Composition and batch numbers of the adhesives used in the study.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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She received both her master's degree in 1996 and her PhD in 2002 from the Balikesir University. In 2012, she received a Project Incentive Award in Basic Sciences from the same institution. She is responsible for the implementation of educational programs and scientific researches, providing projects, and establishing and maintaining relationships with group members and projects partners.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Balıkesir University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"256869",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Simoni Moraes Tondolo",slug:"juliana-simoni-moraes-tondolo",fullName:"Juliana Simoni Moraes Tondolo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256869/images/system/256869.jfif",biography:"Dr. Juliana Simoni Moraes Tondolo attended Pharmacy and Biochemistry at UFSM, Brazil, from 1993 till 1996. Her specialization is in \r\nHomeopathy, FACIS - Faculty of Health Sciences of São Paulo, Brazil (2000 to 2002) and Clinical laboratory, UFSM, Brazil (2002 to 2004).\r\nDr. Simoni Moraes Tondolo received her Master’s degree in Homeopathy, FACIS, Brazil (2005 to 2007) and Pharmacology, UFSM - Brazil (2009 to 2011). She received her Doctor degree in Pharmacology, UFSM, Brazil (from 2012 to 2016) and started her Post-doctorate in Pharmacology, UFSM, Brazil in 2018. Her professional titles include: Professor, SOBRESP - Faculty of Health Sciences, Brazil, 2015 to present; First Lieutenant Biochemist of the General Hospital of Santa Maria, Brazilian Army, Brazil, 2006 to 2009; Professor, Franciscan University - Brazil, 2006 to 2007; Professor, FACIS, Brazil, 2005 to 2006; Head pharmaceutical, Via Exata - Manipulation Pharmacy, Brazil, 1999 to 2006.",institutionString:"SOBRESP - Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6329",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549fa517876fb9e6cbbdfdc820b2109c",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",bookSignature:"Tulin Askun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6329.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89795",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulin",surname:"Askun",slug:"tulin-askun",fullName:"Tulin Askun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52419",title:"Etch-and-Rinse and Self-Etch Adhesives Behavior on Dentin",doi:"10.5772/64856",slug:"etch-and-rinse-and-self-etch-adhesives-behavior-on-dentin",body:'\nMost adhesive systems were designed to promote dentin bonding through the interaction of hydrophilic monomers with the collagen fibrils exposed on the dentin surface after etching. The effectiveness of current dentin adhesives is believed to depend on the leakage of monomers with high hydrophilic affinity into the network of collagen fibers in the etched dentin structure. This entanglement of monomers with collagen fibrils and scarce residual hydroxyapatite crystals forms a hybrid tissue known as resin-dentin interdiffusion zone or hybrid layer [1].
\nAccording to Nakabayashi, Kojima, and Masuhara (1982), the hybrid layer is the zone of contact between the restorative material and the solid dentin [2]. Nakabayashi’s team was the first to demonstrate that resins could infiltrate the etched dentin to form a new structure composed of resin matrix reinforced by collagen fibers and named this biocomposite “hybrid layer” [3]. In the dentin, the bonding tension of adhesive systems depends mostly on the hybrid layer and then on the resin tags in dentin tubules, and, finally, on the chemical bond [4].
\nHybridization is the key phenomenon in the bonding of resin-based composite restorations to the dentin. It results from the molecular interaction between the resin and the demineralized network of collagen fibers, which occurs at a depth of 3–5 μm [5]. This depth decreases to 1–8 μm [4] with etch-and-rinse systems and to 0.5–1 μm with self-etch systems [6–8].
\nWhen resin interacts with the network of collagen fibers, a micromechanical bonding to the dentin occurs through the penetration of polymerizable resin monomers into the exposed collagen network, the open tubules, and their lateral branches—the canaliculi, thus originating, respectively, the hybrid layer or interdiffusion zone, the resin tags, and the resin microtags. The resin penetration through the dentin’s tubular/canalicular system is important to the mechanical retention as it may increase the adhesion to the whole dentin [9].
\nAlthough the hybrid layer thickness is not important in adhesion, its existence is essential and depends on the collagen fibers not collapsing while the dentin is drying after etching [9]. Under ideal conditions, the formation of the hybrid layer should be the greatest bonding mechanism in the superficial dentin while the resin tags are the major contributors for bonding forces in the deep dentin. On the other hand, since the intertubular dentin is limited due to the enlargement and approximation of dentinal tubules, the hybrid layer contributes little to adhesion [10]. The microtags in the canaliculi provide greater retention and better sealing, and also hybridization, which in this case is named “canalicular hybridization” [11].
\nThe main functions of the hybrid layer are bonding, copolymerization with resin-based composites, and simultaneously acting as a protective layer by preventing microorganisms and toxins from reaching the pulp through the dentin [12]. The hybridized dentin reduces the risk of microleakage, the incidence of secondary caries, and postoperative sensitivity [10].
\nThe hybrid layer’s role on dentin bonding has constantly been questioned. After etching, resin monomers do not thoroughly diffuse through the collagen network to the depth of the etched dentin. This incomplete resin leakage into the collagen network may produce a porous layer of collagen that is not protected by hydroxyapatite or impregnated with resin, which will lead to nanoleakage of the hybrid layer. This exposed collagen is thus subjected to hydrolysis and degradation, resulting in increased microleakage and failure with time [13]. Recent studies on micropermeability showed that the hybrid layer can absorb and release water, acting as a semipermeable or even permeable membrane [14, 15]. Before the resin’s penetration, part of the organic phase of the dentin matrix composed of type I collagen, proteoglycans, and other noncollagen proteins may not be impregnated with the adhesive, which causes posterior water absorption and may lead to the degradation of bonding forces by nanoleakage.
\nIn 1995, Sano described the nanoleakage phenomenon as an important indicator for evaluating a material’s sealing ability [16]. While in microleakage cracks may vary between 20 and 50 μm, in nanoleakage, they have approximately 0.02 μm [17]. Nanoleakage consists in the hybrid layer’s permeabilization to small ions or molecules, even when there is no detectable development of interface failures [18, 19]. According to Prati et al., and other authors who studied nanoleakage [16, 18, 20], this phenomenon is believed to result from several mechanisms combined, including the incomplete leakage of monomers in the demineralized collagen matrix, the presence of hydrophilic monomers, and the insufficient removal of solvent or water that is trapped in the hybrid layer. It may also originate from the contraction of restorative material during polymerization or from the elution of residual adhesive monomers [3].
\nWith etch-and-rinse adhesive systems, the demineralized dentin area becomes a weak point for adhesion due to the hydrolysis of type I collagen fibers and proteoglycans located there as they should be completely impregnated in adhesive to ensure a good protection throughout time [19, 21]. Therefore, the incomplete infiltration of resinous monomers in the demineralized dentin matrix should be the main reason for decreased adhesive forces. The poor resin leakage facilitates permeability to external fluids (as well as to oral and bacterial enzymes) and to endogenous proteolytic enzymes that are slowly released from the etched dentin after adhesion and impair the performance of the attached interface [19, 22].
\nEven though self-etch adhesive systems condition and simultaneously leak into the underlying substrate, a discrepancy between the demineralization and resin infiltration depths may occur [23, 24]. Several references prove that nanoleakage in interfaces formed by self-etch adhesives is not exclusively caused by the incomplete leakage of resin in the demineralized dentin. Other reported causes are areas within the adhesive layer from where water is incompletely removed, thus resulting in areas of improper polymerization and/or hydrogel formation, and hydrophilic areas of acidic monomers that are more prone to water caption [23]. Sometimes, in both etch-and-rinse and self-etch adhesive systems, channels filled with water form in the adhesive layer—water trees, and these are manifested by water bubbles in the resin-dentin interface. This phenomenon may contribute directly to resin degradation due to the extraction of nonpolymerized monomers or small oligomers with time [25].
\nBesides occurring in the hybrid layer, nanoleakage may also occur in the adhesive layer [16, 26]. Moreover, water absorption by hydrophilic resin monomers in the hybrid and adhesive layers may contribute to the degradation of bonding forces over time [27] since the permeable hybrid layer seems to be highly susceptible to slow water hydrolysis.
\nAmmoniacal silver nitrate (AgNO3) has been used to identify regions filled with water, with leakage failure, and with the deterioration of hydrophilic polymers in the hybrid and adhesive layers [25]. Silver nitrate is an excellent marker as silver ions are very small and have high solubility, thus allowing the preparation of highly concentrated solutions [28]. The flow of silver ions increases in water trees.
\nThis work was aimed to evaluate if the type of solvent and adhesive system influence the morphology of the hybrid layer and the occurrence of nanoleakage within it, based on high-resolution electronic microscopy (FESEM) analysis.
\nThe type of solvent and the adhesive system used in two-step etch-and-rinse adhesive systems do not influence the hybrid layer morphology, quality, and thickness, as well as the occurrence of nanoleakage within it.
\nAfter appraisal and approval by an Ethics Committee, 78 caries-free human molars (
Specimens were randomly allocated into the following six adhesive/solvent groups (Table 1):
Group A: Adper™ Scotchbond™ 1XT (3 M ESPE, Seefeld, Germany)—ethanol and water;
Group B: XP Bond™ (Dentsply, Konstanz, Germany)—tert-butanol;
Group C: Prime&Bond® NT (Dentsply, Konstanz, Germany)—acetone;
Group D: One Coat Bond® (Coltène Whaledent, Altstätten, Switzerland)—solvent free, 5% water;
Group E: AdheSE® (Ivoclar Vivadent, Schaan, Liechtenstein)—water;
Group F: Xeno® V (Dentsply, Konstanz, Germany)—water/tert-butanol.
Two layers of each adhesive system were applied on the dentin disks, following the manufacturers’ instructions, and then light cured for 20 s (BluePhase, Ivoclar Vivadent, Schaan, Liechtenstein). After adhesive application, a hybrid composite resin (Synergy® D6, Coltène Whaledent, Altstätten, Switzerland) was applied and light cured in two increments of 2 mm. Light curing was performed at 1200 mW/cm2 (BluePhase, Ivoclar Vivadent, Schaan, Liechtenstein).
\nAdhesives | \nComposition | \n
---|---|
Adper™ Scotchbond™ 1XT (3M-ESPE)* Lot number: 5 FL | \nBis-GMA, HEMA. Dimethacrylates polyalcenoic copolymer. 5 nm diameter 10% of weight silica spherical particles. Solvents: ethanol and water | \n
XP Bond™ (Dentsply) Lot number: 0609000250 | \nCarboxylic acid modified dimethacrylate (TCB resin); phosphoric acid modified acrylate resin (PENTA); urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA); triethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA); 2-hydroxy ethylmethacrylate (HEMA); butylaned benzenediol [stabilizer]; ethyl-4-dimethylamir obenzoate; camphorquinone; functionalized amorphous silica. Solvent: tert-butanol | \n
Prime & Bond™ NT (Dentsply) Lot number: 0508000096 | \nDi- and trimethacrylate resins, PENTA (dipentaerythritol penta acrylate monophosphate), photoinitiators, stabilizers, nanofillers—amorphous silicon dioxide cetylamine hydrofluoride. Solvent: acetone | \n
One Coat Bond™ (Coltene Whaledent) Lot number: 0090783 | \nHEMA, UDMA, HPMA, hidroxypropylmethacrylate, glycerol, methacrylates, polyalkenoate methacrylized, amorphous silica Solvent: 5% water | \n
AdheSE™ (Ivoclar Vivadent, Schaan – Liechtenstein) Batch number: Primer (1)·M02841 Bonding Agent (2): L56767 | \nAdheSE primer: dimethacrylate, phosphoric acid acrylate, initiators and stabilizers in an aqueous solution AdheSE bond: HEMA, dimethacrylate, silicon dioxide, initiators, and stabilizers. Solvent: water | \n
Xeno™ V (Dentsply, Konstanz—Germany) Batch number: 1002000450 | \nBifunctional acrylate, acidic acrylate functionalized phosphoric acid ester, acrylic acid, water, tertiary butanol, initiator, stabilizer. Solvents: water and tert-butanol | \n
Composition and batch numbers of the adhesives used in the study.
Bis-GMA = bisphenol A glycidyl methacrylate; HEMA = hydroxyethylmethacrylate; UDMA = Urethanedimethacrylate; HPMA = hydroxypropylmethacrylate.
*Adper™ Scotchbond™ 1XT (Europe) is the same as Adper™ Single Bond
All 48 specimens were stored at 37°C with 100% humidity for 24 h (Hemmet, Schwabach, Germany) and thermal-cycled (500 cycles) in distilled-water baths at 5 and 55°C (Aralab, mod 200E, Cascais, Portugal) with a dwell time of 20 s. After storage under the same conditions for another 24 h, specimens were fixed in glutaraldehyde and rinsed. Then, they were cross-cut in half, creating 96 restored hemidisks (
A total of 30 specimens were placed in a greenhouse (Hemmet, Schwabach, Germany) at 37°C and 100% humidity. Afterward, they were vertically cut with a microtome (Accuton 2, Struers, Copenhagen, Denmark) into 0.9 mm thick slabs, originating 60 restored hemidisks (slabs)—10 specimens per group (
Fixation was performed by immersion in a solution of 2.5% glutaraldehyde buffered in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate (pH 7.4) for 12 h at 4°C. Specimens were then rinsed three times with 20 ml of 0.2 M buffered sodium cacodylate (pH 7.4) for 1 h, followed by distilled water for 1 min. Surface polishing was achieved using decreasing abrasive grits (600, 800, and 1200) of silicon carbide paper, and diamond spray (Kemet diamond spray) of 2 μm and 1 μm on polishing cloths (DP-NAP, Struers, Copenhagen, Denmark), followed by ultrasound bath in 100% ethanol for 10 min, and demineralization in 0.5% silica-free phosphoric acid for 1 min to remove surface debris. Afterward, the specimens were dehydrated in ascending concentrations of ethanol in water (25% for 20 min, 50% for 20 min, 75% for 20 min, 95% for 30 min, and 100% for 60 min) and were dried by immersion in hexamethyldisilazane for 10 min [29].
\nSpecimens were placed in electron microscopy stubs and sputter-coated with Au-Pd (JEOL Fine Coat Ion Sputter JFC-1100, Tokyo, Japan). They were observed in field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) (JEOL JSM 6301 F, Tokyo, Japan) using secondary electrons (SE) and an accelerating voltage of 10 kV for the morphology specimens, and backscattered electrons (BE) and an accelerating voltage of 15 kV for the nanoleakage specimens. Silver was detected using the EDS Microanalysis System (Oxford Inca Energy 350®, Oxford Instruments, Oxfordshire, UK).
\nThe dentin-resin interdiffusion zone of the 16 hemidisks from each group was observed under FESEM (JEOL JSM 6301 F, Tokyo, Japan) at 10 kV, using SE. Electronic microphotographs were then taken at different magnifications and scanned with the EDS Microanalysis System (Oxford Inca Energy 350®, Oxford Instruments, Oxfordshire, UK).
\nFor the analysis of the hybrid layer morphology, in order to standardize the measurements, six images were taken with different magnifications (right, center, and left at 400×, 500×, 800×, and 1500×) per specimen. The hybrid layer thickness was measured in the 1500× images using the “offline” mode of the software (Oxford Inca Energy 350®, Oxford Instruments, Oxfordshire, UK). The hybrid layer thickness was observed in the three images at 1500×, per specimen, and was averaged in order to obtain a single value to represent each tooth.
\nFor the analysis of nanoleakage within the hybrid layer, 10 hemidisks from each group were observed under FESEM. Six images were taken with different magnifications (right, center, and left at 400× and 2000×; 1000× was used for water-tree observation) per specimen. The total length of the hybrid layer and the extension of the ammoniacal silver nitrate impregnation were measured in the 400× images using the “offline” mode of the software (Oxford Inca Energy 350®, Oxford Instruments, Oxfordshire, UK). The nanoleakage length within the hybrid layer observed in the three images at 400×, per specimen, was averaged in order to obtain a single value to represent each tooth.
\nScanning electron microscopy observations were registered in an Excel file and were analyzed using the IBM SPSS version 19 software. To detect and localize statistically significant differences in the studied variables from the six groups of adhesives, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Levene’s, and one-way or Brown–Forsythe ANOVA tests were used. Then, multiple comparisons (and correlations) were performed with the Tamhane posthoc and Bonferroni tests for morphology and nanoleakage in the hybrid layer per 305 μm, respectively. In the comparative analyses between the six studied adhesives, 5 and 10% significance levels were applied, with Bonferroni correction, and only differences with
The final number of specimens used for the statistical analysis was the same as the initial number (
The hybrid layer thickness values obtained with the different adhesive systems were the following (Table 2 and Figure 1):
Scotchbond™ 1XT, 3.23 μm ± 0.53 μm;
XP Bond™, 3.13 μm ± 0.73 μm;
Prime&Bond® NT, 2.53 μm ± 0.50 μm;
One Coat Bond®, 1.84 μm ± 0.27 μm;
AdheSE®, 1.96 μm ± 0.14 μm;
Xeno® V, 1.29 μm ± 0.14 μm.
Hybrid layer thickness | \n||
---|---|---|
Adhesives | \nMean (μm) | \nStandard deviation (μm) | \n
Scotchbond™ 1XT | \n3.2287 | \n0.53253 | \n
XP Bond™ | \n3.1335 | \n0.7315 | \n
Prime & Bond® NT | \n2.5346 | \n2.3617 | \n
One Coat Bond® | \n1.84 | \n0.2744 | \n
AdheSE® | \n1.964 | \n0.13571 | \n
Xeno® V | \n1.291 | \n0.14187 | \n
Mean hybrid layer thickness and standard deviation of the different adhesive systems.
Mean hybrid layer thickness and standard deviation of the different adhesive systems.
Scotchbond™ 1XT showed a greater mean thickness than One Coat Bond®, AdheSE®, and Xeno® V (1.26−1.94 μm,
Comparison of the mean hybrid layer thicknesses, with Bonferroni correction, between the six adhesive groups.
\nFigure 3A and B\nshows the adhesive layer (AL), the hybrid layer (HL), the resin tags (T), and dentin (D) with different magnifications (800× and 1500×). In both figures, the hybrid layer of Scotchbond™ 1XT presents good quality.
\n\nFigure 4A and B shows the adhesive layer (AL), the hybrid layer (HL), and, beneath that, the resin tags (T) at 500× and 1500× magnifications. In both figures, the hybrid layer of XP Bond™ also presents good quality.
\n\nA and B.
A and B.
Figure 5A and B shows the adhesive layer (AL) and a space in the underlying hybrid layer (HL) marked with arrows that represent a failure in the resin leakage. These figures also show resin tags (T). In this case (Prime&Bond® NT), the hybrid layer is impaired, which may imply greater nanoleakage.
\nA and B.
A and B.
\nFigure 6A and B shows the adhesive layer (AL), the hybrid layer (HL) and the resin tags (T) different magnifications (500× and 2000×). In both figures, the hybrid layer of One Coat Bond® presents good quality.
\n\n\nFigure 7A and B shows the adhesive layer (AL), the hybrid layer (HL), and, beneath that, the resin tags (T). Figure 7B shows the adhesive layer (AL), the hybrid layer (HL), and the underlying resin tags (T) with greater magnification. In both figures, the hybrid layer of AdheSE® presents good quality.
\nA and B.
\nFigure 8A and B shows the adhesive layer (AL) and a space in the underlying hybrid layer (HL) marked with arrows that represent a failure in the resin leakage. That space corresponds to the area where the collagen fibers that were not involved by adhesive resin were located before the specimens’ preparation. Those collagen fibers were degraded by either the sodium hypochlorite/hydrochloride acid during preparation or some hydrolysis during thermocycling. These figures also show the dentin (D) and the resin tags (T) of which some are fractured. In this case (Xeno® V), the hybrid layer is impaired, which may imply greater nanoleakage.
\n\nA and B.
The final number of specimens used for the statistical analysis was the same as the initial number (
Nanoleakage percentage in the hybrid layer per 305 μm | \n||
---|---|---|
Adhesives | \nMean (%) | \nStandard deviation (%) | \n
Scotchbond™ 1XT | \n49.43 | \n22.73 | \n
XP Bond™ | \n38.81 | \n22.36 | \n
Prime&Bond® NT | \n57.03 | \n31.68 | \n
One Coat Bond® | \n55.29 | \n14.74 | \n
AdheSE® | \n20.94 | \n14.63 | \n
Xeno® V | \n75.68 | \n14.58 | \n
Mean percentages and standard deviations of the nanoleakage observed in the hybrid layer (per 305 μm) of the different adhesive systems used in this study.
Scotchbond™ 1XT showed a nanoleakage of 49.43 ± 22.73%, XP Bond™ of 38.81 ± 22.36%, Prime&Bond® NT of 57.03 ± 31.68%, One Coat Bond® of 55.29 ± 14.74%, AdheSE® of 20.94 ± 14.63%, and Xeno® V of 75.68 ± 14.58% (Table 3 and Figure 9). Prime&Bond® NT had two outliers, one of which was severe (Figure 9). Even so, these outliers were not enough to impede the application of parametrical analysis methods, and their exclusion did not help to detect statistical significances.
\nDistribution of the nanoleakage percentage in the hybrid layer (per 305 μm) by the six adhesive system groups (with outliers).
Comparison of the estimated mean nanoleakages for each adhesive system group (with Bonferroni correction).
After outliers’ elimination, more analyses were conducted. For a 95% confidence, AdheSE® showed in average less 54.74% nanoleakage than Xeno® V (
\nFigure 11A and B illustrates the results of Scotchbond™ 1XT and show the adhesive layer (AL), the underlying hybrid layer (HL), the resin tags (T) and dentin (D) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. The hybrid layer reveals water absorption as it is impregnated with the ammoniacal silver nitrate (lighter shade).
A and B.
\nFigure 12A and B illustrates the results of XP Bond™ and show the adhesive layer (AL), the underlying hybrid layer (HL), and the resin tags (T) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. Figures reveal that the hybrid layer also absorbed some water as it is impregnated with the ammoniacal silver nitrate (lighter shade).
A and B.
\nFigure 13A and B illustrates the results of Prime&Bond® NT and show the adhesive layer (AL), the underlying hybrid layer (HL), and the resin tags (T) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. It is also possible to identify the resin-based composite (C). The hybrid layer reveals water absorption as it is impregnated with the ammoniacal silver nitrate (lighter shade).
A and B.
Figure 14A–C illustrates the results of One Coat Bond® and show the adhesive layer (AL), the underlying hybrid layer (HL), and the resin tags (T) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. The hybrid layer reveals water absorption as it is impregnated with the ammoniacal silver nitrate (lighter shade). In Figure 14A, the phenomenon of water trees (WT) formation is clearly visible. It is represented by a branched pattern and reveals nanoleakage in the adhesive layer because the hybrid layer acted as a permeable membrane, thus allowing water to flow through it.
\nA, B, and C.
\nFigure 15A and B illustrates the results of AdheSe® and show the adhesive layer (AL) and the underlying hybrid layer (HL) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. The hybrid layer has absorbed practically no water, and thus the ammoniacal silver nitrate solution was practically not impregnated with this adhesive.
A and B.
\nFigure 16A and B illustrates the results of Xeno® V and show the adhesive layer (AL), the underlying hybrid layer (HL), and the resin tags (T) at 400× and 2000× magnifications. The dentin (D) is also identified. The hybrid layer is almost completely impregnated with ammoniacal silver nitrate. The specimens suffered fractures, and this is clearly visible in all figures. Fracture of the resin tags (T) is also visible.
A and B.
In this study, we evaluated the hybrid layer quality, which may be very important for assessing the bonding process performance and predicting the adhesives durability in the long term in the oral environment. However, that evaluation is somewhat subjective and sometimes may be difficult to perform.
\nMilia and Santini reported that the identification of a high-quality hybrid layer with strong and stable adhesion is associated with a homogeneous area where monomers leak completely and fill the collagen matrix [30]. When the whole demineralized dentin (with exposed collagen fibers) is protected, i.e., surrounded by adhesive, a high-quality hybrid layer is achieved. When this does not occur, as in the case of etch-and-rinse adhesives, there is a discrepancy between the demineralization and the resin penetration, resulting in a “space” underneath the hybrid layer, which is clear in the electron microscopy images of the Prime&Bond® NT (Figure 5A and B). Moreover, according to some studies, regardless of the number of application steps, acetone-based etch-and-rinse adhesives have shown a performance worse than the water/ethanol-based ones. The main reason for their compromised clinical results in the long term is the high technical sensitivity of acetone-based adhesives [31, 32].
\nIn single-step self-etch systems, such as the Xeno® V, the same phenomenon appears in the FESEM images (Figure 8A and B). In this situation, the cause may lie on the phase separation and poor resin penetration due to an early evaporation of the solvent, or on a poor polymerization of the adhesive due to great quantities of water being absorbed by the hybrid layer of these adhesives [15], which might have lead to adhesive fracture during polymerization. If the solvent does not completely evaporate before light cure, failures may occur, weakening the hybrid layer and causing an early failure of the restoration [33]. Thus, the hybrid layer has poor quality. According to the literature, the good quality of a hybrid layer is essential for adhesion, even more than its thickness. That is why self-etch adhesives often provide greater forces of adhesion to the dentin than etch-and-rinse ones, despite the latter having a larger thickness (up to 5 μm versus 0.5–1.5 μm) [34]. Although these thickness values vary in different studies, they are coherent with the ones obtained in our study. This situation is related to the fact that self-etch adhesives show less discrepancy between dentin demineralization and resin penetration.
\nTherefore, there is no correlation between the hybrid layer thickness and bonding forces, which suggests that hybrid layer quality is more important than its thickness for the success of bonding forces [35]. The values obtained in this study for the hybrid layer thickness of One Coat Bond® are coherent with the ones obtained in the study by Breschi et al., which varied between 1.4 and 2.1 μm [1]. Xeno® V showed systematically lower values of mean hybrid layer thickness.
\nFor adhesion to be effective, as well as durable, it is essential that the formed hybrid layers do not have defects. Adhesives with poor-quality hybrid layers have short durability in comparison with the ones that form high-quality hybrid layers, which are more qualitatively filled by resin [36]. In poor-quality hybrid layers, collagen fibers or fibrils that are not enveloped by resin will originate a porous interface—nanoleakage, and are thus more prone to hydrolysis (as are all the proteins) and degradation with time; these are areas of adhesion failure [18, 19, 36, 37]. Again, this study’s results are coherent with previous studies, as, in the case of Xeno® V, a poor-quality hybrid layer lead to a high percentage of nanoleakage with ammoniacal silver nitrate (75.68%). This situation also occurred with Prime&Bond® NT, showing the highest nanoleakage percentage (57.03%) of all the tested etch-and-rinse systems (and the second highest of all the six groups) (Table 3 and Figure 9).
\nCollagen fibrils exposed in the resin-dentin interfaces may be digested by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) of the host [38]. According to this study, Prime&Bond® NT and Xeno® V may cause bonding problems in the long term due to failures in the filling of nanospaces that were detected in the FESEM images. Therefore, it is possible to extrapolate that the in vivo behavior of these adhesives may involve problems in the mean/long term, considering the precautions that the extrapolation of in vitro results implies. All other adhesive groups achieved an acceptable qualitative formation of the hybrid layer.
\nNanoleakage is thought to start in the interface between the adhesive layer and the hybrid layer, which is the weakest point in the interior of the dentin-restoration contact area [39, 40] or in the interior of a hybrid layer that has not been perfectly penetrated by adhesive resin [28, 41].
\nThe percentage of nanoleakage with ammoniacal silver nitrate per 305 μm length of the hybrid layer was evaluated in every FESEM microphotograph. It is interesting that the specimens prepared with the two-step etch-and-rinse adhesive systems (Prime&Bond® NT and One Coat Bond®) and with the single-step self-etch adhesive system (Xeno® V) originated a greater rate of penetration of the respective hybrid layers with silver ions (per 305 μm) when compared with the other adhesive systems used in this study (Table 3 and Figure 9). These results may be explained by several factors related specifically to the composition of the adhesive systems. In fact, several factors influence the development of nanoleakage, such as the type of solvent (water versus acetone), the individual chemical components of the adhesive system (ex: HEMA, PENTA, and Bis-GMA), and the different molecular weights of its components, which vary from 130 Da in HEMA to 513 Da in Bis-GMA, influencing the adhesive’s viscosity. Other additives, such as glutaraldehyde, and the application method (dry bonding versus wet bonding) may also influence nanoleakage. With etch-and-rinse adhesive systems, dry bonding increases nanoleakage due to the collapse of collagen fibers, which interferes with the penetration of resin [4].
\nThe reticular mode of the nanoleakage pattern, especially the silver deposits (Figure 17), which were perpendicular to the hybrid layer surface, corresponds to the morphologic manifestation of water trees [27]. This well-known phenomenon is clearly identified in the FESEM microphotographs (Figure 14A) of the One Coat Bond® and Scotchbond™ 1XT groups (although it appears in a much inferior proportion in the latter).
\nGiven that simplified or two-step etch-and-rinse adhesive systems (such as Scotchbond™ 1XT, XP Bond™, Prime&Bond® NT, and One Coat Bond®) incorporate the primer and adhesive components in a single solution, they originate suboptimal or imperfect hybridization due to having poor ability to penetrate the demineralized dentin substrate. Moreover, their hydrophilic nature makes them more prone to water absorption and, consequently, more susceptible to the effects of hydrolytic degradation. These adhesives have a high percentage of hydrophilic monomers, thus having great permeability after polymerization and facilitating the occurrence of areas filled with water within the hybrid layer [15]. Usually, phosphoric etch adhesives (etch-and-rinse adhesives) tend to cause more nanoleakage than the two-step self-etch ones, as has been shown in some studies [16]; this fact is coherent with our study’s results.
\nHybrid layer spectra analysis reveals the presence of silver (Ag).
Furthermore, the solvents in these two-step etch-and-rinse adhesive systems also have an increased difficulty to evaporate, which increases their risk of becoming trapped more often in the adhesive layer after polymerization [6, 42]. This situation may have occurred especially with Scotchbond™ 1XT and One Coat Bond® as water is a cosolvent in the first one and the solvent in the second one. Water has (at 20°C) less volatility and vapor pressure (17.5 mmHg) comparing with organic solvents such as ethanol (43.9 mmHg) or acetone (184 mmHg), and, thus, is more difficult to evaporate, which may have led to the nanoleakage percentages observed in these adhesives. Between both adhesives with water as a solvent, One Coat Bond® had greater nanoleakage than Scotchbond™ 1XT, and this may be explained by the fact that water is a poor solvent for organic components (such as monomers), which are usually more hydrophobic. Also, adding a secondary solvent, such as ethanol or acetone, helps to overcome this limitation [43]. This fact may explain the better performance of Scotchbond™ 1XT, in terms of nanoleakage percentage, compared with One Coat Bond®, as well as the worst solvent evaporation with the latter, and consequent greater water flow represented by the ammoniacal silver nitrate (Table 3 and Figures 11A and B, 14A-C). Moreover, the high boiling temperature and low vapor pressure of water make this solvent hard to remove from adhesive solutions after these have been applied to the dental substrate. Furthermore, Pashley et al. demonstrated that some monomers, such as HEMA (found in both Scotchbond™ 1XT and One Coat Bond®) lower, even more, the water vapor pressure, which may make difficult the removal of the remaining water [43, 44]. These facts also help explain the greater tendency of One Coat Bond® to form water trees compared with all the other adhesives (Figure 14A-C), which may negatively influence the bonding of One Coat Bond® in the long term (despite the good results obtained after 500 thermal cycles).
\nThe slightly higher nanoleakage percentage of the Prome&Bond-NT® is likely to be associated more with the difficult penetration of monomers probably due to the fast evaporation of acetone (which has high vapor pressure and high volatility) or to the inability of rehydration of the collapsed collagen fibers [43]. In this study, we used dentin disks, which may present some level of dehydration of the dentin and absence of positive pulpal pressure, influencing more the performance of an adhesive such as Prime&Bond® NT in the dentin. Many etch-and-rinse adhesive systems usually contain acetone to facilitate water removal [43, 45] as acetone takes the place of the water previously existent in the dentin, removing it after pursuing it. This fact would be optimal if a degree of humidity that allowed acetone to function that way were always present. However, that does not always occur and, especially, in samples with some degree of dehydration, acetone has some difficulty to act, i.e., transport monomers, correctly. Thus, discrepancies may occur due to the improper or incomplete resin filling of open intertubular dentin nanospaces (which vary in size between 15 and 20 nm, according to Fawzy et al.) [46] after etching, and result in nanoleakage (Figure 13A and B). The PENTA monomer in the Prime&Bond® NT may also have contributed somewhat to the increased nanoleakage because, according to Perdigao et al., this monomer tends to be more hydrophilic [47]. To contradict the propensity of adhesive forms to be more hydrophilic, in the past years, there has been a tendency to reduce the quantity of strongly hydrophilic monomers, such as HEMA, and replace them with UDMA or TEGDMA [43]. XP Bond™, being the most recently released etch-and-rinse adhesive of this study, already has UDMA and TEGDMA, thus compensating the HEMA and PENTA (more hydrophilic) also present in its composition.
\nEvery adhesive evaluated in this study has HEMA in its composition, except for Prime&Bond® NT and Xeno® V. Therefore, the hydrophobic resin component inside the residual water is prone to divide itself into resin globules and water bubbles—the phase separation of resinous materials [48, 49]. In this process, after acetone or tert-butanol has started evaporating, the monomer/solvent balance is broken as water separates from the other components of the adhesive. When the adhesive is light cured, these water bubbles get trapped in the adhesive layer, which may lead to an impaired adhesive effectiveness [6].
\nRegarding monomers, the AdheSE® also includes
In the AdheSE® group’s sample, an hydrophobic resin was applied in a stage different than the primer’s one, which originated a much lower nanoleakage percentage when compared with the other five groups, even with the elimination of the outliers of Prime&Bond® NT. The values are statistically significant when comparing AdheSE® with Prime&Bond® NT, One Coat Bond®, and Xeno® V (Table 3 and Figures 9 and 10). Consequently, we can predict a great stability of this adhesive with time. Therefore, the existence of two stages (or two steps) in self-etch adhesives may contribute to a better sealing of the adhesive interface [51] and that effect may prevent the occurrence of water trees and promote adhesion durability [27].
\nA great penetration of the ammoniacal silver nitrate was observed in the hybrid layer of the Xeno® V group (75.68 ± 14.58%) (Table 3 and Figures 9, 16A and B). This group’s sample originated the highest mean nanoleakage percentage (75.68 ± 14.58%) in comparison with the other groups, and this was statistically significant when comparing Xeno® V with XP Bond™ and AdheSE® after eliminating the outliers, or even with AdheSE® before outliers were eliminated (Table 3 and Figures 12A and B, 15A and B). These results are coherent with several current studies on single-step self-etch adhesive systems that demonstrated the presence of nanoleakage in the hybrid layer due to a poor penetration of resin into the collagen network. Hashimoto et al. found that nanoleakage in these adhesives could be seen in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) [52]. Thus, due to the greater water absorption by single-step self-etch adhesives, these may act as permeable membranes [15, 53]. To contradict that disadvantage, some authors advocate that applying an hydrophobic lining may be essential to improve the adhesion durability [54], as demonstrated by Sillas Duarte Jr. et al. (2009) in a study on etch-and-rinse and self-etch adhesives [55].
\nA high hydrolysis in the hybrid layer may lead to reduced bonding forces with time, and thus Prime&Bond® NT, One Coat Bond®, and Xeno® V may reveal problems in the long term. Even One Coat Bond® showed water trees, and this water flow through the adhesive layer leads to bonding forces degradation in the long term, which could not be evaluated in this study.
\nAs demonstrated by some studies, a hybrid layer with a high nanoleakage percentage (such as in the case of Prime&Bond® NT and Xeno® V) leads to a greater decline of bonding forces with time due to unprotected collagen fibers present in the resin, which makes them easily degraded by metalloproteinases [19, 22]. Thus, it would be interesting to conduct a complimentary study to evaluate the nanoleakage percentage in the hybrid layer of adhesive systems for a long time (at least one year).
\nFinally, clinically, adhesive systems should be hydrophilic during their application and, then, they should become hydrophobic to seal the restoration margins thoroughly for a significant amount of time [16].
\nThe adhesive with the overall best performance in the dentin was the two-step self-etch system containing water as solvent (AdheSE®), having shown a good morphology with a high-quality hybrid layer and low nanoleakage percentages. These good results appear to be correlated with the application of a hydrophobic resin over the hydrophilic primer in a distinct step. According to our research and other scientific studies, besides other elements that compose the adhesives, the solvent appears to play a significant role in morphology and nanoleakage. The latter is always present in the adhesive interfaces produced by the current commercial adhesives available in the market. The type of adhesive and the number of steps also seems to be important to water absorption by the hybrid layer, which leads to the nanoleakage phenomenon and can determine the adhesion longevity. Thus, according to our research, the null hypothesis was rejected.
\nThe incipient motion of sediment is one of the most important topics in sediment transport. Generally, two methods are available in the literature to express quantitatively it, the shear stress approach and velocity approach [1]. The latter assumes that if the mean velocity excesses its critical velocity, then the sediment motion can be observed. The former used by researchers represents the force acting on a particle. Shields [2] is the earliest one who used the shear stress approach, or Shields number τ/(ρs-ρ)gd50 versus the Reynolds number, and he obtained a famous Shields curve to express sediment initiation. Francalanci et al. [3] interpreted the Shields number as the ratio of streamwise/vertical forces using the following form:
where
where
The original Shields diagram has been reproduced and modified by many researchers. A comprehensive review has been done by many researchers [4, 5], in which some significant deviations of the observed critical shear stress from the standard Shields curve were observed. This has attracted extensive research by notable investigators, and some factors leading to the data scatter have been identified and discussed.
Some researchers believe that the definition of the incipient motion may cause the invalidity of Shields diagram, as the incipient motion depends more or less on the experimental observers’ subjective judgment. To address this, criteria like “individual initial motion”, “several grains moving” and “weak movement” has been introduced to express the incipient motion [6]. Subsequently, an error band has been included in the modified Shields diagram [7].
Other researchers attribute the large discrepancy to the stochastic nature of turbulence and sediment shape, its orientation, or exposure, protrusion [8, 9, 10, 11]. It is natural to expect that when sediment is non-uniform, the critical condition is very difficult to determine, as the larger particles could move relatively easily than the finer one that is sheltered [12].
Over the past eight decades, the incipient motion has been extensively studied again and again [4], because the Shields diagram has been found invalid to predict the critical shear stress of sediment transport in some circumstances. The invalidity is not fully explained, some researchers ascribe it to sediment’s characteristics, the other believe these deviations are caused by the flow conditions i.e., non-uniformity of flow [13].
Iwagaki [14] firstly linked the wide scatter in Shields diagram with flow’s non-uniformity based on his observation: for the same sediment by the same experimenter, the observed critical shear stress in non-uniform flows largely deviates from that in uniform flows. Afzalimhr et al. [13] confirmed Iwagaki’s results, they found experimentally that in decelerating flows, the critical shear stress is considerably below the Shields’ prediction, and their experimental data are in complete disagreement with the Shields diagram. Other experimental researchers [15, 16] obtain similar results as Afzalimhr et al.’s [13] who claimed “…there is no universal value for
Some researchers try to explain the large discrepancy between predicted and measured critical shear stress by considering channel’s characteristics, such as the channel shape and channel slope [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 16]. “the well-known Shields criterion is insufficient for large slope” was observed by Graf and Suszka [23], while Lamb et al. [24] comprehensively re-visited and examined almost all published datasets, and concluded that the critical shear increases with channel slope, this is totally different from the common sense that predicts increased mobility with increasing channel slope due to the added gravitational force in the downstream direction. But Chiew and Parker’s experiments [17] in very steep channels show that the critical shear stress is decreased, contrary to Lamb et al.’s [24] conclusion.
Therefore, the brief literature review shows that Shields diagram cannot predict the critical shear stress well and there are many different potential causes for the deviation, among them, it is necessary to clarify how the channel-bed slope and non-uniformity of flow affect the critical shear stress for sediment motion. The primary objectives of the present study are to
investigate the mechanism that causes the invalidity of the Shields curve for the incipient motion of sediment transport;
examine why the Shields number depends on the water depth’s variation or channel slope;
establish a universal Shields diagram that is valid for all data available in the literature; and
verify the newly established equations using data from the literature.
The author has been systematically investigating the role of vertical velocity on the mass and momentum transfer and has obtained a series of important and interesting conclusions [25, 26, 27]. It is found that omission of vertical velocity in our existing theorem of sediment transport makes many phenomena unexplainable. For example the presence of vertical velocity in non-uniform flows leads to the deviation of measured Reynolds shear stress from the linear distribution from the free surface to the bottom, consequently the upward velocity causes the positive deviation of velocity from the log-law or the wake-law is needed to express the velocity distribution, and the downward velocity results in the dip-phenomenon, or the maximum velocity is submerged and does not occur at the free surface as the log-law predicts. As the momentum and mass transfers are closely related to each other, it is interesting to investigate how the vertical motion affects sediment transport.
As a continuous effort, this study investigates the influence of upward/downward velocity on sediment incipient motion and the validity of Shields’ diagram. Figure 1 shows how a river flow interchanges with groundwater and the Darcy law tells that vertical velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient, i.e., the suctions and injections inside groundwater can be expected in flood/dry seasons alternatively. The upward flow or injection flow may increase the sediment particles’ mobility, or the required critical shear stress is reduced due to the “buoyant effect”, which reduces the net settling velocity, mathematically
The upward and downward vertical velocity generating from seepage face injection seepage.
where
where
If the upward velocity
Schematic diagrams showing interaction of streamwise and vertical motions after Ladson (2008), p99.
The above discussion clearly demonstrates that velocity
The introduction of apparent sediment density is similar to Francalanci et al.’s treatment [3]. Instead of modifying the sediment density, they modified the water’s density to eliminate the effect of pressure variation over time and space (like pressure induced by waves or bridge piers) on sediment’s critical shear stress. Their results show that higher pressure yields higher “apparent water density”, and lower pressure corresponds to lower “apparent water density”. They found that the Shields number shown in Eq. 1 is actually the ratio of friction force in the streamwise direction (i.e.,
Eq. 4 shows that the denominator of Shields number, i.e., (
For the case shown in Figure 2, if the upward velocity is zero, this is a static problem and the net force balance in vertical direction is expressed in Eq. 4. When the upward velocity is non-zero, this becomes a dynamic problem where the lift force
where
In this study, apparent sediment density is introduced, and it depends on the vertical velocity of groundwater. Therefore, it is expected to have a relationship between the apparent sediment density and the settling velocity, similar to Einstein’s relativity theory that the length/time depends on velocity if the light’s speed is assumed to be constant. Therefore, the effect of vertical motion caused by pressure variation or seepage on sediment transport is eliminated after the introduction of apparent density. In other words, real lightweight particles motion must be the same as those with reduced settling velocity
where
The vertical velocity
Substituting Eq. 7 into Eq. 8, one obtains:
or
where
Eq. 9 or 10 generally expresses the influence of vertical velocity
Ideal uniform flow is very rare in natural conditions, flow rate and water depth/channel width keep always changing, i.e., non-uniform, as shown in Figure 3. It is interesting to discuss how accelerating or decelerating flows generate the vertical velocity. To simplify the discussion, it is assumed that the flow rate is constant, i.e., d
Non-uniform flows in open channel and the variation of water depth, in which u and v are mean velocities in x and y direction, respectively.
where
∂
For a channel with a constant width, its discharge per unit width can be expressed by:
where
The vertical velocity
where
Eq. 16 shows that
Julien [5] replaced the Reynolds number in Shields’ diagram by dimensionless particle diameter:
Similarly,
Inserting Eq. 7 into Eq. 18, one has
or
Therefore, the empirical equation of Shields curve by Yalin and Silva [31] can be modified with the following form:
For the fall velocity, many empirical equations are available in the literature. Julien [5] related
The incipient motion in uniform flows has been extensively investigated, but no one investigates the influence of vertical velocity on incipient motion, probably because this vertical flow may not large enough to induce discernible seepage, thus it is useful to estimate
where
The vertical velocity is jointly induced by either the groundwater or the surface variation, the joint effect can be assumed as the proportional
where
Generally in laboratory flumes, the second term of Eq. 24 is negligible (i.e.,
To verify whether Eq. 21 is applicable to non-uniform flows, 329 data points are comprehensively compiled [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 13, 17, 23, 29]. The hydraulic conditions of the used data are summarized in Table 1, and the experimental conditions are briefly outlined as follows:
Researchers | No. of data points | remark | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neil (1967) | 5–29.1 | 0.01 | 0.03–0.192 | 0.28–0.35 | 0.029–0.165 | 0.685–1.18 | 0.13–0.62 | 59 | uniform |
Gaucher et al. (2010) | 0.91–4.36 | 0.01 | 0.125–0.14 | 0.29–0.56 | 0.021–0.038 | 0.405–0.907 | 0.105–0.245 | 6 | Uniform |
Carling (1983) | 62 77 | 0 0 | 0.213 0.226 | 0.163 0.124 | 0.141 0.315 | — | 0.94 1.05 | 2 | uniform |
Shvichenko & Pender (2000) | 1.5–12 | 0.0019–0.0287 | 0.002–0.65 | 0.1–1.07 | 0.026–0.1157 | — | 0.14–0.41 | 21 | uniform |
White (1970) | 0.016–2.2 | 0.02 | 0.02–0.07 | 0.0018–0.232 | 0.0062–0.045 | — | 0.00023–0.174 | 26 | Non-uniform |
Sarker & Hossain (2006) | 0.64–1.02 | 0.00026–0.00063 | 0.089–0.214 | 0.3–0.59 | 0.019–0.024 | — | 0.084–0.1135 | 19 | Non-uniform |
Afzalimhr et al. (2007) | 8 | 0.0075, 0.015 | 0.13–0.21 | 0.726–0.86 | 0.05–0.061 | 0.362–0.535 | 0.338 | 9 | Non-uniform |
Graf & Suszka (1987) | 12.2,23.5 | 0.0075, 0.025 | 0.102–0.2 | 0.23–1.6 | 0.087–0.155 | — | 0.41–0.58 | 9 | Non-uniform |
Emadzadeh et al. (2010) | 0.8, 1.3, 1.8 | 0.146–0.25 | 0.15–0.44 | 0.007–0.021 | 0.078–2.9 | 0.097–0.156 | 72 | Non-uniform | |
Everts (1973) | 0.09–1.79 | 0.005 | 0.0094–0.09 | 0.1312–0.38 | 0.018–0.043 | 0.39–1.79 | 0.007–0.156 | 35 | Non-uniform |
Liu & Chiew (2012) | 0.9 | 0.01 | 0.12–0.14 | 0.28–0.35 | 0.0215 | 0.98–1.71 | 0.105 | 5 | seepage |
Cheng & Chiew (1999) | 0.63–1.95 | 0.01 | 0.027–0.076 | 0.09–0.399 | 0.017–0.032 | 0.02–1.048 | 0.08–0.163 | 50 | Seepage |
Kavcar & Wright (2009) | 0.16, 0.5, 1.2 | 0.01 | 0.23–0.29 | 0.23–0.412 | 0.013–0.022 | 0.67–1.84 | 0.019–0.124 | 16 | seepage |
Summary of experimental conditions by previous researchers.
Neil conducted his experiments in a flume 0.9 m wide and 5 m long by using sands with different particle sizes and densities [32]. Among the data sets, 11 data points are obviously above the Shields curve. White collected his data from a recirculating flume 6 m long and 0.3 m wide, uniform sediment was used with diameter between (0.016–2.2) mm [33]. The experimental datasets by Everts included 35 runs with size
Measured critical shear stress versus
Nineteen flume experiments from Sarker and Hossain [37] are also included in Figure 4. They investigated the initiation of sediment motion under non-uniform sediment mixtures. Afzalimhr et al. [13] conducted experiments to investigate the effect of non-uniformity of flow on the critical shear stress in a channel (14 m long, 0.6 m width and 0.5 m depth), the sediment size of
These data mentioned are plotted in Figure 4, where the observed critical shear stress highly deviates from the standard Shields curve. All has been noticed and commented by many researchers [4, 24]. The consensus is that this discrepancy cannot be simply attributed to measurement errors or methodological bias. In Figure 4, the three lines are the Eq. 21 (
Many researchers have noticed that high channel’s slope can cause the deviation of data from the Shields curve. For example Chiew and Parker [17] proposed that
where
However, the formula given by Lamb et al. (2008) shows that the steep channel has a higher Shields number with the following form:
where
Figure 5 demonstrates the comparison of the measured data from Table 1 and Eqs. 25 and 26. Obviously these equations do not agree the data points well. The measured
Dependence of critical shear stress on the channel slope.
Figure 5 demonstrates that for the same particle size in the same channel slope, the data points behave largely different, which cannot be explained by any existing theory. Beyond other factors, Eq. 24 shows that the scatter could be induced by either groundwater or the main flow’s non-uniformity, or both of them. The effect of seepage on the critical shear stress is discussed first, the experimental data [29, 30, 38] are showed in Figure 6.
Comparison of measured and predicted critical shear stress subject to seepage.
The modified Shields number in Eq. 8 (i.e., that with seepage) will be the same as that obtained from the Shields curve if one uses both the apparent sediment density and the apparent critical shear stress (that with seepage), i.e.
Using Eq. 7, one obtained the ratio of critical shear stresses with/without
Figure 6 shows the critical shear stress predicted by Eq. 28 and the empirical factor
Similarly, local scour by large vortices (e.g., scour holes around bridge piers) is not caused by higher velocity or higher boundary shear stress, but the upward velocity Y. The mechanism is similar to the helicopter whose rotor blades generate the upward velocity by “vortices”. Consequently, low water pressure induces the seepage or upward velocity, large particles like stones/helicopter can be lift. One can easily infer the relationship between the upward velocity and “vortices” in front of an electricity fan. Likewise, by observing how tornadoes damages large particles like cars, houses on surface, one can easily concluded that the upward velocity or lift force is the cause, by no means the shear force.
Figure 4 shows that the Shields’ curve could be totally invalid sometimes, these noticeable deviations imply that the non-uniformity of flow could affect the predictability of Shields curve, for example, Afzalimhr et al.’s [13] data points locate below the curve when the flow was decelerating, Emadzadeh et al.’s data points [39] were far from the Shields’ prediction, and his data points were obtained from both decelerating and accelerating flows. Hence, the large deviations from Shields curve shown in Figure 4 can be used to verify Eq. 24, i.e., the vertical velocity induced by flow’s non-uniformity is responsible for the invalidity of Shields curve.
To confirm whether the invalidity of Shields curve is caused by the non-uniformity of flow, the data without seepage in Table 1 are used, and the water depth variation
where
The energy slope
In Table 1, the calculated
The variation of water depth
To examine whether data points without seepage shown in Figure 4 can be expressed by Eq. 21, we can analyze the datasets without artificial seepage or with negligible groundwater effects, only those data are analyzed in which
Experiments [13, 34, 39, 40] are analyzed first. They reported that their measured critical shear stress is lower than Shields’ prediction. Besides, the datasets [32, 39] are examined; they claimed that higher values of critical shear stress were observed.
In these studies, the experimental data sets from non-uniform flows are plotted in Figure 8 where the empirical factor λ is found to be 8.5 for both decelerating and accelerating flows. The comparison of the predicted and measured critical shear stress in Figure 8 shows that the agreement is reasonably good. Better agreement can be obtained if
Comparison of experimental results on threshold condition without seepage with
Figure 9 shows the comparison of measured and the predicted critical shear stress for the datasets [23, 33, 35, 36, 37]. Obviously, the observed critical shear stress largely deviates from the solid line, i.e., Shields curve (
Influence of vertical velocity on critical shear stress, the solid line is the original shields curve (or
As mentioned, some researchers have found the dependence of the critical shear stress on the channel slope, but it is still an open question about the validity of Shields curve, especially when the bed slope is large, thus it is worthwhile to discuss this dependence.
This study reveals that the deviation from the Shields curve could be caused by the vertical velocity, the Shields curve is approximately valid only when the flow is uniform, when the vertical velocity is almost zero. As the true uniform is very rare in laboratory or nature, thus it is understandable why Shields curve is invalid to express most of observed critical shear stress. Hence, one needs to answer whether the dependence of
Eqs. 23 and 24 show that in almost all cases, there always exists the vertical velocity caused groundwater and flow’s non-uniformity. Therefore, the widely observed dependence by Lamb et al. [24] may be also caused by the parameter
Researchers | Flume length (m) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Neil (1967) | 6.2, 8.5, 10.6, 20, 23.8, 29.1, 5, 16, 6.4 | 0.04–0.06 | 184.3–4800 | 5 |
Paintal (1971) | 7.95, 2.5 | 0.05, 0.05 | 638, 112 | 15 |
Everts (1973) | 3.57, 1.79, 0.895, 0.508, 0.395, 0.254, 0.127, 0.18, 0.09 | 0.018–0.07 | 1.3–162 | 16.8 |
Ashida & Bayazit (1973) | 22.5, 12, 6.4 | 0.0386–0.1178 | 20 | |
Fernandez Luque & Van Beek (1976) | 0.9, 1.5, 1.8, 3.3 | 0.021–0.047 | 12–127 | 8 |
Ikeda (1982) | 0.42 1.3 | 0.02 0.047 | 8.7 72 | 4 |
Graf & Suszka (1987) | 12.2, 23.5 | 0.05–0.07 | 800–5000 | 16.8 |
Wilcock (1987) | 1.83 1.83 0.67 5.28 | 0.03 0.036 0.023 0.037 | 61 12 332 115 | 23 |
Wilcock & Mcardell (1993) | 5.3 | 0.02 | 219 | 7.9 |
Shvidchenko & Pender (2000) | 1.5, 2.4, 3.4, 4.5, 5.65, 7.15, 9, 12 | 0.025–0.065 | 40–2000 | 6.5 |
Previously reported data selected from lamb et al. (2008):
Chiew and Parker’s data [17] is used as an example, their observation is opposite to Lamb et al’s prediction [24], they also found the dependence of critical shear stress on the channel slope based on their own data. In their experiments, the channel slope was specially adjusted from -10o to 31o, their channel lengths used were 4 m and 2 m only. Obviously, their experiments were conducted in the non-uniform flow conditions as the 2 ∼ 3 m length is too short to form a uniform flow. In other words, both conclusions drawn by Lamb et al. and Chiew and Parker [17, 24] are not very convincing as they did not check the parameter of
This paper investigates why the observed critical shear stress widely deviates from the Shields curve, its discrepancy or validity could be caused by many factors like sediment shapes, gradation, measurement errors, turbulence and channel-bed slopes. However, this study reveals that the vertical motion also plays an important role, and the vertical velocity could be induced by non-uniformity of flow and seepage turbulence alike. After re-examining 329 data points from the literature, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The upward velocity increases sediment mobility and downward velocity increases sediment stability. The mobility or stability can be equivalently expressed by its apparent sediment density which is able to eliminate the effect of vertical velocity as shown in Eq. 7. This shifts a dynamic problem into a simplified static problem.
There exists vertical velocity on the channel bed and this vertical velocity could be induced by seepage or non-uniformity of flow, similar to the secondary currents, the small vertical velocity’s influence on sediment incipient should not be underestimated. The joint effect is expressed by Eq. 24. For non-uniform flow, the sediment tends to move in decelerating flows, but it becomes more difficult to move in accelerating flows.
The Shields curve is valid only when the flow is nearly uniform, but a general Shields curve can be obtained by introducing the apparent sediment density, thus the modified Shields curve could be extended to express complex flows, this modified relationship for critical shear stress has been established.
A new parameter
All in all, high horizontal motion can make a plane (a big particle) to fly, high vertical velocity can also make the same particle called helicopter to fly. Two mechanisms are totally different. It is wrong to ascribe all sediment transport phenomena to the horizontal motion only, without considering the vertical motion.
b | channel width |
Cd | drag coefficient; |
d50 | median size of sediment particles; |
Fvb | force induced by the vertical velocity; |
g | gravitational acceleration; |
h | water depth; |
i | hydraulic gradient; |
k | hydraulic conductivity; |
n | Manning coefficient; |
Q | discharge; |
R* | Reynolds number; |
Sf | energy slope. |
U | mean velocity; |
u* | shear velocity; |
u*c | critical shear velocity (τc = ρu*c2); |
u¯ and v¯ | time-averaged velocity in the streamwise and vertical directions; |
u¯h, v¯h | horizontal and vertical velocities at the surface; |
V | vertical velocity; |
Vb | vertical velocity at the bed; |
Vs | nominal seepage velocity at the bed; |
X | 0.407ln(142S); |
y | distance normal to the wall; |
Y | Vb/ω |
ε0 | porosity of granular materials |
θ | angle of repose. |
λ and λs | coefficients; |
ν | kinematic viscosity; |
ρ | fluid density; |
ρs | sediment density; |
ρs’ | apparent density of sediment; |
τ | boundary shear stress; |
τc | critical boundary shear stress; |
τ* | Shields number; |
τ*’ | modified Shields number subject to vertical velocity; |
ϕ | angle of streamwise bed slope, |
ω | particle fall velocity; |
ω’ | net falling velocity subject to vertical velocity. |
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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This chapter surveys the systematic analysis of the forensic process, challenges in cloud forensics, and in particular the data collection techniques in the cloud environment. 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Laptops, tablets, smartphones and wearable devices are the major source of this digital data transformation and are becoming the core part of our daily life. As a result of this transformation, we are becoming the soft target of various types of cybercrimes. Digital forensic investigation provides the way to recover lost or purposefully deleted or hidden files from a suspect’s device. However, current man power and government resources are not enough to investigate the cybercrimes. Unfortunately, existing digital investigation procedures and practices require huge interaction with humans; as a result it slows down the process with the pace digital crimes are committed. Machine learning (ML) is the branch of science that has governs from the field of AI. This advance technology uses the explicit programming to depict the human-like behaviour. Machine learning combined with automation in digital investigation process at different stages of investigation has significant potential to aid digital investigators. This chapter aims at providing the research in machine learning-based digital forensic investigation, identifies the gaps, addresses the challenges and open issues in this field.",book:{id:"8321",slug:"digital-forensic-science",title:"Digital Forensic Science",fullTitle:"Digital Forensic Science"},signatures:"Salman Iqbal and Soltan Abed Alharbi",authors:[{id:"304135",title:"Dr.",name:"Salman",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"salman-iqbal",fullName:"Salman Iqbal"},{id:"304140",title:"Dr.",name:"Soltan",middleName:null,surname:"Alharbi",slug:"soltan-alharbi",fullName:"Soltan Alharbi"}]},{id:"44252",title:"Review of Wireless Brain-Computer Interface Systems",slug:"review-of-wireless-brain-computer-interface-systems",totalDownloads:8918,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:43,abstract:null,book:{id:"3532",slug:"brain-computer-interface-systems-recent-progress-and-future-prospects",title:"Brain-Computer Interface Systems",fullTitle:"Brain-Computer Interface Systems - Recent Progress and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Seungchan Lee, Younghak Shin, Soogil Woo, Kiseon Kim and\nHeung-No Lee",authors:[{id:"141571",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiseon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"kiseon-kim",fullName:"Kiseon Kim"},{id:"164977",title:"Prof.",name:"Heung-No",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"heung-no-lee",fullName:"Heung-No Lee"},{id:"165217",title:"Mr.",name:"Seungchan",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"seungchan-lee",fullName:"Seungchan Lee"},{id:"168249",title:"Mr.",name:"YoungHak",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",slug:"younghak-shin",fullName:"YoungHak Shin"},{id:"168250",title:"Mr.",name:"SooGil",middleName:null,surname:"Woo",slug:"soogil-woo",fullName:"SooGil Woo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"567",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.