\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"786",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Regenerative Medicine",title:"Advances in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Even if the origins of regenerative medicine can be found in Greek mythology, as attested by the story of Prometheus, the Greek god whose immortal liver was feasted on day after day by Zeus' eagle; many challenges persist in order to successfully regenerate lost cells, tissues or organs and rebuild all connections and functions. In this book, we will cover a few aspects of regenerative medicine highlighting major advances and remaining challenges in cellular therapy and tissue/organ engineering.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-732-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4398-7",doi:"10.5772/1294",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advances-in-regenerative-medicine",numberOfPages:418,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"06d8a9addc021349418ffcc670142467",bookSignature:"Sabine Wislet-Gendebien",publishedDate:"November 21st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/786.jpg",numberOfDownloads:51456,numberOfWosCitations:106,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:96,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:229,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 29th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"65329",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabine",middleName:null,surname:"Wislet",slug:"sabine-wislet",fullName:"Sabine Wislet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65329/images/647_n.png",biography:"Dr. Sabine Wislet-Gendebien obtained her PhD from the Center of Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology at the University of Liège under the supervision of Dr. Bernard Rogister and Dr. Gustave Moonen. 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It facilitates the transport of nutrients and waste products within the body of living creatures [1]. Surface water is one of the important supplies for drinking water production [2]. Recently, surface water has been increasingly contaminated by microorganisms, organic matter, particles, and solids due to the developing effects of human activities and climate change as is depicted in Figure 1 [3, 4, 5]. This increase in the concentration of surface water contaminants has led to the increase in the cost associated with the treatment of water. The quality of the produced water has also deteriorated as a result of increased contamination. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 5 million death cases per year worldwide are caused by poor quality drinking water [6]. These problems have made the enhancement of surface water treatment to cope with the increasing levels of contamination, an ultimate goal for the current research activities.
Sources of surface water contamination.
Technically, the performance of surface water treatment systems depends on the efficiency of individual treatment processes in removing contaminants. Conventional surface water treatment systems consist of coagulation/flocculation, filtration, and disinfection [1]. A number of operational and health problems arise in the surface water treatment process as a result of increasing contamination. The most common problems are high level of dangerous residual metal coagulants such as aluminum (Al) [7], fouling of filtration media [8], and the formation of hazardous disinfection by-products (DBPs) [9].
Residual metals can cause operational and health problems. Increasing the Al concentration in water increases turbidity, causes filtration fouling, and interferes with disinfectants [10, 11, 12]. In addition to the technical problems, the residual Al in treated water can cause neuropathologic disorders, neurological diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s and presenile dementia), and kidney diseases [10, 13].
Fouling of filtration/adsorption media is another challenge that is commonly encountered in potable water treatment processes. Fouling can occur as a result of the deposition of various foulants, such as solid particles, organic contaminants, inorganic contaminants, and microorganisms, onto various filter surfaces [14]. Fouling of filters results in extra cost and delay on the filtration process as well as reducing the quality of the water produced [15]. The deeply embedded microorganisms in filtration media do not only act as a hidden source of pathogens but also release toxic metabolic products into water treatment systems [16].
The formation of DBPs is a result disinfectants (e.g., chlorine and ozone) reaction with the organic matter [17, 18]. DBPs include a wide spectrum of carcinogenic and mutagenic chemical complexes that pose a threat to both humans and the environment. The two most prevalent classes of DBPs in drinking water are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) [19]. Total THMs (TTHMs) is the sum of four compounds: chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform [20]. HAAs include nine compounds which encompass derivatives of HAAs (i.e., mono-, di-, and trihaloacetic acid) and iodine and bromine containing HAAs [19]. The most common HAAs are di- and trihaloacetic acid. Epidemiological and toxicological studies indicated that the human exposure to chlorinated water containing DBPs may lead to bladder cancer [21], deterioration in liver functionalities, kidney and nervous system [22], and congenital diseases [17]. Therefore, a maximum contamination level (MCL) of DBPs has been set for different countries around the world. For instance, the MCL of THMs in Australia is 250 μg L−1, while the MCL of monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) are 150, 100, and 100 μg L−1, respectively [22, 23].
Research efforts have been directed toward minimizing the challenges encountered in surface water treatment systems. It is obvious that the increasing levels of contamination and the conventional chemicals used for treatment are the main reasons behind these challenges. Hence, the quantities of chemicals added to water should be minimized without compromising the quality of the treated water. To this end, chemical-free (henceforth referred to as physical) treatment methods are recommended to be applied in surface water treatment schemes. It should be mentioned here that this study focuses on organic and microbial contamination; hence, the discussion in the following sections will be confined to aspects pertaining to the removal of such contaminants.
The common physical treatment methods include pulsed-electric field and plasma discharge [24, 25], magnetic field [26], hydrodynamic cavitation [27], ultraviolet (UV) light [28], and ultrasound [29]. The combinations of physical-physical treatments such as UV light and ultrasound and physical-chemical treatments such as ultrasound and chlorine dioxide, ultrasound and ozone, and UV and ozone are also recommended [30].
The organic contamination of natural surface water is represented by the existence of natural organic matter (NOM) in water sources. NOM can be categorized based on size into particulate organic carbon (POC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). NOM fraction that passes through 0.45 μm filter is termed as DOC, while the retained fraction is termed as POC. The latter only forms 10% of NOM and can easily be removed from water [31]. Therefore, attention should be given to improving DOC removal from natural water.
DOC encompasses a vast array of organic materials that varies in their characteristics spatiotemporally [32]. DOC can be classified into groups based on origin and structure. Origin-based classification categorizes DOC into three groups: allochthonous, autochthonous, and anthropogenic [33]. Allochthonous is derived from natural decomposition of soil and plants, while autochthonous DOC is originated from algal and microbial activities. The anthropogenic DOC in surface water is emanated from human activities and wastewater treatment processes [33]. Potable water sources contain mainly allochthonous and autochthonous carbon [34]. The concentration of autochthonous DOC in surface water depends strongly on the hydraulic residence time of water in reservoirs and this would naturally reduce its contribution to overall organic contamination. Hence, improving allochthonous DOC removal would be of more importance to drinking water treatment practices.
The structural classification mainly divides DOC into hydrophobic and hydrophilic fractions [35]. The proportion of these fractions in natural water catchments depends on the carbon source and other factors such as microbial activities and natural photo-degradation. The hydrophobic fraction is comprised mainly of humic and fulvic acids, phenolic DOC, and double bond structures [36]. The hydrophilic fraction mainly contains aliphatic and nitrogenous compounds [35]. DOC structure is important from water treatment perspective as these fractions are associated with certain health and operational problems [37]. For instance, hydrophobic DOC is known to have a tendency to react with chlorine forming DBPs [38].
The main DOC removal mechanisms of physical treatments are (i) chemical reactions (e.g., radicals attack), (ii) physical effects (e.g., shear forces, pyrolysis), and (iii) alteration of physical properties (absorptivity). A wide range of radicals are produced when exposing water to physical treatments such UV and ultrasound. The most important radical species is the hydroxyl (•OH) as it possesses a high oxidation potential (2.8 V) that exceeds the oxidation potentials of common oxidants such as atomic oxygen (2.42 V), ozone (2.07 V), and hydrogen peroxide (1.78 V) [39]. The •OH pathway reactions with NOM include addition to double bonds and hydrogen and electron abstraction [35]. Chemical mechanisms are prominent in electrical and UV techniques, while the combination of both chemical and physical mechanisms is generated with techniques such as ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation [40]. Physical treatments that utilize magnetic fields can alter physical properties of DOC, making it more susceptible to removal via adsorption [6, 26]. It is worth mentioning that physical methods that produce •OH are also capable of altering the nature of remnant DOC [41].
Generally, DOC removal levels are low with the physical treatments as stand-alone technologies; however, combining these methods with chemicals addition can significantly boost DOC removal [35]. Chemical addition to some treatment methods such as UV and electrical methods can be problematic. For instance, the addition of TiO2 in photo-catalysis (UV/semi-conductors) requires an additional treatment to remove TiO2 particles from the treated water, and this in turn introduces extra cost [42]. The addition of electrolytes such as NaCl [35], or KCl [43] in electrochemical oxidation can also cause some technical problems such as the conformational change of DOC [44] resulting in a compact fouling layer. Electrodes and UV lamps are also prone to fouling problems that require frequent maintenance [45]. Furthermore, the use of UV method, particularly vacuum UV (VUV), was found to produce undesired nitrite by-products [35]. Similarly, magnetic field technique can potentially cause some health problems. It was reported that the use of magnetically treated water negatively affects the functionality of rats’ kidneys suggesting that magnetic treatment can cause unstable changes to bio-mechanisms of tissue fluid [46]. Generally, electrical, magnetic, and UV treatments require mixing to ensure uniform effective treatments which adds to energy requirements of these techniques. By way of contrast, mixing is not required for dynamic treatments such as ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation. These treatments were also found to have benign environmental effects [47]. However, hydrodynamic cavitation has some disadvantages such as the unclear effect of operating parameters on cavitation events [48], the requirement of long treatment time to achieve perceptible change, and mechanical erosion of equipment [47]. The main disadvantage of ultrasound is high operational energy demand [49], nevertheless the installation and maintenance cost is low due to its simple configuration [50]. Recent studies have reported that ultrasound is more energy efficient compared to hydrodynamic cavitation and UV in removing organic materials [25].
Various species of microbes are present in surface water. However, microbial contamination of water is normally evaluated through indicators such as total coliform and
As far as the performance is concerned, UV and electrical techniques have the disadvantages of producing mutagenic activities and low performance with turbid water [14, 53]. Hydrodynamic cavitation has some shortcomings as mentioned in Section 2.1.3. In contrast, ultrasound technology has advantages of being environmentally friendly and easy to implement and control, which outweighs the disadvantage of high energy demand. Even the high energy demand reputation for ultrasound technology may be attributed to the inefficient utilization of energy in this technology which will be discussed further in the coming sections.
Given the potential of ultrasound technology in solving the emerging problems in drinking water treatment process, this chapter will provide critical review on this matter.
Ultrasound is a longitudinal wave with frequency ranges between 16 kHz and 500 MHz [54]. The propagation of ultrasound waves through water produces alternating cycles of positive and negative pressure. When the magnitude of the ultrasonic pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the liquid, cavitational bubbles are created. The formed cavitational bubbles and existing gas bubbles in the liquid grow to a size larger than their original size during the negative cycle of the ultrasonic pressure. Some bubbles grow to a very large size due to gas transfer across bubble skin (rectified diffusion) or coalescence with other bubbles, and eventually float to water surface. Other bubbles collapse during the positive cycle of the ultrasonic wave. In terms of collapse intensity, there are two kinds of bubbles; bubbles with gentle collapse “stable bubbles” and bubbles with severe collapse “transit bubbles” [55]. There are two sources for bubbles generated in ultrasonically excited water: dissolved gas and gas entrapped in crevices of solid surfaces. The formation of bubbles from dissolved gas is normally termed as homogeneous cavitation, while bubbles formation on liquid-solid interface is termed as heterogeneous cavitation [56].
The physics and chemistry of transit bubbles are of interest from water treatment perspective owing to the powerful effects produced from such bubbles collapse. These effects are represented by the generation of localized areas of high temperature and pressure of around 5000 K and 500 atm, respectively, usually referred to as hot spots [40]. There is a variation in the temperature profile within the localized areas of hot spots which determines the nature of reactions occurring in each area. The three recognized zones of the hot spots are [40, 57]:
Bubble’s oscillation and collapse generate acoustic streaming, microstreaming, microjetting, turbulence, shock wave, and shear stress [60]. Acoustic streaming is defined as the convective liquid motion due to the passage of ultrasound waves. Microstreaming is the liquid motion in the adjacent area to oscillating bubbles. Microjetting is the resulting liquid motion from bubble symmetrical collapse close to the solid/liquid interface [61]. The physical and chemical effects of ultrasound can be harnessed for organic and microbial contamination removal.
Figure 2 illustrates the physical and chemical effects of ultrasound on water contaminants. The physical effects such as the powerful turbulences and shock waves can disintegrate organic and microbial structures, as reported by several studies [49, 60].
Mechanisms of acoustic cavitation in degrading water pollutants.
Chemical effects of ultrasound are evident through the liberation of highly reactive species that have the capacity to cleave chemical bonds. The reactive species are short lived intermediates [62]; therefore, their effect is expected to occur only during the short time of the bubble’s collapse. As explained earlier, volatile compounds are likely to decompose in the thermolytic center due to the effects of free radicals.
The nonvolatile compounds in water are divided into two groups: hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds. The repulsive nature of hydrophobic compounds to water forces these compounds to accumulate in the area adjacent to collapsing bubbles, which in turn facilitates the ultrasonic-induced chemical decomposition of these compounds by free radicals, as demonstrated in Figure 2. The case is different for nonvolatile hydrophilic compounds, as the concentration of such compounds in the sheath around the bubble is similar to that in the bulk solution region. So the hydrophilic compounds are either chemically disintegrated by free radicals and their recombination products or mechanically destructed via the mechanical shear and shock waves resulting from bubble oscillations and collapse [63]. The shear stresses’ and shock waves’ degradation of organic materials is attributed to the slight phase difference, especially for humic polymeric structures. Many researchers have reported the capacity of shear stresses and shockwaves on breaking the chain structure of polymeric organic materials or opening the ring structure of cyclic organic materials [57]. Additionally, the extreme conditions in the collapsing bubble’s center and the surrounding areas can lead to the formation of acids [64], which can reduce the solubility of humic acid and consequently increases its degradation by the physical effects.
Although inorganic contaminants are outside the scope of this study, it is worth mentioning that microstreaming and generated oxidative species instigated by bubble collapse are the main ultrasonic removal mechanisms for these contaminants [65].
Ultrasound waves are commonly generated by converting electrical power into vibration using transducers. There are two types of transducers: piezoelectric and magnetostrictive [66]. A graphical representation of these transducers is shown in Figure 3. For piezoelectric transducers, the vibration is created via exciting the piezoelectric crystal with electrical current, as demonstrated in Figure 3a. In the case of magnetostrictive transducers, the electrical current is passed through coils inducing a magnetic field that causes contraction and expansion of the ferromagnetic core (Terfenol-D of Nickel in most cases), as shown in Figure 3b. Comprehensive comparison between the characteristics of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric transducers is provided in [67]. Although the performance of magnetostrictive transducers outstrips that of piezoelectric transducers [68, 69], there is limited number of studies concerning the use of these transducers for water treatment applications.
Common ultrasonic wave generation techniques: (a) piezoelectric and (b) magnetostrictive.
Ultrasound irradiation can be applied in two modes: continuous and pulsed. Continuous mode is more commonly used for water treatment application compared to the pulsed mode. In pulsed mode, the operation is interrupted for a preset amount of time. The period during which ultrasound operates is known as pulse; whereas, the interruption time is normally termed as interval. The pulse and interval are denoted, respectively, as
Illustration of pulsed mode alleviation of shielding effects.
Operating ultrasound in pulsed mode does not always result in improved performance [71]; it depends on applying a suitable power level for the chosen
Like other treatment technologies, the performance of ultrasound is influenced by several factors. These factors can be broken down into three groups: system operating conditions, medium characteristics, and design-related aspects. The operating parameters of ultrasonic equipment include power, frequency, treatment time, mode of operation, and shape of the exciting waves (i.e., sine, triangle, etc.). It is known that increasing the power results in more intense ultrasonic effects; however, power impact normally follows a logarithmic growth trend, where increasing beyond a certain limit can only results in little improvement. Frequency has a direct relationship with cavitation threshold; therefore, the higher the frequency, the more the power required to generate cavitation bubbles [75]. As discussed in the previous section, pulsed mode is more energy-efficient than the continuous mode. Among the common exciting waves’ shapes, square wave has the highest ultrasonic effects [67].
Medium characteristics such as viscosity, pressure, temperature, and contents of solid and gas impurities can affect the intensity of ultrasound effects. Viscosity has a negative effect on the generation and collapse of cavitating bubbles. It is difficult for ultrasonic waves to propagate through a viscous medium due to high cohesion forces; hence, less effective acoustic events would be achieved [76]. In the case of typical surface water treatment system, change in water viscosity is not expected to occur, and hence the effect of this factor can be ignored. The effect of the ambient pressure on ultrasound comes into play only when dealing with closed system treatment chambers. Increasing the ambient pressure has two conflicting effects: decreases the vapor content in the collapsing bubble leading to more effective bubble collapse [54] and at the same time negatively affects bubble growth leading to less violent collapse [77]. The ambient temperature impacts ultrasound performance in a similar fashion. Increasing the temperature facilitates bubbles formation due to reduction in medium viscosity; however, the vapor content in the formed bubbles would be high leading to a less violent collapse (cushioning effects) [77]. It should be mentioned that increasing the ambient temperature can accelerate both microbial disruption and chemical reactions under the effect of ultrasound [54, 77]. This means that the net temperature effect on ultrasound performance is positive.
The impact of solid particles and dissolved gas bubbles depends on their nature and the treatment purpose. Bubbles formed from gases with high specific heat ratio produce better cavitation effects (higher temperature and larger number of radicals) compared to those generated from gases with low specific heat ratio [78]. The presence of solid particles in water can be beneficial if the treatment is targeting microbes’ removal [79, 80], or adverse if the treatment goal is DOC removal [81]. In the case of surface water treatment, the dissolved gas would mostly be air resulting in relatively high acoustic effects compared to other gases such as O2 and Ar [82]. The presence of solids in surface water is inevitable, and they would be a mixture of soil aggregates that release DOC upon ultrasound exposure [81] and solid particles that promote heterogeneous cavitation [80].
The aspects of ultrasonic reactor design such as reactor shape and liquid height play crucial roles in the homogeneity of acoustic energy distribution and the uniformity of treatment across the treated volume. Generally, reactors with curvatures (e.g., conical or cylindrical) are more effective in utilizing ultrasound power compared to the standard rectangular-shaped reactors [83, 84]. This is attributed to the reflection of the waves back from the curved walls to the water in different directions resulting in more acoustic events. However, reactors with flat surfaces are easier to design and modify to accommodate monitoring and measurements equipment [57]. An example of such a design is the hexagonal reactor proposed by Gogate et al. [85], where waves can still be reflected from the walls. The liquid height has a negative effect on ultrasound performance; the further away the contaminants are from ultrasonic source, the less effective the treatment is [57]. Interestingly though, in a study conducted by Asakura et al. [86] on the effect of liquid height on ultrasound chemical activity at different frequencies showed that at largest height investigated (500 mm), low frequency ultrasound resulted in the highest chemical throughput compared to other tested frequencies (>100 kHz). In the same manner, Sharma and Sanghi [87] reported that low frequency results in better distribution of acoustic energy in large-scale volumes. This suggests that low frequency ultrasound operation has the potential to be successfully scaled up to industrial levels.
The scalability of ultrasound technology for drinking water treatment purposes requires multi-disciplinary expertise such as chemistry, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, material sciences, etc. One essential step toward scalability is applying an accurate energy characterization technique. The use of an inappropriate characterization method would produce discouraging energy figures that would be disincentive for industries interested in adopting ultrasound technology.
There are many techniques for determining the capacity of ultrasound equipment in converting electrical power to useful acoustic energy. Among all the reported energy characterization techniques, calorimetric technique is the most commonly used owing to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness [88]. However, this technique must be carefully applied. The use of a single location for temperature measurements as being representative for the whole irradiated volume is not appropriate, especially for low power levels where standing wave effects are evident [89]. The other aspect that needs to be carefully considered is the heat loss via convection during the time of temperature recording. Convective heat loss would be more noticeable in the cases of high-power application and pulsed operation. At high ultrasonic power, the temperature rise is rapid which would accelerate thermal energy dissipation through the walls of the containing vessel to the atmosphere. In the case of pulsed ultrasound, long irradiation time is required to obtain tangible temperature rise and this would allow enough time for the generated heat to escape to the atmosphere. This explains why some studies have reported efficiency as low as 30% for ultrasonic horn [90], while others reported efficiency as high as 60–70% [91] for the same reactor type, as the latter used a sophisticated adiabatic reaction vessel that prevents convective heat loss.
Many scale-up attempts of ultrasonic reactors were reported in the literature [92]. The prominent approaches were: multistage reactors [49], flow-cells [93], sonitube [89], super-positioning multiple transducers of similar or different frequencies [57], and the use of reflectors [94, 95]. The approach of combined multi-transducers and reflectors seems to be a promising strategy for ultrasonic reactor scale-up as the interaction of waves emitted from transducers and the reflected waves from reflectors would enlarge the active zone in the reactor. However, it is worth mentioning that most of these scale-up attempts utilized the commercially available piezoelectric transducers that operate largely on sine wave excitation. Recent studies have shown that some waveforms other than the sine wave can result in better excitation of transducers [96]. Thus, exploring the use of other transducer types and waveforms in large-scale applications is imperative to provide broader and may be more efficient options to industry.
The common use of ultrasound in coagulation process is as a pre-treatment for the process to improve blue-green algae removal [97]. The presence of blue-green algae in the water treatment system has been associated with many problems such as clogging membrane pores, undesirable taste and odor, production of DBPs, and the release of toxic compounds such as Microcystin [98]. Ultrasonic mechanism for algae removal is ascribed to the destruction of gas vacuoles that are responsible of algae buoyancy [97]. There is also a recent study that has utilized ultrasound as a mean of mixing for algae removal using chitosan [99]. Removing algae requires applying low frequency, moderate input power, and short treatment time.
The application of low power ultrasound for a short treatment time in algae removal applications can solve the seasonal problem of algal bloom, but it does not tackle the problems of other forms of contamination that occur all year around. For better implementation of ultrasound in water treatment, the use of moderate to high ultrasonic power and long treatment should be applied for such applications. There is a very limited work conducted on the use of high-power ultrasound in combination with coagulation such as the work performed by Ziylan and Ince [100]. However, this work only focused on DOC removal levels, while DOC structural change and downstream effects of the treatment were not investigated. These factors were explored in [74], and it was found that ultrasound is not only capable of removing contaminants, but it also alters the structure of remnant contaminants making them more amenable to downstream treatment processes. It was also observed that ultrasound application eliminated scum formation and resulted in more compact coagulation/flocculation sludge.
Ultrasound technology has been harnessed by many investigations for alleviating fouling problems in membrane filtration. Ultrasound-assisted membrane technology can be applied in two ways: cleaning or pre-treatment techniques. Ultrasonic cleaning of membrane filtration can be performed directly or indirectly. In direct ultrasonic-membrane cleaning, there is no barrier that isolates the membrane from ultrasound irradiation [57]. In an indirect ultrasonic-membrane cleaning, the membrane is isolated from ultrasonic irradiation by the membrane cell body. Most of the reports regarding ultrasound-cleaning membranes dealt with flat sheet membranes; however, in a few cases, ultrasound was also used for cleaning hollow fiber membrane modules [101] and capillary membrane fibers [102].
Although ultrasonic cleaning has been recognized by many studies as an effective alternative to chemical cleaning, there are still some shortcomings that limit its application in membrane fouling control such as dependence of cleaning effectiveness on the distance between the effective cavitational region and membrane and the detrimental effect on membrane construction materials, as shown in Figure 5. Deteriorating the structure of the membrane filter could potentially lead to a failure in filtration. Thus, the direct interaction between ultrasonic irradiation and membrane should be avoided, especially for high-power applications (up to and beyond cavitation).
Illustration of negative effects of direct high-power ultrasound on membrane structure.
As a pre-filtration process, it was found that ultrasound is capable of reducing bio-fouling formation in membrane systems [103]. Ultrasound can also remove other contaminants, as indicated in Figure 2. In spite of the advantages of ultrasound as a filtration pre-treatment, there are some concerns related to the disintegration of the contaminants into smaller sizes, which may then lead to a pore-plugging type of fouling [104]. For this reason, distancing ultrasound from the filtration process is recommended.
Ultrasound is recognized as the most effective disinfection technique for all forms of microbial contamination even for recalcitrant microbes and spores [47, 49, 77, 105, 106, 107]. As explained in Section 3.2, the powerful biocidal effects of ultrasound are attributed to the strong chemical and mechanical effects produced from cavitational bubble’s collapse. Disinfection is typically applied after filtration at the end of the surface water treatment process. The purpose of disinfection is to disinfect water onsite and prevent microbial growth in the water while moving within the distribution network. However, as ultrasound has no residual effect, it would be more beneficial to apply ultrasound in the earlier stages of surface water treatment.
The recent challenges in drinking water treatment industry emanating from the ever-increasing contamination sources and the application of traditional chemical treatment methods have been highlighted in this chapter. Integrating physical techniques into the conventional drinking water treatment scheme has been proposed as a potential solution for these challenges. Among the common physical techniques, ultrasound technology appears to be the most promising option. Ultrasound can produce powerful effects associated with the generation and collapse of unstable bubbles. These effects are capable of destructing microbes and mineralize organic contaminants through the production of highly oxidant species and strong mechanical effects. Appropriate utilization of ultrasound effects can only be achieved through understanding the relationship between ultrasonic parameters and the properties of the water being treated. The effect of some ultrasonic parameters such as power and frequency are extensively investigated for different treatment goals; however, this chapter attempts to draw the attention to other equally important parameters such as techniques of ultrasonic wave generation, mode of operation, and the shape of the generated waves. It appears that the best ultrasonic settings for water treatment application are moderate to high power for long treatment time, low frequency, pulsed mode, and square wave generated using magnetostrictive transducer. After critical evaluation of the possible combination scenarios of ultrasound with main drinking water treatment processes, it was concluded that applying ultrasound prior to coagulation is the most beneficial option as other combinations may create adverse downstream effects. Hence, further in-depth investigation for the suggested combination is recommended for future research work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Today’s global population is estimated to be over 7.9 billion people, which is expected to reach 9.9 billion in 2050, 34% higher than it is now [1]. Developing countries will account for nearly all of this overpopulation. To feed this growing population, agricultural lands must be used considerably more effectively, and production should be boosted by 70% compared to today’s values [2]. Besides, agricultural production areas are unfortunately facing major ecological challenges, owing to human misapplications, natural calamities, as well as the impact of global climate change [3]. As a result of these factors, today the condition of our current lands is deteriorating leaving us with no choice but to grow nutrient-rich, chemical-free agricultural produce for human and animal use while using far less water and arable land than in the past. This is why a focus on both quality and quantity should be placed on food production without depleting natural resources. Developing and disseminating improved agricultural methods and technologies are equally critical.
Since cultivation areas are dwindling year after year, fertilizer mineral is a world market item that is vital to produce a higher plant yield per unit area and attain food security. It must be available in adequate quantities and in the proper balance to close the gap between nutrient supply from soil and organic sources and nutrient demand for optimal crop development [4]. Not just that, fertilizer is critical for the nation’s economy to grow, as agriculture is the primary source of employment. By 2025, it will ensure food security for more than 8 billion people around the globe [5]. The increase in the use of chemical fertilizers by approximately 5 million tons in 10 years is a situation that should be considered while the agricultural areas are decreasing. However, it is more necessary to keep the soil’s plant nutritional balance by considering climate, soil, and plant characteristics rather than the amount of chemical fertilizers utilized, and fertilizing based on soil analysis is critical.
Fertilizer is recognized as one of the most valuable agricultural production inputs, and synthetic fertilizers are becoming increasingly popular around the world. The global fertilizer market was valued at $155.8 billion in 2019, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.8% predicted for the forecast period (2019–2024) [6]. Fertilizer consumption climbed from 10,777,779 million tons in 2015 to 14,495,815 million tons in 2020, a record high. The total global demand for fertilizers (N + P + K) was estimated at 198.2 million metric tons (mmt) in 2020/2021, according to the International Fertilizer Association (IFA). This was nearly 10 mmt, or 5.2% higher than in 2019–2020 and was the highest rise since the 2010–2011 fiscal year. Nitrogen experienced a 4.1% increase in demand to 110 mmt. Phosphorus demand increased by 7.0% (3.3 Mt), reaching 49.6 Mt., while demand for potash rose by 6.2% (2.2 Mt) to 38.5 Mt. [7]. In the last 50 years, the amount of chemical fertilizer used throughout the world has increased dramatically (Figure 1) [8].
Global usage of chemical fertilizer since 1970 [
Chemical fertilizers have also become more popular in Turkey in recent years, where the cultivation areas are decreasing every year, the need for fertilization is increasing, since more plant production per unit area is required. According to TUIK (Turkish Statistical Institute) 2021 statistics, both the use of fertilizers and nitrogen fertilizers has increased in agricultural production in Turkey in the last 10 years. TUIK statistics showed that annual fertilizer use in Turkey increased from 9,074,308 tons to 14,495,815 tons between 2010 and 2020, and the use of nitrogenous fertilizers increased from 5,995,500 tons to 9,774,691 tons within these values. The amount of fertilizer per unit production area is 107 kg/ha. The use of chemical fertilizers in agricultural inputs accounts for a share of 15–20% [9].
Advances in fertilization and agricultural applications have led to a significant increase in crop productivity in many regions, including Turkey. The most important chemical fertilizers applied to obtain more efficiency in plant production are those containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nitrogen fertilizers (N), however, are the most widely used chemical fertilizers in the world, as well as in Turkey, and play a unique role in plant production. Potassium fertilizers (K2O) are the second most consumed after nitrogen, followed by phosphorus fertilizers (P2O5) [8].
It has been determined that 87% of agricultural lands in Turkey have poor organic matter content [10]. Therefore, agricultural production is supported by fertilization, and nitrogen fertilizers constitute an important part of the total fertilizer applied. According to TUIK data, nitrogenous fertilizer usage rates as a percentage of total fertilizer use have shifted between 65 and 69% in the last 10 years [9]. Fertilizer use benefits plants in a variety of ways, including being a less expensive source of nutrients, having significant nutrient content and solubility, making it easily available to plants, and requiring less fertilizer, hence making it more suited than organic fertilizer [11]. Despite these advantages, mineral fertilizer has a number of negative environmental consequences as a result of rising consumption and decreased nutrient utilization efficiency. As a result, in intensive agricultural production systems, integrating intense cultivation with high nutrient utilization efficiency is a key difficulty.
Though conscious fertilization is desirable, the use of improper fertilizers can be extremely harmful, posing severe problems for current and future generations [12]. Sometimes, unfortunately, a wrong perception occurs among the producers of chemical fertilization. It is thought that more efficiency can be obtained by using more chemical fertilizers. Contrary to popular belief, the “LAW OF DECREASING PRODUCTION” is valid in fertilization. That is, the benefit derived from fertilization rises up to a point, after which continuing to apply fertilizer causes harm rather than a benefit.
The unintended and excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost yields, as well as rising reliance on them, has a negative impact on the agricultural production system’s sustainability as well as financial losses in many countries today [13]. Certain factors, such as changes in fertilizer type, variations in application times, the producer’s lack of understanding in this area, and improper fertilizer applications, in particular, have been found to have quite substantial environmental consequences and threatening effects on the health and life of living creatures [14]. The inefficient and not demand-oriented fertilization applications in agricultural production can lead to soil acidity and soil crust, low organic matter and humus content, heavy metal accumulation, decrease in pH values, soil salinity, plant nutritional imbalances, limited plant growth, erosion, a decline in microbial activity and efficacy and emission of gasses containing substances that damage the atmosphere and the ozone layer, and eventually the greenhouse effect [15].
The issues at the forefront of the detrimental environmental effects of chemical fertilizers are highlighted here.
Excessive soil acidity induced by fertilizers is a major cause of soil degradation across the world. Fertilizers, especially nitrogen, acidify soil when applied in excess. This scenario has negative consequences, such as the crops’ incapacity to absorb phosphate, the proliferation of hazardous ion concentrations in the soil, hindrance of crop development, and suppression of microorganism activity [16]. If ammonium sulfate fertilizer is given to acidic soil, for example, the acidity level will become even higher. One-way ammonium sulfate fertilization of tea, according to research conducted in the Rize province of Turkey, considerably increased the acidity of low-pH soils. Currently, 85% of the land has fallen below pH 4, which is deemed critical. Likewise, in Nevsehir province, the pH of the soil has dropped to 2 as a result of nitrogen fertilization of potatoes grown in 100-fold increasing acidity over the last 25 years [17].
Hao et al. [18], carried out a field experiment to measure soil acidification rates in response to varied fertilizer sources and N rates, including control, optimal urea, conventional urea, optimized NH4Cl, and conventional NH4Cl plots, nitrogen addition resulted in average H+ production of 4.0, 8.7, 11.4, 29.7, and 52.6 keq ha−1 yr.−1, respectively. This was followed by a 1–10% decrease in soil base saturation and a 0.1–0.7 unit decrease in soil pH in the topsoil (0–20 cm). In a greenhouse study conducted to evaluate the effect of conventional nitrogen fertilizer on soil salinity and acidity, a significant rise in both soil acidity and salinity was witnessed as N input increased after one season, with pH decrease ranging from 0.45 to 1.06 units [19]. Moreover, after 21 years of application, chemical N fertilizer dropped the soil pH from 6.20 to 5.77, a 0.02 pH unit drop per year [20]. In another study, an evaluation of the impact of long-term fertilizing techniques on soil samples revealed a fall in soil pH from 8.4 to 7.5 [21]. Because nutrients are less available to plants in acidic soil, serious plant nutritional deficiencies are prevalent, resulting in overall crop reduction.
Heavy metal deposition in soils is mostly caused by the manufacture and consumption of industrial products, although fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture also contribute significantly. Arsenic (As), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and uranium (Ur), among other heavy metals, can build up in the soil following repeated chemical fertilizer applications, particularly phosphorus (P) fertilizers and their source material [22, 23, 24]. These toxic heavy metals not only pollute the environment, but they may also cause soil degradation, plant development retardation, and perhaps impair human health through food chain contamination harming the central nervous system, circulatory system, excretory system, and cardiovascular system, as well as cause bone damage, endocrine disruption, and possibly cancer [25].
Phosphorus (P) fertilizer is widely utilized in agriculture due to its vital function in crop growth and production [26]. However, P fertilizer has been recognized as the predominant cause of HMs pollution in soil when compared to potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) fertilizers [27]. According to a 10-year field trial, P fertilization aided Zn, Pb, Cd, and As buildup in the topsoil. With increasing P application, the threshold cancer risk (TCR) associated with As and Cd increased [28]. Likewise, another experiment concluded that frequent application of P fertilizer and the extended residence period of HMs may generate a large accumulation of HMs in soils [29].
Heavy metals are concentrated in agricultural soil as a result of improper application of commercial fertilizers, manure, sewage, or sewage sludge [30]. The results of the study conducted by Huang and Jin [31] suggested that the long-term usage of exaggerated synthetic fertilizers and organic manures contributed to the heavy metals (HMs) accumulation in the soils. Research carried out by Atafar et al. [32], confirmed that the fertilizer use enhanced the amounts of Cd, Pb, and As in cultivated soils. Before fertilization, the Cd, As, and Pb concentrations in the studied location were 1.15–1.55, 1.58–11.55, and 1.6–6.05 mg/kg, respectively; after harvesting, values were 1.4–1.73, 26.4 5.89, and 2.75–12.85 mg/kg soil for Cd, As, and Pb, respectively. The findings of another study concluded that chemical fertilizer usage increased the availability of Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn as well as the buildup of Cd, Cu, and Zn in the greenhouse soil [33].
Salts are a common component of chemical fertilizers and are considered destructive to agriculture because they harm soil and plants. Increases in the salinity of the soil can be seen by natural or artificial means. Artificially induced salinity is the result of the accumulation of fertilizers used in large quantities over long periods of time in areas where intensive farming is practiced, making the soils unsuitable for production [22, 34, 35]. Following one season of conventional nitrogen fertilizer, electrolytic conductivity increased from 0.24 to 0.68 mS cm−1 [19]. Long-term intensive farming raised soil electrical conductivity (ECe), which rose from “low salinity” (1.5 dS m−1 0.49) to “highly saline” (6.6 dS dS m−1 1.35) levels [21].
Soil salinity is a major global issue that has a negative impact on agricultural output. Salinization of agricultural land diminishes economic advantages greatly, as demonstrated by Welle and Mauter [36] in California, where salinization lowered overall agricultural income by 7.9%.
Inorganic fertilizers used recklessly can cause nutritional imbalances in the soil, thus limiting the intake of other essential nutrients. If the common NPK type is frequently used, secondary and micronutrient deficiencies occur in the soil and crop. Excess nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers, for instance, enable the plant to absorb more potassium than it requires. In acidic soils, lime and lime-containing fertilizers lead to the retention of micro plant nutrients, such as P, B, Fe, and Zn in the soil. Over-applied phosphorus fertilizers also prevent the uptake of nutrients, such as Ca, Zn, and Fe, and reduce their efficacy [22, 37].
Soil compaction is a key component of the land degradation syndrome and a serious issue for modern agriculture, negatively impacting soil resources [38]. Overuse of fertilizers for extended periods of time and intensive cropping are two of the main causes of compaction. Chemical fertilizers damage soil particles, resulting in compacted soil with poor drainage and air circulation [39]. Reduced soil aeration has an impact on soil biodiversity. Microbial biomass may be diminished as a result of severe soil compaction. Soil compaction may not affect the amount of macrofauna, such as earthworms, but it does affect the distribution of macrofauna, which is important for soil structure.
Soil compaction leads to high soil strength and bulk density, poor drainage, poor aeration, limited root growth, erosion, runoff, and soil deterioration, hence resulting in low permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and groundwater recharge [40, 41]. High soil compaction stifles root growth, reducing the plant’s ability to absorb nutrients and water. Compaction, according to reports, reduces root growth and yield by more than 80% [42]. As the soil bulk density increases, nitrification drops by 50%, and plants use less N, P, and Zn from the soil [43]. The findings of the research conducted by Massah and Azadegan [44] suggested that in non-compacted and severely compacted soils, bulk density increased from 1.34 to 1.80 Mg.m−3, and penetration resistance increased from 0.89 to 3.54 MPa, respectively. Soil compaction reduced permeability by 81.4%, accessible water by 34%, and yields by 40%.
In agricultural production, the unintentional, excessive, or random application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides degrades the chemical, biological, and physical structure of the soil, resulting in a rise in pathogen and pest populations [45, 46]. Moreover, with intensive and unconscious chemical fertilizer applications, the amount of organic matter in the soil decreases, which adversely affects the microorganism activities and causes the structure of the soil to deteriorate. If the same fertilization errors are repeated, soil structures will deteriorate with each passing year, plant growth will slow as fertilizer doses are increased, and the overall amount of product obtained will decrease. Some of the fertilizers will not be able to hold on to the soil and will be removed with the water. The conversion of nutrients into forms that plants can benefit from will be reduced.
Soil microbial activity is a crucial component of soil health, and soil organisms serve as a mechanism for nutrient recovery, as well as provide a variety of other environmental functions. Chemical fertilizer misuse can have a detrimental and lethal effect on soil quality and microbial community structure, including earthworms, and other soil inhabitants. Prolonged consumption of chemical fertilizers can cause a significant drop in soil pH, which has been associated with a decrease in bacterial diversity and major changes in bacterial community composition [47]. Nitrogen usage in agriculture has a deleterious influence on the nitrogen cycle and the activities of related bacterial communities, including nitrogen-fixing microorganisms such as Rhizobium sp. [48]. Besides, excess nitrogen fertilizers limit the activities of nitrifying bacteria [49].
It is critical to emphasize the importance of understanding how to apply chemical fertilizers properly. Chemical fertilizers, as part of their larger threat to the environment, animals, and human health, eventually leak into our water bodies, such as ponds, streams, and groundwater, contaminating water supplies, exposing humans and animals to a variety of short- and long-term hazardous chemical effects on their health and bodies. In ideal conditions, it is estimated that roughly 2–10% of fertilizers interfere with surface and groundwater [50]. The accumulation of nitrates in the water emerges as a result of the use of N fertilizers in the agricultural field, which is increasing day by day. Even under ideal conditions, only 50% of the nitrogen fertilizer given to the soil can be taken up by plants; 2–20% evaporates, 15–25% combines with organic compounds in the clay soil, and 2–10% is discharged into streams, rivers, and streams with surface runoff [50, 51]. Nitrate, a frequent contaminant of surface and groundwater, can cause serious health concerns, including inflammation of the colon, stomach, and urine systems. Furthermore, these compounds have been reported as carcinogens that can have a harmful impact on human health. They also have the potential to induce disorders in infants, such as methemoglobinemia, a condition in which the blood carrying capacity is limited due to a decrease in hemoglobin.
Though the rise in agricultural productivity alleviated poverty, it also posed a threat to the ecosystem due to its negative consequences. Rising levels of synthetic fertilizer application for agricultural production, for instance, increase greenhouse gas emissions, eroding the protective ozone layer, and exposing humans to harmful ultraviolet radiation [52]. Above all, agriculture is responsible for a major fraction of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that are driving climate change, accounting for 17% directly from agriculture activities and another 7–14% through land-use changes.
During the production of nitrogenous fertilizer, greenhouse gases, such as CO2, CH4, and N2O are released. Moreover, nitrous oxide emissions from soils, fertilizers, manure, and urine from grazing animals, as well as methane generation by ruminant animals and paddy rice agriculture, are the most significant direct agricultural GHG emissions. Both of these gases have a far larger potential for global warming than carbon dioxide.
Agriculture is the primary source of anthropogenic N2O emissions, accounting for 60% of total emissions. It has a 310-fold greater global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Excess nitrogen fertilizer application results in nitrogen oxide emissions (NO, N2O, NO2), which cause serious air pollution [51]. The primary issue with nitrous oxide emissions is the impact of global warming and the function of nitrous oxides in ozone degradation, encouraging the decomposition of the ozone layer [53] and resulting in atmospheric “holes,” exposing humans and animals to excessive UV radiation [54]. Water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, and chloro-fluoro hydrocarbons are among the other gases that contribute to ozone depletion [55].
After being volatilized or released from fertilized fields, ammonia is deposited in the atmosphere and oxidized to generate nitric and sulfuric acids, resulting in acid rain. Acid rain has the potential to harm flora, buildings, and species that live in lakes and reservoirs [56]. Methane emissions from transplanted paddy fields are also a major concern, as methane is a powerful greenhouse gas whose concentration is doubled when ammonium-based fertilizers are used. These gases all contribute to global warming and climate change [57].
Climate change is gaining traction, resulting in major global temperature spikes, as well as the prevalence of additional abiotic stressors that are reducing crop output. Significant production losses in major grain crops have been attributed to climate change, resulting in 3.8% yield reductions for maize and 5.5% for the wheat [58, 59].
Fertilization, which is one of the most essential inputs in agricultural operations, increases productivity on the one hand, but its overuse might have negative consequences on the other. Excessive usage of agricultural chemicals jeopardizes the long-term viability of agriculture. Today, the fast expansion in agricultural productivity has begun to slow down [45, 56]. Clean food production becomes inevitable with a healthy and reliable agriculture system that does not require chemicals.
Given that chemical fertilization cannot be completely eliminated in agricultural applications, in this scenario, sustainability initiatives and the usage of ecologically sound technologies can help achieve the goal of enhancing healthier crop productivity whilst eliminating unnecessary input and thereby mitigating harsh weather conditions, as well as improving soil health by sequestering carbon and retaining organic material and mineral nutrients in the soil [60]. Hence, it is vital to use alternatives, such as Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR), to support sustainable agricultural productivity and everlasting soil fertility and to build production strategies that will aid in the proliferation of beneficial soil microorganisms activities.
The rhizosphere is a well-defined ecological niche that consists of the volume of soil surrounding plant roots and is home to a wide range of microbial species [61, 62]. As a result of phytomicrobiome research, certain plant-microbe interactions that directly aid in plant nutrition are beginning to emerge [63]. Microbes have the power to positively influence plant growth and combat the majority of modern agriculture’s challenges, making them a promising alternative for agricultural sustainability. The rhizomicrobiome is indispensable for agriculture because of the extensive diversity of root exudates and plant cell debris that attract diverse and unique patterns of microbial colonization. Fertilizer requirements are often lower in soils with dynamic microbial ecologies and rich organic matter than in traditionally treated soils [64].
Despite the fact that the rhizosphere is home to a diverse range of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and actinomycetes, bacterial colonies are predominant [65, 66]. The bacterial community in the soil, in particular, has the potential to proliferate quickly and use a wide variety of nutrient sources. A group of natural soil bacterial flora that resides in the rhizosphere and grows in, on, or around plant roots [67] and has a beneficial effect on the plant’s overall health is referred to as PGPR [68]. PGPR is a nonpathogenic, beneficial bacterium that promotes plant growth by modifying hormone levels and nutritional requirements, as well as reducing stress-related damage [69]. Nutrient absorption is thought to be increased as a result of the increased root surface area mediated by PGPR. Besides, they mineralize organic contaminants and are employed in polluted soil bioremediation [70]. When compared to other microorganisms, PGPR has unique characteristics, such as the ability to synthesize growth regulators, nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, siderophore generation, nutrients, and mineral solubilization, demonstrating their exceptional tendency in stimulating plant growth [71]. They are also environmentally friendly and ensure that nutrients from natural sources are available at all times. In addition to stimulating plant growth through their active mechanisms, the bacterial colonies in the rhizosphere have a considerable influence on suppressing phytopathogenic microorganisms. Beneficial rhizobacteria can emit antibiotics and other chemicals that are effective at inhibiting pathogens [72].
The fundamental impacts that rhizosphere bacteria have on plants have evolved into an important mechanism for protecting plant health in an environmentally sustainable manner [73]. They participate in a variety of biotic activities in the soil ecosystem to keep it active and productive for farming systems [74]. Furthermore, in recent times, PGPR has garnered much attention for its potential to substitute agrochemicals for plant growth and yield through multiple processes, including decomposition of organic matter, recycling of essential elements, soil structure formation, production of numerous plant growth regulators, degrading organic pollutants, stimulation of root growth, and solubilization of mineral nutrients, which are important for soil health [75]. It is cost-effective and environmentally beneficial to replace chemical fertilizers with PGPR, as well as to identify the most effective soil and crop management approaches in an attempt to develop more sustainable farming and soil conservation fertility [76]. The employment of phytomicrobiome representatives as a long-term disease prevention and nutrient supplement method in farming production might help to reduce the negative impacts of pesticide usage [77]. The inoculated plant’s biocontrol and induction of disease resistance, biological N2 fixation, phosphate solubilization, and/or phytohormone synthesis are all potential explanations for PGPR’s growth-promoting actions [78].
PGPR has both direct and indirect modes of action as a biofertilizer and a biopesticide.
One of the most prevalent ways for increasing agricultural production is to improve soil fertility. PGPR promotes soil fertilization through the biofixation and biosolubilization processes (Figure 2).
PGPR’s mechanism of action [
Nitrogen (N) is found in all forms of life and is one of the most significant mineral nutrients for plant growth as it is a crucial component for various physiological activities in plants, including photosynthesis, nucleic acids, and protein synthesis [80]. Unfortunately, due to the low degree of reactivity, no plant species are capable of directly converting atmospheric dinitrogen into ammonia and using it for growth, hence making the plants dependent on biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Nitrogen fertilizer, as being the most effective approach to nitrogen supplementation, has been an integral part of modern crop production and agricultural systems; yet, their continued and undesirable use is contaminating the climate. Though carbon dioxide (CO2) is widely regarded as the primary cause of climate change, nitrous oxide (N2O), which has a 265-fold higher heat-trapping efficiency than CO2 [81], is indeed a significant contribution. PGPR in this regard is a potential alternative to minimize the fertilizer requirements to a certain degree as the majority of the plant microbial community can either directly fix atmospheric nitrogen through legume-rhizobium interaction or indirectly by helping nitrogen fixers via their secretion [82].
Worldwide, total N fixation is estimated to be ∼175Tg, with symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes accounting for ∼ 80 Tg by fixing 20–200 kg N year-1, while the remaining nearly half (∼88 Tg) is industrially fixed during the production of N fertilizers [83]. The most prominent symbiotic nitrogen fixer is Rhizobium [84], whereas Azospirillum, Acetobacterdiazotrophicus, Azotobacter, Herbaspirillum, Cyanobacteria, Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Gluconacetobacter, and Azoarcus, etc., represent the free-living N fixers [85].
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation: A mutualistic association between a microorganism and a plant is known as symbiotic nitrogen-fixing. The N-fixing symbiosis between rhizobia and legumes is the most well-studied and utilized beneficial plant-bacteria interaction. In this interaction, legumes supply rhizobia with reduced carbon and a protected, anaerobic environment that is necessary for nitrogenase activity, while rhizobia feed legumes with biologically accessible nitrogen. The bacteria enter the root first, causing the growth of nodulation, which converts atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms (primarily NH3) [86]. Rhizobia can fix up to 200 kg of nitrogen ha − 1 by establishing symbiotic relationships with more than 70% of leguminous plants, thus making it available to plants.
Free-living nitrogen-fixing: Several nitrogen-fixing microorganisms do not interact in a symbiotic manner. These microorganisms are free-living and rely on plant leftovers or their own photosynthesis to exist. Although free-living nitrogen fixers do not enter the plant’s tissues, a tight interaction is developed where these bacteria reside close enough to the root that the atmospheric nitrogen fixed by the bacteria is taken up by the plant, resulting in greater nitrogen absorption. Besides, other bacteria that do not fix nitrogen have been demonstrated to boost nitrogen uptake in plants, resulting in increased nitrogen use efficiency [87], most likely due to increased root development, which allows plants to reach more soil [63]. Evidence of PGPR involvement in the plant N budget has been identified for various plants, particularly sugarcane [88].
Rhizobial N-fixation is an integrated approach for disease control, growth stimulation, as well as providing and maintaining the nitrogen level in agricultural soils around the world, thus minimizing the need for extensive N-fertilizer application and limiting the soil and environmental challenges associated with it.
Phosphorus (P) is the most significant vital element in plant nutrition (N), alongside nitrogen [89]. It is involved in a number of major metabolic activities in plants, including macromolecular biosynthesis, photosynthesis, respiration, energy transfer, and signal transduction [90]. Although most soils hold a significant amount of phosphorus, which builds over time as a consequence of fertilizer treatments, plants have access to only a small portion of it. Despite the fact that P is abundant in both organic and inorganic forms in the soil, only 0.1% of it is available to plants because 95–99% of phosphate is either insoluble, immobilized, or precipitated [91]. Plants can absorb mono and dibasic phosphate on their own, but organic and insoluble phosphate must be mineralized or solubilized by microorganisms [92]. Phosphate anions are highly reactive and, depending on the soil quality, can be trapped by precipitation with cations including Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, and Fe3+. Plants cannot absorb phosphorus in these forms because it is highly insoluble. As a result, plants only get a small percentage of the total.
When deficient, phosphorus-based fertilizers are typically used to replenish soil P, which is readily available to plants. Supplementing P with commercial fertilizers, however, is not an ideal option due to their high cost and sometimes inaccessibility to plants since they are easily lost from the soil and subsequently mix with local streams, contaminating both terrestrial and aquatic environments [93]. Therefore, phosphorus solubilization, in addition to nitrogen fixation, is also vital biologically. Phosphate solubilization is among the most profound consequences of PGPR on plant nutrition. Persistent plant growth, PGPR, plays a major role in solubilizing phosphorus [94]. The potential of various bacterial species to solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds such as dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate, rock phosphate, and hydroxyapatite has been documented by many researchers. Phosphate can be dissolved in insoluble forms by a variety of PGPR, including Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Rhizobium. PGPR solubilizes P by employing a number of mechanisms, including the synthesis of organic acids and extracellular enzymes, to make use of inaccessible forms of P, hence assisting in the availability of P for plant absorption. Miller et al. [95] pointed out two processes—acidification of the external medium via the release of low molecular weight organic acids (such as gluconic acid) that chelate phosphate-bound cations and the formation of phosphatases/phytases that hydrolyze organic forms of phosphate compounds. Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) has been shown to lower the recommended P dose by approximately 25% [96] and is even more efficacious when combined with other PGPRs or mycorrhizal fungi, reducing the P supplementation to 50%. As a result, the risk of P runoff and eutrophication is mitigated [97].
Potassium (K) deficit has become a severe crop production bottleneck. Plants with insufficient potassium have poor root development, low seed production, a slow growth rate, and a decreased yield. Soluble potassium concentrations in soil are typically low; over 90% of the potassium in the soil is in the form of insoluble rocks and silicate minerals [98]. Several microbes, particularly fungal and bacterial genera, have close connections with plants and can release potassium in accessible form from potassium-bearing minerals in soils through the synthesis and secretion of organic acids [99, 100, 101]. Setiawati and Mutmainnah [101] synthesize organic acids produced by soil microorganisms, such as acetate, ferulic acid, oxalate, coumaric acid, and citrate, which significantly increase mineral dissolution rates and proton production by acidifying the soil rhizosphere and resulting in mineral K solubilization. As a result, using potassium-solubilizing PGPR as a biofertilizer in agricultural production can reduce agrochemical use while also encouraging environmentally friendly crop production.
Iron (Fe) is a major bulk mineral abundantly available on Earth, yet it is inaccessible in the soil for plants, owing to the fact that Fe3+ (ferric ion), the most common form of Fe found in nature, is hardly soluble [102]. PGPRs are the right fit to address this issue as they produce siderophores, which are tiny organic compounds that increase Fe absorption capability when it is scarce. Since PGPR can form siderophores, they are a valuable asset in supplying the plant with the necessary iron. Siderophores released by PGPRs boost plant growth and development via facilitating access to Fe in the soil surrounding the roots [103]. Plant growth can be stimulated directly by siderophore-producing bacteria, which improves plant Fe intake, or indirectly by suppressing the activities of plant pathogens in the rhizosphere, which limits their Fe availability [104]. Pathogen suppression is induced by the synthesis of siderophores, which decrease pathogen survival by chelating available Fe and therefore restricting pathogen survival [105]. In the presence of other metals, such as nickel and cadmium, a robust siderophore, such as the ferric-siderophore complex, is crucial for Fe uptake by plants [106]. Siderophores alleviate stress on the plants caused by potentially hazardous metals, such as Al, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn, found in polluted soil via forming stable compounds with them [107]. This phenomenon is beneficial for reducing plant stress induced by potentially harmful metals found in contaminated soils. Furthermore, siderophore-expressing rhizobacteria could be a potential alternative to chemical fertilizers by concurrently addressing salt-stress effects and Fe limitation in saline soils.
One of the many advantages of rhizobacteria in encouraging plant growth and controlling plant diseases is their ability to synthesize polysaccharides. Multifunctional polysaccharides, for instance, structural polysaccharides, intracellular polysaccharides, and extracellular polysaccharides, are synthesized by specific bacteria. Exopolysaccharide production is critical for biofilm development, and root colonization can influence microbial interactions with root appendages. The colonization of plant roots by EPS-producing bacteria aids in the separation of free and insoluble phosphorus in soils, circulating critical nutrients to the plant for appropriate growth and development, as well as protecting it against disease attacks. EPS-producing bacteria have a variety of roles in plant-microbe interactions, including protection against desiccation, stress [108], adherence to surfaces, plant invasion, and plant defense response [109]. Plant exopolysaccharides produced by plant-growth-enhancing rhizobacteria are critical in stimulating plant growth because they act as an active signal molecule during beneficial interactions and generate a defense response during the infection phase [110]. Some plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria that produce exopolysaccharides can also bind cations, including Na+, implying that they may play a role in limiting the amount of Na + available for plant uptake and thereby reducing salt stress [111].
Phytohormones, commonly known as plant growth regulators, are organic chemicals that, at low levels (less than 1 mM), promote, inhibit, or modify plant growth and development [112]. Phytohormones are categorized based on where they act. Botanists recognize five main kinds of phytohormones: Auxins, Gibberellins, Ethylene, Cytokinins, Ethylene, and Abscisic acid.
Phytohormones stimulate root cell proliferation by overproducing lateral roots and root hairs, resulting in increased nutrition and water intake [113]. This is crucial for regulating nutrient uptake depending on soil composition and environmental circumstances. Slower primary root development and a spike in the proportion and length of lateral roots and root hairs are the most common effects.
Phytohormones play an important role in regulating developmental processes and signaling networks that are involved in plant adaptation to a variety of biotic and abiotic stressors [114]. Abiotic stressors, however, disrupt plant growth by altering endogenous levels of phytohormones [115]. Surprisingly, some bacteria, such as PGPR, may stimulate plants to produce phytohormones.
A diverse spectrum of rhizospheric microorganisms is capable of producing growth hormones that can promote cell proliferation in the root architecture by inducing an increase in nutrition and water intake by encouraging root hair growth, thus regulating overall plant growth and development, as well as activating pathogen defensive responses [116]. Important biological rhizobacteria can adjust to their surroundings and develop stress tolerance by repairing plant roots. The production of growth metabolites by PGPRs may help provide water stress resistance in host root colonization, resulting in higher optimal crop output.
Auxin is a critical molecule that regulates most plant functions, either directly or indirectly, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is the most abundant and physiologically potent phytohormone that regulates gene expression by upregulating and downregulating it [116, 117]. More than 80% of rhizospheric bacteria have been known to be capable of synthesizing and releasing auxins. IAA produced by PGPR regulates a wide range of processes in plant development and growth, including cell division, differentiation, organogenesis, tropic responses, primary root elongation, and the formation of lateral roots [118]. As a result of the increased root surface area and length mediated by bacterial IAA, plants have better access to soil nutrients. Under salinity stress circumstances, the secretion of IAA by PGPR may have a key function in managing and regulating IAA concentrations in the root system, resulting in improved plant salinity stress responses [119]. Besides, microbe-induced IAA can boost root and shoot biomass output in water-stressed situations [120].
Gibberellins (GA) are another type of phytohormone produced by rhizobacteria. Different activities in higher plants, such as seed germination, root and leaf meristem size, cell division and stem elongation, floral induction, fruiting, and the flowering process, growth of the hypocotyl and stem, are all mediated by GA [121]. However, shoot elongation is by far the most significant physiological function of GA [122], which modifies the morphology of plants.
Cytokinins are a type of growth regulators that are responsible for seed germination, production of shoots, vascular cambium sensitivity, the proliferation of root hairs, improvement of cell division and root development, interactions of plants with pathogens, and nutrient mobilization and assimilation [123, 124], but suppress root elongation and lateral root formation [125, 126]. They are especially important for the cell cycle’s progression. Cytokinin, either alone or in combination with other phytohormones like abscisic acid and auxin, can help salt-stressed plants grow faster while also improving resistance by altering the expression of genes [127]. PGPRs, such as Bradyrhizobiumjaponicum, Azospirillumbrasilense, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Arthrobactergiacomelloi, Paenibacilluspolymyxa, and Bacillus licheniformis, have been demonstrated to produce cytokinin (particularly zeatin) [69]. Cytokinin-producing PGPRs act as biocontrol agents against a variety of pathogens [128].
PGPR has been proven in various investigations to be effective in both creating and regulating the amounts of ABA and gibberellic acid in plants. Gibberellins promote primary root elongation and lateral root development. Several PGPR, including Azotobacterspp, Azospirillumspp, Achromobacterxylosoxidans, Gluconobacterdiazotrophicus, Acinetobactercalcoaceticus, Bacillus spp., and Rhizobia spp., have been found to produce gibberellin [129].
The role of ABA under drought stress, for example, is well-known. Under conditions of water deficit, increased ABA levels cause stomata to shut, limiting water loss. This hormone, on the other hand, offers a variety of benefits during lateral root development [129]. Inoculation with Azospirillumbrasilense Sp245 increased ABA content in Arabidopsis, especially when grown under osmotic stress [130].
In addition to their roles in plant RSA, these two hormones are involved in plant defense mechanisms. As a result, PGPR, which produces these hormones, may affect the hormonal balance involved in plant defense, including the jasmonate and salicylic acid pathways [131].
As climate change conditions worsen, extreme environmental conditions that can cause significant annual losses in total crop output are now more prevalent worldwide [132, 133]. Many biotic and abiotic stresses are causing havoc on the sector, resulting in enormous plant productivity losses all around the world. Stress factors comprise nutrient shortages, heavy metal contamination, high wind, extreme temperatures, salinity, drought, illnesses, plant invasions, pests, salt, and soil erosion [69].
As a result of climate change, abiotic stresses, such as drought and high temperatures, have risen in frequency and intensity, resulting in 70% losses in major staple food crops, posing a danger to global food security [134]. Drought and high soil salinity, as well as their downstream impacts, such as osmotic, oxidative, and ionic stress, are regarded as important hindrances to long-term agriculture production [135]. Stressed plants suffer from internal metabolism disruption due to metabolic enzyme inhibition, substrate scarcity, excessive need for different chemicals, or a combo of the following. To endure unfavorable conditions, metabolic reconfiguration is required to comply with the demand for anti-stress compounds, such as suitable solutes, antioxidants, and proteins [136].
Agricultural breeding practices have tried to produce species that are more productive in unfavorable environments for ages. However, crop breeding for abiotic stress resistance has been impeded by a lack of reliable and consistent traits. Tolerance to stress is influenced by a number of genes working together. Furthermore, using agrochemicals to address biotic stresses and nutritional deficits contributes to environmental degradation, has a negative influence on the biogeochemical cycle system, and puts people at increased risk. The potential repercussions of the aforementioned stresses are significant, necessitating the development of robust, cost-effective, and environmentally acceptable methods to mitigate these stresses’ harmful effects on plants. As a result, there has been a spike in interest in environmentally friendly and organic agriculture techniques. Plant growth stimulants have been utilized in bio-fertilization, root revitalization, rhizoremediation, disease resistance, and other modes of microbial revival [137].
The efficient approach of PGPR can alleviate stresses that cause serious damage to crop yield, hence, the application of PGPR and/or their byproducts, which can help plants successfully resist extreme environmental circumstances, is one of the most eco-friendly ways [138]. Some PGPR genera, for instance, P. fluorescens, produce the enzymes 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase and hydroxyacetophenone monooxygenase, which break down the ethylene precursor ACC to a-ketobutyrate and ammonia, thereby protecting plants from abiotic stressors [139]. The most destructive factors that reduce agricultural productivity are salinity and drought [140]. Furthermore, greater ethylene levels in the plant lead to premature fatuity symptoms, including leaf yellowing, abscission, and desiccation/necrosis [141]. PGPR is essential to minimize ethylene concentrations in plants, which in turn reduces stress.
During dry spells, turgor pressure and water potential have a significant impact on plant functionality. Drought stress results in substantial losses in agricultural output and the flow of nutrients, such as sulfates, nitrates, calcium, silica, and magnesium, as well as a reduction in photosynthesis activity [142]. To achieve sustainable agricultural productivity, bacterial colonies in the rhizosphere and endorhizosphere stimulate the plant to withstand drought [143]. PGPR releases osmolytes, which function in tandem with those obtained from plants to keep plants healthy and improve their growth and development, as well as withstand drought-related stress and excessive salt levels in the soil [144]. According to research findings, inoculating plants growing in dry and semi-arid areas with beneficial plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), which enhances plant abiotic stress tolerance with an osmotic component, could improve drought tolerance and water utilization efficiency. PGPR-induced root development, nutrient uptake efficiency, and systemic tolerance have been proposed as biochemical changes in plants that result in increased abiotic stress tolerance (IST) [78].
Rise in global temperature and fluctuations in precipitation as a result of climate change have resulted in unprecedented crop pests and illnesses in various parts of the world [82]. Biotic agents, such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, protists, weeds, insects, and arachnids, are a prevalent concern in crop production and a long-term danger to sustainable agriculture and ecosystem stability around the world [145]. These species can induce biotic stress in their hosts by interfering with normal metabolism, injuring their plant hosts, reducing plant vigor, limiting plant development, and/or inducing plant mortality. Biotic stress has an impact on co-evolution, ecosystem nutrient cycling, population dynamics, horticulture plant health, and natural habitat ecology [146]. They also result in pre- and post-harvest damage to agricultural crops [147].
According to the FAO, pests are estimated to be responsible for up to 40% of global agricultural production losses each year. Plant diseases cost the world economy more than $220 billion per year while invading insects cost at least $70 billion [148].
Pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to prevent or control pests. However, these are poisonous compounds that pollute soil, watercourses, and plant life. The inappropriate application and overuse of such chemicals have triggered numerous problems (e.g., the emergence of resistance in target organisms, food contamination, and environmental pollution) [149]. Pesticide use causes morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes in plants that can have a detrimental effect on the plant’s development and growth, leaving chemical residues in numerous plant tissues, as well as insect resistance to pesticides [150, 151]. Besides, pesticides cause oxidative stress in plants, hinder physiological and biochemical pathways, cause toxicity, obstruct photosynthesis, and reduce crop yield. The overgeneration of reactive oxygen species has a negative effect on non-targeted plants. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive in nature, causing oxidative damage to lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and DNA in plants, as well as disruptions in other biochemical and physiological cell processes [152].
The rising number and intensity of pesticide consumption have presented a significant obstacle to the pests being targeted, leading them to disseminate to dynamic habitats and/or adjust to the changing settings [153]. Resistance is currently the greatest serious impediment to the effective use of pesticides. Many pest species have developed resistance to pesticides as a result of their use around the World [154].
Pesticides’ impact on non-target species has been a source of debate and worry around the world for decades. Pesticides’ adverse impacts on non-target arthropods have been well documented [155]. Natural insect adversaries, such as parasitoids and predators, are tragically the most vulnerable to insecticides and suffer the most harm [156]. Natural enemies that ordinarily keep small pests in check are sometimes harmed, which can lead to subsequent pest outbreaks.
Not just that, pesticide use may have a negative impact on the earthworm population. Earthworms contribute to the improvement and maintenance of soil structure by producing channels in the soil that allow for aeration and drainage. In agricultural settings, they are regarded as a key indicator of soil quality [157]. Earthworms are harmed by a wide range of agricultural practices, with indiscriminate pesticide usage being one of the most serious [158]. Yasmin and D’Souza [159] found that pesticides have a dose-dependent effect on earthworm reproduction and proliferation.
Moreover, pesticide usage has the potential to destroy biodiversity. Degraded pesticides interface with the soil as well as its inhabitants, affecting microbial diversity, biochemical processes, and enzyme activity [160]. Any change in the activity of soil microorganisms as a result of pesticide application disrupts the ecological environment, resulting in a loss of soil quality. In crops cultivated on soils excessively exposed to chemical pesticides, nutrient loss and disease incidence are widespread [161], which is unfavorable from the perspective of agricultural soil management for food and nutritional security.
Exogenous pesticide residues may also alter the efficacy of beneficial root-colonizing microbes, such as fungi, bacteria, algae, and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), in soil by affecting their growth, and metabolic activity, among other things [162].
Furthermore, pesticides are widely distributed when they are transported across long distances by air or water [163]. Several pesticides have a prolonged half-life (up to years) in the environment; for example, the half-life of HCH in water is determined to be 191 days [164], hence posing a threat to aquatic creatures.
The mode of pesticides’ action is hazardous not just to the target organisms but also to non-target creatures, such as humans. The physicochemical parameters of the active ingredient are known to influence pesticide diffusion into plant tissue. As a result, pesticides with a systemic effect are absorbed by the roots or leaves and transported throughout the plant, as a result, they pose a major health risk to anyone who consumes them [165]. Pesticides’ negative impacts on human health have begun to emerge as a result of their toxicity, longevity in the environment, and tendency to penetrate the food chain. Based on the side effects, chemical pesticides employed in crop protection to limit the damage caused by pathogens and pests in agricultural areas pose significant long-term risks and challenges to life forms. Pesticides can penetrate the human body through immediate exposure to chemicals, contaminated water, or polluted air, as well as through food, particularly fruits and vegetables. Pesticide exposure can cause both acute and chronic disorders. Humans develop chronic sickness after being exposed to sub-lethal levels of pesticides for extended periods of time [166]. They are believed to stimulate cancer [167] and fetal malformations [168], and they are nonbiodegradable [169]. Encountering pesticides with genetic makeup, resulting in DNA damage and chromosomal abnormalities, is one of the primary pathways that lead to chronic disorders, such as cancer [170]. Pesticides can also cause oxidative stress by modifying the amounts of antioxidant enzymes, including glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase, which increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) [171]. Pesticide-induced oxidative stress has been linked to a number of health concerns, including Parkinson’s disease and glucose homeostasis disruption [170].
Given the pervasive harmful effects of pesticides on plants, soil, the environment, and human health, an environmentally friendly replacement is required, making PGPR a viable option.
Biocontrol agents are bacteria that suppress the occurrence or severity of plant diseases, whereas antagonists are bacteria that have antagonistic behavior toward a pathogen. PGPR can be used as a biocontrol agent (Figure 3) to protect plants from pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, insects, and fungi [173].
PGPR as biocontrol agent [
When compared to chemical pesticides, PGPR has unique benefits, including being harmless to mankind and nature, dissolving more quickly in soil, and having a lesser possibility of pathogen resistance development [174]. Because plants, unlike animals, are unable to use avoidance and escape as stress-relieving strategies, their existence has been marked by the establishment of extraordinarily favorable partnerships with their more mobile partners, microbes. PGPR and its interactions with plants are economically harnessed [175], and they hold considerable promise for long-term agricultural sustainability. Plants that have been inoculated by immersing their roots or seeds in PGPR cultures overnight have been shown to be extremely resistant to many forms of biotic stress [176].
Antibiotic synthesis is one of the most robust and well-studied biocontrol mechanisms of PGPR against phytopathogens during the last two decades [177]. Antibiotics are low-molecular-weight toxins that have the ability to kill or inhibit the growth of other bacteria. The Bacillus genus and Rhizobacteria are the most significant for antibiotic synthesis [178]. Antibacterial and antifungal antibiotics are produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis, including subtilin, bacilysin, and emicobacillin [179].
Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is a physiological condition of increased defensive capacity triggered by a specific environmental stimulation. Conrath et al. [180] define ISR as “an enhanced defensive ability of plants in response to specific pathogens stimulated by beneficial microorganisms present in the rhizosphere,” a scenario wherein the interaction of certain microorganisms with roots results in plant tolerance to pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. ISR can also be induced by certain environmental cues that cause upregulation of plants’ innate defenses in response to the biotic assault, allowing plants to respond faster and stronger to subsequent pathogen attacks [181]. Following the pathogenic invasion, signals are produced, and a defense mechanism is activated via the vascular system. Among the defense mechanisms produced by ISR in plants are cell wall reinforcement [182], production of secondary metabolites, and accumulation of defense-related enzymes, such as chitinases, glucanases, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and polyphenol oxidase, lipoxygenase, SOD, CAT, and APX along with some proteinase inhibitors [183].
ISR is not unique to a particular pathogen but can benefit a plant by evading a variety of diseases. Various plants develop systemic resistance to a wide range of plant diseases and a variety of environmental stresses when primed with PGPR [184]. ISR is among the pathways through which PGPR might minimize the onset of various plant diseases by modifying the physical and biochemical attributes of host plants and thereby boosting plant growth [185]. After applying plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria, diseases of fungal, bacterial, and viral origin, as well as damage caused by insects and nematodes, can be decreased [186].
Non-pathogenic microorganisms promote ISR, which starts in the roots and extends to the shoots [187]. ISR stimulates plant defense mechanisms and shields unexposed regions of plants against future pathogenic attacks by microbes and insects. The signaling of ethylene and jasmonic acid in the plant is involved in induced systemic resistance, and these hormones increase the host plant’s defense responses against a range of plant diseases [188]. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), siderophores, homoserine lactones, 2, 4-diacetylphloroglucinol, cyclic lipopeptides, and volatiles like acetoin and 2, 3-butanediol are only a few of the bacterial components that cause induced systemic resistance [189].
Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria use another mechanism to promote growth—enzymatic activity, producing compounds that inhibit phytopathogenic agents [190]. Rhizobacterial strains that promote plant growth can secrete enzymes, including ACC-deaminase, phosphatases, chitinases, 1,3-glucanase, proteases, dehydrogenases, and lipases, among others [94, 191]. They excrete cell wall hydrolases, which are used to break down cell walls, neutralize infections, assault pathogens, and cause hyperparasitic activity [192]. Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria suppress pathogenic fungi, such as
In recent years, microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOC) have been shown to play an important role in microorganism–plant interactions [196, 197, 198]. VOCs are produced by a wide range of soil microorganisms. Bacillus bacteria are the most common microbes that produce antimicrobial MVOCs. Bacterial volatiles have a key function in encouraging plant growth by regulating phytohormone synthesis and metabolism.
They can also promote plant health by acting as antibacterial, nematicidal, oomyceticidal, and antifungal agents, as well as eliciting plant immunity via the salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways [199]. These molecules have the potential to increase plant growth and development and induce systemic resistance (ISR) against pathogenic organisms, resulting in improved agricultural well-being [200]. Through the SA-signaling pathway, acetoin from the bacteria B. subtilis produces systemic resistance in
Depending on the species, the quantity and composition of VOCs varies [202]. 2, 3-Butanediol is a volatile organic compound (VOC) generated by a variety of microorganisms that, among other things, can activate plant resistance against pathogens. This mVOC generated by
The antagonistic activity of PGPR also results in the production of volatile compounds. HCN, a well-studied biocontrol agent, commonly known as prussic acid, is a broad-spectrum volatile secondary metabolite generated by numerous rhizobacteria and is crucial for the biological control of several infectious microorganisms in the soil. Most metalloenzymes are inhibited by their cyanide ion, particularly copper-containing cytochrome c oxidases [204]. HCN-producing Pseudomonas strains are employed in the biological control of tomato bacterial canker [205]. For instance, the inhibition of Macrophomina phaseolina and Meloidogyne javanica caused sunflower charcoal rot and tomato root-knot diseases and has been related to bacterial strains secreting HCN [206]. The inhibitory activity process starts in the mitochondria, where HCN inhibits electron transport, reducing energy supply to the cell and finally causing pathogenic organisms to die.
Plants generate a lot of “stress ethylene” (ET) after the onset of a disease or stress. Much of the growth inhibition that happens as a result of environmental stress is due to the plant’s response to elevated levels of stress ethylene, which aggravates the stressor’s response. Likewise, ethylene production inhibitors can considerably reduce the intensity of various environmental stressors. The production of defense enzymes, including 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, has also been linked to PGPM’s ability to protect against biotic stress [207]. Numerous results suggest that seed inoculation with bacterial endophytes increases plant defense. This is because bacteria produce the enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC), which can cleave ET into ketobutyrate and ammonia, lowering the presence of this enzyme linked to plant stress and physiological impairment [208]. As a result, if ACC deaminase-containing bacteria can reduce plant ethylene levels, treating plants with these organisms may give some defense against the stress inhibitory effects. The synthesis of ACC-deaminase by
To meet the ever-increasing nutritional demand of the rapidly increasing world population, chemical fertilizers must be employed. However, unintended and excessive use has a variety of negative repercussions on the natural environment resulting in soil degradation, global warming, and climate change, necessitating the search for environmentally sound alternatives. PGPR, in this regard, is a realistic choice for agricultural production that does not deplete natural resources. Plants and microbial communities in the soil have evolved a variety of biotic connections, ranging from commensalism to mutualism. Plant-PGPR collaboration is an important aspect of this web of interactions, promoting the growth and health of a variety of plants. PGPR has recently received a lot of attention for its potential to replace agrochemicals for plant growth and yield through a variety of processes, including decomposition of organic matter, recycling of essential elements, formation of soil structure, production of numerous plant growth regulators, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, degradation of organic pollutants, stimulation of root growth, solubilization of phosphorus, production of siderophore, and solubilization of mineral nutrients, all of which are important for soil and plant health. Furthermore, they are cost-efficient and environmentally sustainable and assure that nutrients from natural sources are always accessible. Besides, bacterial colonies in the rhizosphere have a considerable impact on phytopathogenic microorganism reduction, in addition to boosting plant growth through active processes, hence the use of phytomicrobiome representatives in farming production as long-term disease prevention and nutrient supplement strategy could also help to mitigate the detrimental effects of pesticide use.
As a nutshell, in the face of global climate change, PGPR could be a more environmentally friendly option than chemical fertilizers.
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Abdul Khalil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5889",title:"Grasses",subtitle:"Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"605047fa783d21860951085f83b84f47",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Sammera Mohamed Salih Al-Samaraee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5889.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"61253",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76359",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"61106",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76485",title:"Review of the Resources and Utilization of Bamboo in China",slug:"review-of-the-resources-and-utilization-of-bamboo-in-china",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"China has made a breakthrough in the development and scientific cultivation of bamboo. At present, China ranks first in bamboo research worldwide, because of numerous research units and strong technical force. This chapter focuses on the utilization of bamboo resources such as food, roofs and walls of houses, fences, and domestic and agricultural implements such as water containers, food and drink container hats, arrows, quiver, etc. A total of 861 species and infraspecific taxa belonging to 43 genera have been reported and include 707 species, 52 varieties, 98 forma, and 4 hybrids, which are naturally distributed in 21 provinces. The national bamboo forest covers 6.01 million ha, including 4.43 million ha of Moso bamboo and 1.58 million ha of other bamboo species. As the country develops and new economic activities emerge, bamboo production has shifted from harsh processing, such as bamboo basket, to finished machining, such as bamboo flooring. The bamboo industry has attracted new opportunities as a new energy source, particularly renewable energy, and may be considered a lignocellulose substrate for bioethanol production because of its environmental benefits and high annual biomass yield.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Weiyi Liu, Chaomao Hui, Fang Wang, Meng Wang and Guanglu Liu",authors:[{id:"218573",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",middleName:null,surname:"Weiyi",slug:"liu-weiyi",fullName:"Liu Weiyi"},{id:"218577",title:"Prof.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Chaomao",slug:"hui-chaomao",fullName:"Hui Chaomao"},{id:"221875",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"fang-wang",fullName:"Fang Wang"}]},{id:"60430",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75626",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"60797",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76463",title:"A Review of Bambusicolous Ascomycetes",slug:"a-review-of-bambusicolous-ascomycetes",totalDownloads:1550,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Bamboo with more than 1500 species is a giant grass and was distributed worldwide. Their culms and leaves are inhabited by abundant microfungi. A documentary investigation points out that more than 1300 fungi including 150 basidiomycetes and 800 ascomycetous species with 240 hyphomycetous taxa and 110 coelomycetous taxa are associated with bamboo. Ascomycetes are the largest group with totally 1150 species. Families Xylariaceae and Hypocreaceae, which are most represented, have 74 species and 63 species in 18 and 14 genera, respectively, known from bamboo. The genus Phyllachora with a maximum number of species (22) occurs on bamboo, followed by Nectria (21) and Hypoxylon (20). The most represented host genera Bambusa, Phyllostachys, and Sasa are associated by 268, 186, and 105 fungal species, respectively. The brief review of major morphology and phylogeny of bambusicolous ascomycetes is provided, as well as research prospects.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Dong-Qin Dai, Li-Zhou Tang and Hai-Bo Wang",authors:[{id:"219411",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong-Qin",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"dong-qin-dai",fullName:"Dong-Qin Dai"},{id:"228691",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"li-zhou-tang",fullName:"Li-Zhou Tang"},{id:"228708",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"hai-bo-wang",fullName:"Hai-Bo Wang"}]},{id:"55730",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69303",title:"Vetiver Grass: A Tool for Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"vetiver-grass-a-tool-for-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:3060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vetiver grass is a densely tufted bunch grass which can be easily established in both tropics and temperate regions of the world. It plays a vital role in watershed protection by slowing down and spreading runoff harmlessly on the farmland, recharging ground water, reducing siltation of drainage systems and water bodies, reducing agro-chemicals loading into water bodies and for rehabilitation of degraded soils. Vetiver grass could tolerate extremely high levels of heavy metals. It could be used as biological pest control. The use of vetiver grass has been regarded as a low-cost technology for soil and water conservation; on- and off-farm land and water sources stabilization and remediation of polluted soils; and enhancement of water quality for irrigation purposes when compared with other soil conservation technologies. It could be a dynamic tool for mitigating environmental and agricultural problems, thereby enhancing crop yield and supporting all-year round agricultural cultivation. Recently, vetiver grass has been used to raise animals of different kinds. Thus, this chapter in the book explores several applications of vetiver grass, its impacts and resultant benefits as a technology that could enhance sustainable agricultural development.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Suarau O. Oshunsanya and OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"},{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61253",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"55730",title:"Vetiver Grass: A Tool for Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"vetiver-grass-a-tool-for-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:3060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vetiver grass is a densely tufted bunch grass which can be easily established in both tropics and temperate regions of the world. It plays a vital role in watershed protection by slowing down and spreading runoff harmlessly on the farmland, recharging ground water, reducing siltation of drainage systems and water bodies, reducing agro-chemicals loading into water bodies and for rehabilitation of degraded soils. Vetiver grass could tolerate extremely high levels of heavy metals. It could be used as biological pest control. The use of vetiver grass has been regarded as a low-cost technology for soil and water conservation; on- and off-farm land and water sources stabilization and remediation of polluted soils; and enhancement of water quality for irrigation purposes when compared with other soil conservation technologies. It could be a dynamic tool for mitigating environmental and agricultural problems, thereby enhancing crop yield and supporting all-year round agricultural cultivation. Recently, vetiver grass has been used to raise animals of different kinds. Thus, this chapter in the book explores several applications of vetiver grass, its impacts and resultant benefits as a technology that could enhance sustainable agricultural development.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Suarau O. Oshunsanya and OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"},{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]},{id:"60430",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"70724",title:"Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review",slug:"effects-of-fire-on-grassland-soils-and-water-a-review",totalDownloads:1060,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Grasslands occur on all of the continents. They collectively constitute the largest ecosystem in the world, making up 40.5% of the terrestrial land area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasslands are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under natural and anthropogenic pressures. Their importance now is to the variety of ecosystem services that they provide: livestock grazing areas, water catchments, biodiversity reserves, tourism sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources. An important function of grasslands is their sequestration and storage of carbon (C). Mollisol soils of grasslands have deep organic matter horizons that make this vegetation type almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Fire has been and continues to be an important disturbance in grassland evolution and management. Natural wildfires have been a component of grasslands for over 300 million years and were important in creating and maintaining most of these ecosystems. Humans ignited fires over many millennia to improve habitat for animals and livestock. Prescribed fire practiced by humans is a component of modern grassland management. The incidence of wildfires in grasslands continues to grow as an issue as droughts persist in semi-arid regions. Knowledge of fire effects on grasslands has risen in importance to land managers because fire, as a disturbance process, is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management and restoration ecology. Fire is an intrusive disturbance in both managed and wildland forests and grasslands. It initiates changes in ecosystems that affect the composition, structure, and patterns of vegetation on the landscape. It also affects the soil and water resources of ecosystems that are critical to overall ecosystem functions and processes.",book:{id:"8088",slug:"grasses-and-grassland-aspects",title:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects",fullTitle:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects"},signatures:"Daniel George Neary and Jackson McMichael Leonard",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",middleName:"George",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"},{id:"276254",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",middleName:null,surname:"Leonard",slug:"jackson-leonard",fullName:"Jackson Leonard"}]},{id:"55524",title:"Importance of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) for Controlling of Aquatic Vegetation",slug:"importance-of-grass-carp-ctenopharyngodon-idella-for-controlling-of-aquatic-vegetation",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Aquatic plants are beneficial and a necessary part of lakes and reservoirs. Also, some kind of plants are the main food source for aquatic animals. Plants are able to stabilize sediments, improve water clarity and add diversity to the shallow areas of lakes. On the other hand, overgrown plants can become a nuisance by hindering human uses of water and threaten the structure and function of diverse native aquatic ecosystems. This chapter aims to make analysis of using of grass carp to control aquatic vegetation. 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