propose a viable model in this work to enhance the gains of rural tourism initiatives to rural development in Nigeria and some other sub-Saharan countries. Application of this model to other situations and constructive critiques would strengthen the depth of the model in rural tourism development. Each stage of this TWaDeSS model is critical and significant in sustainable crisis management at tourist destinations. It is however the principal responsibility of the developers/planners of tourism projects to follow these stages to completely eradicate crisis at tourist destinations or reduce the occurrence to the barest minimum.
\n',keywords:"crisis management, tourist destinations, destination safety, three-way safety solution, rural areas, tourist safety, rural tourism",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70464.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70464.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70464",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70464",totalDownloads:597,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 24th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 14th 2019",datePublished:"October 28th 2020",dateFinished:"December 14th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Development of tourist destinations is among topical issues in national discourse for economic growth and sustainability. The past two decades have witnessed massive development and investment in tourist destinations in rural areas. This is owing to the fact that rural tourism has been identified as among the development options for rural communities in most developing nations. Of recent, crisis and other safety issues have been among the militating factors against tourist destinations hence the cry for destination safety. These are said to emanate from the activities of the three major principals in the management of tourist destinations (hosts, tourism resources, and tourists/visitors). Incidentally, destination safety discourse is source of worry for these principal factors in tourist destination management. This has left many tourist destinations devastated, abandoned and abused. However, this chapter proposal would seek to identify the way out of this predicament. It tends to explore the meaning and application of the three-way destination safety (TWaDeSS) model in the management of crisis at tourist destinations in rural Nigeria. This will not only promote harmony among the three major principals in tourist destination but also enhance the rate of investment as a result of quality crisis control in these destinations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70464",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70464",signatures:"Elochukwu A. Nwankwo",book:{id:"7806",type:"book",title:"Public Sector Crisis Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Public Sector Crisis Management",slug:"public-sector-crisis-management",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",bookSignature:"Alexander Rozanov, Alexander Barannikov, Olga Belyaeva and Mikhail Smirnov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7806.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-982-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-981-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-983-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"233092",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Rozanov",slug:"alexander-rozanov",fullName:"Alexander Rozanov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"308906",title:"Dr.",name:"Elochukwu",middleName:null,surname:"Nwankwo",fullName:"Elochukwu Nwankwo",slug:"elochukwu-nwankwo",email:"elochukwu.nwankwo@unn.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Concept definitions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The concept of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management (TWaDeSS model)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The structure and premise of TWaDeSS model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mclntosh RW, Goeldner CR. Tourism: Principles, Practices and Philosophies. New York: Wiley; 1990'},{id:"B2",body:'Dann G. Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 1977;4(4):184-194'},{id:"B3",body:'Gnoth J. Tourism motivation and expectation formation. Annals of Tourism Research. 1977;24(2):283-304'},{id:"B4",body:'Haldar P. Rural tourism: challenges and opportunities. In: International Marketing Conference on Marketing and Society 8-10th April 2007. 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Motivating foreign tourists to visit the rural site in Jordan, village of Petra. Australian Journal of Business and Management Research. 2012;2(5):1-7'},{id:"B11",body:'Ayob NM, Masron T. Issues of safety and security: New challenging to Malaysia tourism industry. SHS Web of Conferences. 2014;12(01083):1-10'},{id:"B12",body:'Freyer WA. Tourism and terrorism: An analytical framework with special focus on the media. In: Laws B, Prideaux B, editors. Crisis Management in Tourism. Oxon: CAB International; 2007. pp. 129-141'},{id:"B13",body:'Popescu L. Safety and security in tourism case study: Romania. Forum Geografic. 2011;10(2):322-328'},{id:"B14",body:'Obieluem UH, Anozie OO, Nwankwo EA. A study on safety and security issues at selected tourist sites in eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Arts and Social Sciences (IJRASS). 2016;9(1):66-77'},{id:"B15",body:'Colpofer. Recommendations for crisis management. Paris: UIC Additional Global security program; 2017'},{id:"B16",body:'Hasan K, Ismail AR, Islam F. Tourist risk perceptions and revisit intention. A critical review of literature. Cogent Business and Management. 2017;4(1412874):1-21'},{id:"B17",body:'Wong J, Yeh C. Tourist hesitation in destination decision making. Annals of Tourism Research. 2009;36(1):6-23'},{id:"B18",body:'Wu BH, Wang X, Li MM. Chinese college students perceive the evaluation of tourism security research. Journal of Guilin Institute of Tourism. 2001;12(3):62-68'},{id:"B19",body:'Zhang JK. Optimization and empirical model of tourism risk perception. Journal of Tibet National Institute (Philosophy of Social Science). 2012;33(2):45-48'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Elochukwu A. Nwankwo",address:"elochukwu.nwankwo@unn.edu.ng",affiliation:'
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Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. 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