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M.",surname:"Lam",slug:"t.-m.-lam",fullName:"T. M. Lam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7792",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53805f091c3107536edd2579c9987649",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Geert De Cubber",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7792.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73660",title:"The Role of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) in the Pathogenesis and Complications of Malignant Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93651",slug:"the-role-of-neutrophil-extracellular-traps-nets-in-the-pathogenesis-and-complications-of-malignant-d",body:'One of the important causes of increased mortality in patients suffering from different inflammatory and neoplastic diseases is thrombosis of a large artery or vein. Recently, the attention of study groups has been drawn to the newly discovered functions of neutrophils, which confirm their significant role in not only inflammatory processes but also a number of pathological conditions, including neoplastic diseases and thrombosis [1, 2].
Neutrophils, as inherent mediators of immune defence, play an important role in various inflammatory processes [1]. Studies of the content of neutrophil granules reveal that an abundance of enzymes and macromolecules have roles in the different cellular interactions of granulocytes [3]. Enzyme-rich content reflects the active participation of neutrophils in the protective inflammatory response to bacteria, fungi and, to a lesser extent, other infections. These enzyme-mediated reactions are activated after membrane signalisation from the granulocyte plasmalemma, which possesses adhesive proteins, receptor molecules and ionic channels with pump mechanisms [4, 5]. Some receptor molecules have enzyme activity that inactivates cytokines and interleukins or activates intracellular processes for chemotactic movement of neutrophils through circulation from endothelial pores to tissues [6, 7]. Their ability to absorb pathogens and activate apoptosis through intracellular phagolysosomes is well known. After apoptosis was first described in 1972, several other mechanisms of cellular death were revealed, and decoding the paths leading to cellular death has remained a subject of discussion. In 2004, a group of scientists led by Brinkman [8] proved that stimulation of neutrophils with interleukin 8 (IL-8) or lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) causes liberation of chromatin in the extracellular space. Thus, these specific inflammatory cells release neutrophilic extracellular traps (NETs), which are formed mainly by decondensed nucleosomes and chromatin extracted from intracellular granules, such as neutrophil elastase and myeloperoxidase. So, it has been proven that neutrophils use both intracellular and extracellular mechanisms to confine infections.
The process of NET formation is called NETosis. This is characterised as a new process of cellular death that leads to chromatin decondensation, followed by cellular protein disintegration, lysis of the cytoplasm membrane and release of NETs [9]. The process of NETosis is dependent on enzyme peptidylarginine deaminase 4 (PAD4), which catalyses the transformation of histone-associated arginine residues into citrulline. It is mediated through the transformation of the α-amino group of arginine into a ketone group with subsequent chromatin decondensation [10, 11, 12].
The molecular mechanisms leading to NET formation remain unclear. According to recent data, the release of NETs in the extracellular space depends on two important processes: generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decondensation of chromatin. The production of ROS is realised by activating nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, (NADPH) oxydase as well as by including additional signal paths that mediate different forms of NETosis. The activation of protein kinase C leads to the assembly of a NOX 2 complex in the phagosome membrane and subsequent electronic transport and formation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is a powerful inductor for the generation of NETs [9, 13].
The second process leading to the formation of NETs is decondensation of chromatin. Interestingly, the additional release of lipopolysaccharides demonstrates that neutrophil elastase from azurophilic granules is the etiologic agent of this phenomenon. After neutrophil activation, the enzyme moves to the cellular nucleus and decomposes histones, particularly histone 4, while the nuclear changes and decondensation of chromatin are both proportional to the level of histone 4 decomposition [14]. This implies that the other enzyme included in the process of NET formation is myeloperoxidase [15]. An important step in NET formation is epigenetic modification of the histones, so-called histone citrullination through activation of the enzyme peptidyl-arginine deaminase (PAD4). Histone citrullination prevents histone methylation and further transcription, eventually resulting in chromatin decondensation [12, 16]. Releasing NET into the extracellular space involves a series of interconnected processes. The first process occurs when the nuclear and granular membrane disintegrates and elastase enters the nucleus; the second process involves the hypercytrulinisation of histones; the third process includes decondensation in the cytoplasm; and the fourth process transpires when the plasma membrane ruptures and nuclear material is extruded from the cell in the outer space. Certain enzymes, such as peptidyl arginine deminase type IV (PAD4), neutrophil elastase (NE) and myeloperoxidase (MPO), play key roles in the chromatin decondensation process [17, 18]. Extracellular DNA, histones and granular enzymes form a network of NETs that capture endogenous (e.g. platelets) and external (e.g. bacteria) particles. In addition, molecules are involved in the formation of HETs. Negatively charged DNA has been determined to act as the basis for NET and to interact with other NET components through a positive electrostatic charge. Although a number of studies have used PMA as an inducer of NET, the exact intracellular pathway that leads to the release of NET has yet to be determined [19, 20].
Most studies have concluded that an important autophagy process is activated in the formation of NETs. Autophagy is an anti-apoptotic mechanism that activates in response to cell stress. It occurs in order to regulate protein and organelle turnover, ensuring cell survival [21]. The protein kinase mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) negatively regulates autophagy, which is also involved in the formation of NET [22, 23]. Most studies have indicated that an important autophagy process is activated during the formation of NETs. Some intracellular signalling pathways, such as the PICK3 blocking autophagy, inhibit the release of NETS. It has been presumed that autophagy is critical to the release of NET in both infectious and non-infectious diseases, such as sepsis, familiar Mediterranean fever (FMF), gout and inflammatory-driven fibrosis [24, 25].
The main components of NETs are DNA, histones and proteases, which have pro-coagulation properties. Histones have a marked cytotoxic effect on the vascular endothelium and can induce thrombosis [26]. Sulphurous proteases, such as neutrophil elastase, inactivate the tissue factor pathway inhibitor and lead to hypercoagulation and fibrin deposition [27].
The critical role of neutrophils in the processes of tumour genesis has been emphasised in a number of publications. As inflammatory cells, they release different types of cytokines and chemokines that, through activation of intercellular interactions and modulation of the immune response, influence the tumour microenvironment [28]. In addition, the proteases secreted by neutrophils have a specific role in regulation of the proliferation of tumour cells, tumour angiogenesis and the metastasis process. Different activating cytokines [IL-8, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and tumour necrosis factor alpha], myeloperoxidase, neutrophil elastase and histone citrullination are included in the NET release process [21].
Some studies emphasise the critical role of G-CSF in tumour-induced NETosis. It is known that a major proportion of tumour cells produce G-CSF, which induces neutrophilia, a common finding in malignant diseases, which is usually related to poor prognosis. By releasing NETs, neutrophils provide a scaffold and stimulate the processes of platelet adhesion and aggregation. They are closely linked to tumour cells in vivo and in the tumour vasculature, but their role in tumour biology is still a subject of discussion.
Tumour-induced neutrophils have both pro- and anti-tumour potential. On the one hand, they secrete cytokines, generate thrombin and initiate positive feedback for stimulation of tumour growth, tumour invasion and maintenance of tumour angiogenesis. On the other hand, the anti-tumour potential of neutrophils is explained by their direct cytotoxic interaction with cancer cells, which stimulates the apoptotic decomposition of tumour cells due to their antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and favours their migration [29]. A number of studies have confirmed that tumours expressing high levels of G-CSF are powerful inductors of NETosis [30]. Also, cytokine IL-8, which is frequently expressed by different tumour cells, is described as a NET-inducing factor and has recently been proven to be essential for tumour-induced NETosis [31].
NETosis occurs in some infectious diseases as well as a number of non-infectious diseases. Some years ago, Hakkim and colleagues demonstrated that its incidence has increased in autoimmune diseases, such as lupus erythematodes [32]. Also, NETosis has recently been described to have a role in diabetes. It has been proven that hyperglycaemia is the cause of more frequent neutrophil activation and NET formation [33]. Additionally, it is assumed that NETs are included in the pathogenesis of some conditions, such as atherosclerosis [34].
The neutrophils and NETs released from them are important stimulators of thrombus formation processes in individuals with physiological and pathological conditions. Malignant diseases are risk factors for different types of thrombosis, and most often this is associated with the process of hypercoagulation as well as with increases in the capacity of activated neutrophils to form NETs. In the nineteenth century, Armand Trousseau reported the first data confirming the association of cancer with thrombosis, later called Trousseau’s syndrome. The connection between NETs and thrombosis was demonstrated later, when Fuchs and colleagues showed that neutrophil extracellular traps provide a scaffold for activation of circulating platelets [35]. Since then, NETs have been considered to be involved in thrombosis processes related to cancer, and NETosis has been suggested to be a potential target for preventing thrombotic complications in malignant diseases [36]. Higher levels of NETs in blood stimulate the development of both arterial and venous thrombi.
Tumour-induced platelets have a critical role in the process of NETs’ release. Their immunomodulating effects are partially connected to their interactions with the inherent mediators of the immune system. The hyperactive condition of platelets in individuals with malignant diseases is due to the fact that many tumours express a tissue factor that leads to fibrin formation and platelet activation [37]. Their increased activation leads to the development of thrombosis and influences tumour genesis [38]. Therefore, it is generally accepted that neutrophils and platelets are important regulators of tumour-induced NETosis.
It is established that the number of activated neutrophils and platelets increases in the presence of inflammatory and neoplastic diseases. The formation of complexes between these cells is the main mechanism that connects haemostasis with inflammatory processes [39, 40]. About 50 years ago, the phenomenon of platelets adhering to neutrophils was described and termed ‘platelet satellitism’ [41]. These complexes are observed in a number of pathological conditions, such as bronchial asthma, chronic ulcerative colitis, sepsis, rheumatoid arthritis and acute coronary syndrome [42, 43, 44, 45]. The first time these interactions were observed specifically in patients with cancer of the prostate gland was in 1975 [46]. The platelet–neutrophil complexes that were formed led to the mutual activation of platelets and neutrophils as well as the release of cytokines, exposition of adhesion molecules and receptors on the cell surface [39, 40]. This process of complex interaction is realised between the adhesion molecule P-selectin (CD62 P), which is located on the platelet surface, and the ligand P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), which is situated on neutrophils [47]. The important role of the interactions between integrated receptor molecules, such as glycoprotein 1b-IX-V and glycoprotein IIB/IIa on the platelets and alpha-M-beta-2 on neutrophils, which initiate intracellular signal transduction [48, 49, 50, 51], is emphasised. A number of studies demonstrated that activated neutrophils cause activation of platelets, similar to the way that activated platelets stimulate greater synthesis of NETs. Some interesting facts show that these circulating platelet–neutrophil complexes form the so-called ‘metastatic niche’ and accelerate the process of metastasis formation [52]. Tumour-induced NETosis is a promoter of subsequent pathological processes connected to the development and progression of cancer [53].
Some prospective studies cite data confirming increased levels of circulating platelet–neutrophil complexes in patients with myeloproliferative diseases. The correlation of these complexes with the stage of the disease, the clinical course and treatment is of great interest. It has been found that patients with advanced stages of disease have higher levels of circulating complexes in their blood. In addition, the process of neutrophil activation, which is characterised by increased membrane expression of CD11b, release of proteolytic enzymes and platelet–neutrophil aggregates, contributes to the development of thrombosis [54].
Chemotherapy is related to an increased risk of developing thrombosis, but the pathogenetic mechanisms and the cytostatic agents that modulate haemostasis have not been fully clarified [55]. It is known that some of the cytostatics (e.g. doxorubicin, epirubicin) used in therapy for malignant haemopathies and solid tumours induce tissue factor (TF) expression on the cancer cells, monocytes and the vascular smooth muscle fibres [56, 57]. Global coagulation assays are used to examine the effects of chemotherapeutic agents on the haemostatic balance, providing a good assessment of the pro- and anti-coagulant activity of these cells. Interestingly, treating patients with doxorubicin and epirubicin stimulates the expression of tissue factor and increases thrombin generation in defibrinated plasma. The procoagulant effect of anthracyclines on endothelial cells can cause an increase in the exposure of phosphatidylserine by caspase activation. Their effects on the activation of protein C have also been studied [58, 59]. To summarise, studies performed in vitro suggest that doxorubicin and epirubicin have the greatest prothrombotic potential to induce a procoagulant phenotype, as they provoke both apoptosis and NETosis.
In most publications, the preferred method to evaluate and assess the levels of circulating platelet–neutrophil complexes is flow cytometric analysis of venous blood after stimulation of the complexes with adenosine diphosphate and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. The conjugated antibody CD62 P (P-selectin) is used to assess the expression of CD11b and platelet–neutrophil complexes (CD41, CD45). Using this method, it has been established that the higher the percentage of circulating complexes in blood, the higher the risk of thrombotic complications [60].
In conclusion, it should be emphasised that neutrophils and platelets are key regulators of tumour-induced NETosis. The neutrophils and formed NETs are important stimulators of the thrombotic processes. The identification of NETs and the characterisation of their role in disease have revived the overlooked role of neutrophils in disease pathogenesis. The analysis and evaluation of the levels of the circulating platelet–neutrophil complexes in blood in neoplastic diseases can be used as potential predictors of the occurrence of thrombosis. The flow cytometric method used for evaluation of the interaction between neutrophils and platelets achieves accurate and reproducible results.
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Among these strategies, we highlight the chemical defense of plants given by secretory structures, such as laticifers and secretory ducts. These glands are responsible for the production of viscous exudates that can be toxic, deterrent or repellent to herbivores, in addition to acting against microorganisms and sealing wounds. The similarities between latex and resin produced by certain ducts led several researchers to misinterpret their characteristics and generated a great number of divergences in the literature. This chapter aims to review the similarities and differences between laticifers and ducts and to demonstrate the structure, secretory activity and chemical composition of the secretion of each one, as well as the evolutionary and ecological aspects that can be associated with the high rate of survival and diversification of the plants that contain laticifers and/or ducts.",book:{id:"6570",slug:"ecosystem-services-and-global-ecology",title:"Ecosystem Services and Global Ecology",fullTitle:"Ecosystem Services and Global Ecology"},signatures:"Erika Prado and Diego Demarco",authors:[{id:"237096",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Demarco",slug:"diego-demarco",fullName:"Diego Demarco"},{id:"237322",title:"Ms.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Prado",slug:"erika-prado",fullName:"Erika Prado"}]},{id:"59280",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73495",title:"Potential of Rhizobia in Improving Nitrogen Fixation and Yields of Legumes",slug:"potential-of-rhizobia-in-improving-nitrogen-fixation-and-yields-of-legumes",totalDownloads:2215,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Strong demand for food requires specific efforts by researchers involved in the agricultural sector to develop means for sufficient production. While, agriculture today faces challenges such as soil fertility loss, climate change and increased attacks of pathogens and pests. The production of sufficient quantities in a sustainable and healthy farming system is based on environmentally friendly approaches such as the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides and the return of crop residues. The multiplicity of beneficial effects of soil microorganisms, particularly plant growth promotion (PGP), highlights the need to further strengthen the research and its use in modern agriculture. Rhizobia are considered as PGP comes in symbiosis with legumes taking advantage of nutrients from plant root exudates. When interacting with legumes, rhizobia help in increased plant growth through enriching nutrients by nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphates and producing phytohormones, and rhizobia can increase plants’ protection by influencing the production of metabolites, improve plant defense by triggering systemic resistance induced against pests and pathogens. In addition, rhizobia contain useful variations to tolerate abiotic stresses such as extreme temperatures, pH, salinity and drought. The search for rhizobium tolerant strains is expected to improve plant growth and yield, even under a combination of constraints. This chapter summarizes the use of rhizobia in agriculture and its benefits.",book:{id:"6099",slug:"symbiosis",title:"Symbiosis",fullTitle:"Symbiosis"},signatures:"Yassine Mabrouk, Imen Hemissi, Issam Ben Salem, Sonia Mejri,\nMouldi Saidi and Omrane Belhadj",authors:[{id:"114694",title:"Prof.",name:"Omrane",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"omrane-belhadj",fullName:"Omrane Belhadj"},{id:"169165",title:"Dr.",name:"Mabrouk",middleName:null,surname:"Yassine",slug:"mabrouk-yassine",fullName:"Mabrouk Yassine"},{id:"193503",title:"Dr.",name:"Issam",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"issam-ben-salem",fullName:"Issam Ben Salem"},{id:"203025",title:"Dr.",name:"Imen",middleName:null,surname:"Hemissi",slug:"imen-hemissi",fullName:"Imen Hemissi"},{id:"203027",title:"Prof.",name:"Mouldi",middleName:null,surname:"Saidi",slug:"mouldi-saidi",fullName:"Mouldi Saidi"},{id:"219610",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Mejri",slug:"sonia-mejri",fullName:"Sonia Mejri"}]},{id:"62979",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80264",title:"Mapping and Monitoring Wetland Dynamics Using Thermal, Optical, and SAR Remote Sensing Data",slug:"mapping-and-monitoring-wetland-dynamics-using-thermal-optical-and-sar-remote-sensing-data",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Wetlands are transition zone where the flow of water, the cycling of carbon and nutrients, and the energy to form a unique ecosystem are characterized by its hydrology, soils, and vegetation, between dryland and water. Over the years, remote sensing techniques have proven to be a successful tool for monitoring wetlands. Both optical and microwave earth observation sensors can be used for monitoring wetlands. Land surface temperature (LST), as one of the most important variables in physical processes of the Earth, is one of the unexplored parameters for studying wetland dynamics. In this chapter, seasonal LST, SAR data values (dual polarization VV + VH), as well as the seasonal normalized difference water index will be explored, and the relation between them will be analyzed. For this purpose, satellite images from Landsat 8 and Sentinel-1, over a wetland area, were downloaded, preprocessed, and analyzed. As a study case, Seyfe Lake located in the central Anatolian part of Turkey has been selected. The results show Seyfe Lake’s seasonal dynamics and the relation between the investigated parameters. The results helped in understanding the wetland seasonal dynamics which can be used in better managing and monitoring wetlands using remote sensing data.",book:{id:"7535",slug:"wetlands-management-assessing-risk-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Wetlands Management",fullTitle:"Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Gordana Kaplan, Zehra Yigit Avdan and Ugur Avdan",authors:[{id:"114145",title:"Dr.",name:"Uğur",middleName:null,surname:"Avdan",slug:"ugur-avdan",fullName:"Uğur Avdan"},{id:"252361",title:"Ms.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan",slug:"gordana-kaplan",fullName:"Gordana Kaplan"},{id:"257648",title:"Dr.",name:"Zehra",middleName:null,surname:"Yigit Avdan",slug:"zehra-yigit-avdan",fullName:"Zehra Yigit Avdan"}]},{id:"63701",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80224",title:"Wetland Monitoring and Mapping Using Synthetic Aperture Radar",slug:"wetland-monitoring-and-mapping-using-synthetic-aperture-radar",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Wetlands are critical for ensuring healthy aquatic systems, preventing soil erosion, and securing groundwater reservoirs. Also, they provide habitat for many animal and plant species. Thus, the continuous monitoring and mapping of wetlands is necessary for observing effects of climate change and ensuring a healthy environment. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing satellites are active remote sensing instruments essential for monitoring wetlands, given the possibility to bypass the cloud-sensitive optical instruments and obtain satellite imagery day and night. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the basic concepts of SAR remote sensing technology and its applications for wetland monitoring and mapping. Emphasis is given to SAR systems with full and compact polarimetric SAR capabilities. Brief discussions on the latest state-of-the-art wetland applications using SAR imagery are presented. Also, we summarize the current trends in wetland monitoring and mapping using SAR imagery. This chapter provides a good introduction to interested readers with limited background in SAR technology and its possible wetland applications.",book:{id:"7535",slug:"wetlands-management-assessing-risk-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Wetlands Management",fullTitle:"Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Mohammed Dabboor and Brian Brisco",authors:[{id:"255476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Dabboor",slug:"mohammed-dabboor",fullName:"Mohammed Dabboor"},{id:"256242",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Brisco",slug:"brian-brisco",fullName:"Brian Brisco"}]},{id:"21530",doi:"10.5772/24906",title:"Towards a Better Understanding of Beta Diversity: Deconstructing Composition Patterns of Saproxylic Beetles Breeding in Recently Burnt Boreal Forest",slug:"towards-a-better-understanding-of-beta-diversity-deconstructing-composition-patterns-of-saproxylic-b",totalDownloads:4538,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"1367",slug:"research-in-biodiversity-models-and-applications",title:"Research in Biodiversity",fullTitle:"Research in Biodiversity - Models and Applications"},signatures:"Ermias T. Azeria, Jacques Ibarzabal, Jonathan Boucher and Christian Hébert",authors:[{id:"60303",title:"Dr.",name:"Ermias",middleName:"T.",surname:"Azeria",slug:"ermias-azeria",fullName:"Ermias Azeria"},{id:"61735",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacques",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarzabal",slug:"jacques-ibarzabal",fullName:"Jacques Ibarzabal"},{id:"61736",title:"MSc",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Boucher",slug:"jonathan-boucher",fullName:"Jonathan Boucher"},{id:"61737",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Hébert",slug:"christian-hebert",fullName:"Christian Hébert"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64675",title:"Introductory Chapter: Wetland Importance and Management",slug:"introductory-chapter-wetland-importance-and-management",totalDownloads:2306,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"7535",slug:"wetlands-management-assessing-risk-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Wetlands Management",fullTitle:"Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Didem Gokce",authors:[{id:"178260",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce",slug:"didem-gokce",fullName:"Didem Gokce"}]},{id:"70205",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Present Global Ecological Crisis in the Light of the Mass Extinctions of Earth History",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-present-global-ecological-crisis-in-the-light-of-the-mass-extinctions-of-ea",totalDownloads:916,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"8978",slug:"changing-ecosystems-and-their-services",title:"Changing Ecosystems and Their Services",fullTitle:"Changing Ecosystems and Their Services"},signatures:"Levente Hufnagel, Melinda Pálinkás, Ferenc Mics and Réka Homoródi",authors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"},{id:"202242",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Pálinkás",slug:"melinda-palinkas",fullName:"Melinda Pálinkás"},{id:"268024",title:"MSc.",name:"Ferenc",middleName:null,surname:"Mics",slug:"ferenc-mics",fullName:"Ferenc Mics"},{id:"268025",title:"MSc.",name:"Réka",middleName:null,surname:"Homoródi",slug:"reka-homorodi",fullName:"Réka Homoródi"}]},{id:"62979",title:"Mapping and Monitoring Wetland Dynamics Using Thermal, Optical, and SAR Remote Sensing Data",slug:"mapping-and-monitoring-wetland-dynamics-using-thermal-optical-and-sar-remote-sensing-data",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Wetlands are transition zone where the flow of water, the cycling of carbon and nutrients, and the energy to form a unique ecosystem are characterized by its hydrology, soils, and vegetation, between dryland and water. Over the years, remote sensing techniques have proven to be a successful tool for monitoring wetlands. Both optical and microwave earth observation sensors can be used for monitoring wetlands. Land surface temperature (LST), as one of the most important variables in physical processes of the Earth, is one of the unexplored parameters for studying wetland dynamics. In this chapter, seasonal LST, SAR data values (dual polarization VV + VH), as well as the seasonal normalized difference water index will be explored, and the relation between them will be analyzed. For this purpose, satellite images from Landsat 8 and Sentinel-1, over a wetland area, were downloaded, preprocessed, and analyzed. As a study case, Seyfe Lake located in the central Anatolian part of Turkey has been selected. The results show Seyfe Lake’s seasonal dynamics and the relation between the investigated parameters. The results helped in understanding the wetland seasonal dynamics which can be used in better managing and monitoring wetlands using remote sensing data.",book:{id:"7535",slug:"wetlands-management-assessing-risk-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Wetlands Management",fullTitle:"Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Gordana Kaplan, Zehra Yigit Avdan and Ugur Avdan",authors:[{id:"114145",title:"Dr.",name:"Uğur",middleName:null,surname:"Avdan",slug:"ugur-avdan",fullName:"Uğur Avdan"},{id:"252361",title:"Ms.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan",slug:"gordana-kaplan",fullName:"Gordana Kaplan"},{id:"257648",title:"Dr.",name:"Zehra",middleName:null,surname:"Yigit Avdan",slug:"zehra-yigit-avdan",fullName:"Zehra Yigit Avdan"}]},{id:"59518",title:"The Role of Ecosystem Services in Community Well-Being",slug:"the-role-of-ecosystem-services-in-community-well-being",totalDownloads:2011,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Natural ecosystems provide services to humans that make life possible. Life, as well as the economy, is dependent upon these ecosystem goods and services (EGS). These services also contribute to a “good” or “quality life” by influencing the well-being of individuals and communities. Understanding the relationships among EGS that contribute to and shape well-being is an important task for researchers, decision makers and policy makers. In the past, these relationships were almost completely dependent upon income and consumption of goods. Today, the relationships are based on a more holistic perception including environmental and social attributes. The importance of ecosystem services to community well-being and their interactions are described through examples of communities’ perceptions of the importance of various attributes of well-being and the role of ecosystem services in defining public health.",book:{id:"6570",slug:"ecosystem-services-and-global-ecology",title:"Ecosystem Services and Global Ecology",fullTitle:"Ecosystem Services and Global Ecology"},signatures:"James Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Richard S. Fulford and Rebeca\nde Jesus Crespo",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"}]},{id:"59280",title:"Potential of Rhizobia in Improving Nitrogen Fixation and Yields of Legumes",slug:"potential-of-rhizobia-in-improving-nitrogen-fixation-and-yields-of-legumes",totalDownloads:2215,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Strong demand for food requires specific efforts by researchers involved in the agricultural sector to develop means for sufficient production. While, agriculture today faces challenges such as soil fertility loss, climate change and increased attacks of pathogens and pests. The production of sufficient quantities in a sustainable and healthy farming system is based on environmentally friendly approaches such as the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides and the return of crop residues. The multiplicity of beneficial effects of soil microorganisms, particularly plant growth promotion (PGP), highlights the need to further strengthen the research and its use in modern agriculture. Rhizobia are considered as PGP comes in symbiosis with legumes taking advantage of nutrients from plant root exudates. When interacting with legumes, rhizobia help in increased plant growth through enriching nutrients by nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphates and producing phytohormones, and rhizobia can increase plants’ protection by influencing the production of metabolites, improve plant defense by triggering systemic resistance induced against pests and pathogens. In addition, rhizobia contain useful variations to tolerate abiotic stresses such as extreme temperatures, pH, salinity and drought. The search for rhizobium tolerant strains is expected to improve plant growth and yield, even under a combination of constraints. This chapter summarizes the use of rhizobia in agriculture and its benefits.",book:{id:"6099",slug:"symbiosis",title:"Symbiosis",fullTitle:"Symbiosis"},signatures:"Yassine Mabrouk, Imen Hemissi, Issam Ben Salem, Sonia Mejri,\nMouldi Saidi and Omrane Belhadj",authors:[{id:"114694",title:"Prof.",name:"Omrane",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"omrane-belhadj",fullName:"Omrane Belhadj"},{id:"169165",title:"Dr.",name:"Mabrouk",middleName:null,surname:"Yassine",slug:"mabrouk-yassine",fullName:"Mabrouk Yassine"},{id:"193503",title:"Dr.",name:"Issam",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"issam-ben-salem",fullName:"Issam Ben Salem"},{id:"203025",title:"Dr.",name:"Imen",middleName:null,surname:"Hemissi",slug:"imen-hemissi",fullName:"Imen Hemissi"},{id:"203027",title:"Prof.",name:"Mouldi",middleName:null,surname:"Saidi",slug:"mouldi-saidi",fullName:"Mouldi Saidi"},{id:"219610",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Mejri",slug:"sonia-mejri",fullName:"Sonia Mejri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"845",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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